COLLABORATION

THEORY AND TOURISM

PRACTICE IN

PROTECTED AREASStakeholders, Structuring and Sustainability

Outline of Presentation

Discuss the … ➢ 3 Important Aspects for Sustainability

○ Complexity○ Scale, structure and scope of collaborations○ Challenges of implementation and long term structuring

★ Questions to answer:○ How does the tourism system fit with the protected area system?○ Who represents “Nature” in negotiations over conservation and

use? ○ How can plans and programmes be effectively enacted at the local

level for long term success?

Introduction

What is Collaboration?

“Collaboration provides for a flexible and dynamic process

that evolves over time, enabling multiple stakeholders to jointly

address problems or issues” (Grey, 1989)

“The Law defines protected areas as the identified portions of land/or water set aside by reason of their unique physical and biological significance managed to enhance biological diversity and protected against destructive human exploration.”

- Department of Environment and Natural Resources

Sustainable Tourism

“ is envisage as leading to management of all resource in such a way that economic, social, and aesthetic needs can be fulfilled while maintaining cultural integrity, essential ecological processes,biological diversity and life support systems” (World Tourism Organization, 1997)

COMPLEXIT

Y

Complex planning Domain

- comprise of multiple stakeholders - no individual

stakeholder can fully control planning

- planning challenge increases

● Challenge of sustainable management:

- international tourism destination deal with local impacts

as well as the actions and pressures exerted elsewhere

Complex Adaptive Systems

Management requires consideration of spatial and temporal factors, as well as of the decision-making

dynamics.

Important Sustainability Issues

(1) Most destination tourist organizations tend to focus on marketing

and promotion

(2) Global visitation increase: while new parks and protected areas are

being dveloped, decreasing tax-based budget are requiring ne

management shirts (Eagles, 2007)

(3) Gap in information flow with resulting difficulties in destination

development

(4) lack of awareness and differing ideologies act as barriers to

effective communicatin between tourism agencies and natural

resouorce management

(5) Problem lies in organization and policy barriers to effective public

input, civic education and community debate on sustainability

choice

1999 Plan of Management

(1) Recognition of Bininj/Mungguy interess

(2) Caring for country

(3) Tourism

(4) Telling people about the park

STAKEHOLDERS

Stakeholders

•The actors with an interest or stake in a common problem or issue

and include all individuals, groups, or organizations “directly influenced

by the actions others take to solve a problem” (Gray, 1989, p.5)

•Public sector, private sector, NGO, scientists, consultants, tourism

industry, local residents and indigenous dwellers, tourists

DENR Administrative Order No. 2013-

19

Guidelines on Ecotourism Planning and Management in Protected

Areas:

•Protected Area Superintendent (PASU) shall initiate the preparation

of the Ecotourism Management Plan and shall involve concerned

stakeholders such as, but not limited to, LGUs, other agencies concerned

(eg. DOT, NEDA), local communities including women’s groups,

indigenous cultural communities, and the private sectors (eg. tour

operators, investors)

Collaboration

•“a process of joint decision making among key stakeholders of a

problem domain about the future of that domain” (Gray, 1989, p.227)

•Problem domain: a situation where the problems are complex and

require inter- or multiorganizational response (Trist, 1983)

Interorganizational Collaboration

5 key characteristics:

•The stakeholders are interdependent

•Solutions emerge by dealing constructively with differences

•Joint ownership of decisions is involved

•The stakeholders assume collective responsibility for ongoing direction

of the domain

•Collaboration is an emergent process by which organizations

collectively deal with growing environmental complexity

Three-Phase Collaboration Framework

1.Problem Setting

2.Direction Setting

3.Implementing/ Institutionalizing

Stakeholder Analysis

•a process of systematically gathering and analyzing qualitative

information to determine whose interests should be taken into

account when developing and/or implementing a policy or program

•You can do all the right things for a project, but mismanaging a

stakeholder who has power, influence and interest can cause failure of

the project

Stakeholders become salient to an organization’s managers when three attributes are perceived:

•The stakeholder’s power to influence the firm (power alone is

insufficient)

•The legitimacy of the stakeholder’s relationship to the firm (legitimacy

is linked to authority)

•The urgency of the stakeholder’s claim on the firm (urgency is

required for execution)

Salience Model by Mitchell

Protected Areas Research

Two Aspects that merit greater attention:

•Representation of nature

•The challenges of implementation esp. in long term

structuring and outcomes of collaborations involving local

communities and residents in/around the protected area

Proximity

•Expanded stakeholder identification and salience model

developed by Mitchell et al. (1997)

•Fourth stakeholder attribute

•Natural environment: the primary and primordial

stakeholder of the firm

Environment

•Natural environment is itself a stakeholder as might be

currently on-living future generations (Starik, 1994, p.94)

Stakeholder Theory of Collaboration

•A stakeholder theory of collaboration in protected area

destinations should, therefore, integrate the relationship

between public/private sector organization, the natural

area destination (the biophysical world within the

protected area) and those who inhabit it, as well as others

who have a stake in it

Stakeholder Theory of Collaboration

•Collaboration in protected areas is relevant in ensuring just

and equitable participation of those most disadvantaged or

least capable of receiving fair treatment in the

collaborations and its outcomes

Overlooked Questions

•Who represents “nature” at a conflict negotiation or planning

process in natural area destinations (or, more speifically, in

protected areas)?

•What roles do local and indigenous knowledge and human-

environmental relations (of local, indigenous, and other groups

such as visitors) play in collaborative initiatives addressing

conservation and use issues?

Three Types of Knowledge

•Scientific knowledge

•Indigenous knowledge or Traditional Knowledge

•Local Knowledge

Stakeholders and Representation of Nature

•An important stakeholder group in protected area

destinations is the local residents who live within it and

depend on it for their well being

•Effective ecotourism depends on the vision, dedication and

leadership of key individuals

Community

•Community as a stakeholder is a heterogeneous concept where

different individuals and groups play different roles and wield varying

degrees of power

•Biologists, social scientists or park managers represent conservation

interests using scientific knowledge but locals represent their interest

and relationship to the biophysical world and nature which cannot be

substituted by scientists and NGOs

Local Participation

•Through training assistance, local community is able to take

control and successfully manage projects for long-term

social and ecological sustainability

•Teaching should work within a context of respecting local

leaders, local processes for making decisions, local

institutions and local knowledge

Any effort to work within local approaches will take

considerably longer than standard western business

practices and the implementation of collaborative

initiatives in protected area destinations has to consider

not only necessary resources but also a long-term time

horizon for success

SCALE, STRUCTURE AND SCOPE OF COLLABORATIONS

Collaborations

- Planning scales and organizational levels

- local, regional, national or international level initiatives

For example: Local or area-based initiatives

Partnership Structures

•Vary greatly depending on the purpose and scope of the

collaboration

•Formally instantiated and structured

–Co-management agreements

•To enable joint control or full local ownership

Collaborative Agreements

•Informal agreements

•Unstructured forms

Four Kinds of Bridging Organization

1.Inter-organizational Network

2.Association of Organizations and Networks

3.Intersectoral Partnership

4.Social Movement and Related Coalition

Collaboration’s Scope

•Issues and topics in protected area destinations

–Conservation

–Use

–Economic development

–Poverty alleviation

–Cultural protection

–Heritage management

–Tourism and growth conflicts

Community Level Collaborations

3 main categories:

– Community Managed

–Private Sector/ Government/ NGO

–Joint Venture

Community Based Partnerships

2 important factors:

1. Ensuring long term sustainability of tourism and

natural resources

2. Community or local/indigenous ownership, control

and management of tourism enterprises and

activities

ORGANIZING FOR LONG TERM SUCCESS

Community-based ecotourism is a potentially good for connecting the business of tourism with goals forsustainable development and long term conservation.

IMPLEMENTATION AND INSTITUTIONALIZATION OF COLLABORATIVE

OUTCOMES

Collaborative Process

•Problem-setting

•Direction-setting

•Implementation and Institutionalization

Implementation and Institutionalization as a Weakness

•Why is it a weakness?

•Informal structure

•Issues

Collaboration

•Spatial

–Both within and outside the collaborative space of

gathering.

•Temporal

–Involve short, medium, or long term collaboration.

Parks and the Tourism Industry

•Resulted to new form of partnerships and use agreement

•Effective environmental stewardship.

COMMUNITY BASED PARTNERSHIPSChalalan Ecolodge

Chalalan

•First community-owned and operated ecotourism project in

Bolivia.

•Began with a partnership local community of San Jose de

Uchupiamonas, and two international stakeholders,

Conservation International and the Inter-American Development

Bank.

Chalalan’s Objectives

•Generate material benefits for people

•Conserve biodiversity in Madidi National Park located in North

Bolivia.

•The collaboration focuses on Bolivia’s Madidi National Park.

Madidi National Park

•The region as a conservation priority.

•Culturally, ethnically, and linguistically diverse.

•Tourists are drawn to the wild life, forested landscapes, and

mountain vistas.

Growth of Chalalan

•In 1992, 1000 tourists.

•In 1998, 7000 tourists.

•In 2000, 12,000 tourists.

PARTNERING FOR ECOTOURISM DEVELOPMENT

San Jose de Uchupiamonas

•Primarily hunting and fishing.

•Tourism as an alternate to logging.

•The region partnered with a tour company based in La Paz.

•Two bunkhouses that could accommodate backpackers.

Ecotourism

•Making conservation economically and socially beneficial to

local communities.

•Create a national park in Madidi that would contain both San

Jose and the patch of forest where the local leaders had

envisioned building their tourism business.

Madidi

•One of the most ecologically diverse regions in the world.

•Recommended the government to create a protected area in

the region for conservation and ecotourism.

VISION, STRUCTURE AND IMPLEMENTATION

Vision

•Improve the bunkhouses.

•Make ecotourism work for the integrated goals of community

development and biodiversity conservation.

•Train locals to manage the new national park.

Structure

•Chalalan Ecolodge was the first of its kind.

•No structure to be adopted.

Implementation

•Conservation International become the principal stakeholder.

•Trust issues between partners.

Social Reinvestment

•Profit goes to development of education, health, agriculture,

recreation, legal representation and other miscellaneous needs.

> Parks, reserves, wildlife

sanctuaries, marine protected areas

> Human occupation or exploitation of

resources are limited : BIODIVERSITY

CONSERVATION is the key significance!

> International Union for

Conservation of Nature:

categorization guidelines; protection

1. Important Bird Areas

2. Endemic Bird Areas

3. Centres of Plant Diversity

4. Indigenous and Community Conservation Areas

4. Alliance for Zero Extinction

5. Key Biodiversity Areas

Protected areas

The objective of conserving

biodiversity and providing an

indicator for that

conservation’s progress.

The extent by which resources

are defended are more complex.

IUCN Protected Area Management

Categories:

Category Ia — Strict Nature Reserve

Category Ib — Wilderness Area

Category II — National Park

Category III — Natural Monument or Feature

Category IV — Habitat/Species Management Area

Category V — Protected Landscape/Seascape

Category VI – Protected Area with sustainable use of natural resources

Constructing partnerships for

protected area tourism

planning in an era of change

and messiness

by Stephen F. McCool

Objectives:

1.Describe the messy context of

protected area tourism planning.

2.The significance of establishing

protected area tourism planning

partnerships; and alternative

paradigms of planning.

3. Key attributes of protected

area tourism planning partnerships

4. Conclusion and recommendations

I. Expert Driven Planning Processes

Rational-Comprehensive Model : or Synoptic

Planning; a dominant theory in modern planning

process. All possible options or approaches to

solving the problem under study are identified

and the costs and benefits of each option are

assessed and compared with each other.

: seeks to provide “neutral” experts using

scientific data, and a systematic reproducible

process for identifying future and the pathways

to them.

Six Phases of Rational-Comprehensive

Tourism Planning

It is often very costly in terms of time and other resources that must be

devoted to gathering the relevant information. The costs might exceed

the benefits of an improved decision-making.

(1) Identify problem and articulate goals

(2) Survey conditions and make predictions

(3) Design alternative plans

(4) Compare and evaluate alternative plans

(5) Adopt one plan and implement it

(6) Monitor current trend and evaluate outcome of plan

Rational Comprehensive Model:

Decision-Making Process

1. Proven to be ineffective and very costly

2. Tends to favor the scientific elite and

ignores traditional and local knowledge and

experiences.

3. Ignores other possible aspects of planning

such as the external and internal environment

4. Does not involve informal partnerships

established by public protected areas agencies

Forecasting

Implementation

Monitoring

Value Judgments

(suggested by McCool)

What should be the goals of tourism

development?

What market segments should be attracted?

What standards of impact will be acceptable?

Whose (among the public values) are

privileged?

(Krumpe and McCool, 1998)

A. The Messy Context of Tourism

Protected Area Planning

Protected

Area

Tourism

Planning

Protection of

key values

that form

basis for

preservation

Allowing

visitors

access to

these

values

Cultural and natural heritage,

outstanding scenery, biodiversity,

Tangible culture, authenticity,

Uniqueness, etc.

Carrying capacity

Extent of visitor’s exposure to area

Infrastructures

Rate and degree of development

There are trade-offs between preservation of

key values and visitor access.

Challenges at the intersection of

competing goals and cultures

> Professional cultures and managers

> paradigms of management

> Function of the kind of area established

: Planning should be directed towards

compromising on one goal to achieve

another.(Cole, 1995; MocCool and Cole, 1998)

Resolving conflicts so as to sustain key values

while promoting sustainable development.

CONFLICTING GOALS

Partnerships have partly shared and partly conflicting goals.

(Preserving heritage vs. providing access)

Conflicting goals form the core of constructing sustainable tourism

policies and actions.

Sustainable tourism has several contested meanings but share a

characteristic of complex trade-offs. Ex. Giving up present income for

future income.

Challenging issues may mean moving forward beyond simplistic

missives such as “thinking green,” or “ buy locally.”

THREE LARGE SCALE FORCES

1. Rapid growth and development in

international travel in the last decade of the

20th century and through the year 2020

(UNWTO,2001) have raised the stakes for

decisions about tourism planning in protected

areas.

2. Access through natural and cultural

heritage may negatively impact the area and

future visitor experiences.Ex.social-

demographic of visitors

COMPLEXITY:

The context within which protected area

tourism planning occurs is often complex

and non-linear. (Roe, 1998).

1. Consequences become unpredictable and

challenging as small changes in one factor may

lead to large changes in another.

2. Actions are based on explicit assumptions about

consequences that are questionable; given the lack

of knowledge connecting causes with effects.

UNCERTAINTY:

Broader spatial and longer temporal

contexts of decision making increases the

level of uncertainty in decisions since

science in the past focused on

understanding ecological processes at

smaller and shorter scales.

Protected Tourism Area Planning

Propositions

A. A “messy context.”

There is a lack of societal agreement on goals

and scientific agreement on cause and effects.

B. At the area of the intersection of natural heritage

protected areas and tourism development, resolving

conflicts is challenging.

Protected Tourism Area Planning

C. Planning is directed towards resolving competing goals

(incompatibilities) in order to :

(a) sustain values protected;

(b) provide opportunities for economic development and

(c) enhance the quality of life of local residents.

D. Protected tourism area planning partnerships serves as

a vehicle in responding to increasing demands and

conflicts while protecting heritage values so that public

interest is safeguarded.

E. Challenges the rational-comprehensive model as an

increasingly unsuccessful method of decision-making in the

messy context of the protected area tourism management.

Partnerships and Sustainable Tourism development

F. Successful informal partnerships: organize societal

action; help protect areas from threats and provide

opportunities for high-quality visitor experiences. Includes

engaging various constituencies in developing policies and

managing tourism and public use.(private-public sector;

tourism players-locals, etc.)

F. The goal of sustainable tourism development as a

fundamental rationale for protected tourism planning

partnerships (Bramwell and Lane, 2000).

VIDEO:

THE IFUGAO WAY

Case Study of the Ifugao Rice Terraces

• Contentious issues: protected agricultural sites,

watersheds, biodiversity hosts, cultural heritage sites

and indigenous peoples’ enclaves.

Global issues: poverty, out-migration, dispossession of

property rights, diminishing diversity and resource

management conflicts are major problems.

Areas where partnerships occur

1. Natural resources management:

2. Organizational learning : goals,

interests, culture, values

3. Publicly administered area planning

Why partnerships are formed

How they can be critically examined

What factors that contribute to success or

failure

B.Conflicting Goals, the public

interest and partnerships

The notion of public interest – the

most fundamental goal of protected

area management.

Reality: Constructing such interests

is conscientious in complex settings

that require negotiation among

multiple voices.

Relationships between stakeholders in

Tourism Industry

Stakeholder theory : a normative tool in tourism planning that may be used to promote cooperation between the fundamental parties involved in the planning process. Stakeholder interaction has highlighted the importance of the resource of partnerships, as a way to mobilize the different groups of intervening bodies and coordinate effectively the interests of each (ROBERTS; SIMPSON, 2000).

Approaches Definition Principles Steps Used Role of Participation

COMPREHENSIVE(Roots: RationalComprehensive

Planning)

Conventional goal is to stimulate growth.

Reformed approach is to plan the fragmented

but interrelated components into the

tourist system and to link the tourism sector in the

large scale development

Conventional RCP; “The third way of planning” mainly follows the steps to explore the situation in a

comprehensive, participatory way

Preparation; Set Goal; Survey and

Data AnalysisSynthesize and

select from alternatives; Plan

formulation; Implementation; Evaluation and

Monitoring

In the reformed approach; the ideas and concerns of local people, NGO’s and entrepreneurs will be carefully examined in the planning process.

Tourism Planning Approaches

*Source: The Routledge Handbook of Tourism Research

Approaches Definition Principles Steps Used Role of Participation

Community-collaborative

Planning(Community-based, and Stake-holder based planning)

Roots: TRANSACTIVE COLLABORATIVE

A process of decision-making in key stakeholders in tourism to resolve problems and/or to

manage issues relating to P &D

Public Participation is

the main component.

Participation is included at the beginning to

permit broadly-based planning

of objectives and goals.

Different planning

methods are adopted based on the situation: Group-setting inquiry; round-table discussion;

community consulting

meetings; in-depth interviews,

etc.

Mainly participatory in

nature and theoretically

share decision-making and

planning processes with

whoever is affected by or is interested in the direction or

plan.

*Source: The Routledge Handbook of Tourism Research

Tourism Planning Approaches

Approaches Definition Principles Steps Used Role of Participation

Community-collaborative Planning(Community-based, and

Stake-holder based planning)

Roots: TRANSACTIVE COLLABORATIVE

Ideally two-way communication and positive participation

of various stakeholders should be encouraged.

Different planning

methods are adopted based on the situation: Group-setting inquiry; round-table discussion;

community consulting

meetings; in-depth interviews,

etc.

Fundamentally inclusive; practicability is sometimes limited because of political, social, cultural and economic and constraints.

Tourism Planning Approaches

Approaches Definition Principles Steps Used Role of Participation

INTEGRATEDRoots:

Integrative Planning;

inputs from different sectors

To respond to different values and objectives and

the need for interconnectedness.

Adopted when making background information for further detail plan

formulation or policymaking

External Integration:

integration of the tourism system

into the macrosystem

(regional; national development or

international market. INTERNAL

INTEGRATION: Encompasses

various areas of tourism:

transportation; balances demand and supply, links public and private

sector

Identify key issues and goals; share experiences

and exchange ideas; provide strategies or

recommendations

collectively.Held in

workshop settings such as stakeholder

meetings

Often limited within

government scope but

often includes public-private

sector partnerships

Tourism Planning ApproachesApproaches Definition Principles Steps Used Role of

Participation

STRATEGICRoots: SWOT

ANALYSIS

A continual iterative process that creates a feasible match

between internal needs and

resources and external

environmental conditions

Two scales: At a site-scale oriented

to an organization site’s mandates or

needs such as conservation, environmental

protection, impact minimization. Regional

scale: generalize regional information

and guidelines whether to foster tourism

growth or recommend management.

Environmental scan; Set key issues; set

goals/vision; External and

internal environmental

analyses; Develop Strategiesl develop

implementation; plan monitor,

update and set another scan.

Key issues are identified by client organization; Coordination with local policies and political structure; Community participation in collecting information is necessary in this approach.

Approaches Definition Principles Steps Used Role of Participation

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Proposes to carry out tourism

development to fulfill present

human needs in such a way that

future generations will not be “worse

off.”

Sustainable development more like

a concept than a planning approach. .

Mainly from environmental

(conservation) and community

(sharing benefits and mitigating

negative impact) perspectives. Very few cases display the procedure of this approach and

little evidence exist to show it is used in practice.

Key issues are identified by client organization; Coordination with local policies and political structure; Community participation in collecting information is necessary in this approach.

Tourism Planning Approaches

The limits of legislative and

administrative decrees

(1) Vague and abstract – lacking detail and explicit definitions about conditions

deemed appropriate to the values protected in the area.

(2)

Considerations in forming protected area planning partnerships in messy situations

Tame problems where society holds agreement on goals, and

scientists agree about cause-effect relationships use

conventional rational-comprehensive planning

In messy situations, goals conflict; cause-effect relationships are

uncertain

•Consensus

•Requires new paradigms of tourism planning

Tourism Planning Partnerships

•Formal, informal, but coherent arrangements involving a variety

of interests

•To address issues, develop and implement policies centered on

management of protected areas

•Also known as taskforces, collaborative groups, advocacy

coalitions, consensus forums, working groups, and partnerships

Primary Rationale: Consensus

•‘Unanimous agreement’

•‘No one blocks an agreement’

•Places heavy burden on the partnership

•MAJORITY AGREEMENT through VOTING

-Not necessarily the best approach to defining consensus

because:

1.Reduces tourism planning issues to ‘yes’ or ‘no’ decisions

2.Partners share burdens, risks, and benefits, and where only

negotiation can lead to accommodations or integration of

concerns

•May be best approached through “grudging” agreement

•People make trade-offs because they share common interests

and goals.

•Achieved through the satisfaction of the ff. conditions:

1. Partners share in the definition of the problem

2. Agreement through partnership or public engagement

process

3. They have equitable access to knowledge

•Integrated with collaborative learning process

--Understanding of multiple interests joins a basic scientific

understanding of relevant conditions

•Requires partnership composed of:

1.Planners/managers - mandate for planning; technical and

procedural expertise

2.Scientists - specialized knowledge; effects of management

actions

3.Members of the public demand - high quality research

Secondary Rationale: Learning

•Process of accumulation of knowledge

•Deliberation of that knowledge

•Interaction between people and their environment

•In acting upon the knowledge, errors and surprises occur and

are evaluated and lessons are learned

•Adaptiveness – important component of planning and

management

•The deliberation leads to an enhanced understanding of the

tourism system and ways to solve the challenges confronting it.

•The types of learning that occurs in protected area planning

partnerships

1.Involving the content or substance of the planning issue

2.Technical planning process itself

3.Backgrounds and perspectives of varying other partnerships

Since there is considerable uncertainty in cause-effect relationships, venues and agendas need to be designed to encourage dialogue and active involvement in learning. (Daniels & Walker, 1996)

Design Criteria for Successful Tourism Protected Area Planning Partnerships

Four Major Attributes to Successful Partnerships

Operating in Messy Protected Area Tourism Planning

Representativeness

•Attending to the diversity of values and beliefs

•Encouraging dialogue among conflicting groups

•Reducing the influence of technocratic expertise and

strengthening the authority of experiential knowledge and

public preferences

•Including those in the political marketplace who hold ‘veto’

power over implementation of plans

Ownership

•Sense of caring and responsibility

•Shared sense of problem and process

•Association of citizens and agencies to collectively define, share,

and address problem situations with an implicit redistribution of

power

•Partners have intrinsic interest in the outcome and thus are

motivated

•Plan put together by the people affected by and who have an

interest in the area.

Learning

•Tourism is characterized by a variety of influences occurring at larger scales, some of which could be termed major disturbance factors.

•With disturbances/unpredictable events that arise which have significant and unexpected consequences, continuous attention to learning is required.

•Normally characterized as understanding links between causes

and effects, evaluating, and responding accordingly

• In messy problems, mental models used to organize learning

and behavior not only have to change but must remain adaptive

in response to social change and new knowledge

May result to:

1.Linkages between cause and effect can be confirmed

2.Unintended consequences (surprises)

•Focused on understanding what causes led to which

consequences

•Must be ‘double-looped’ –understanding cause-effect

relationships and the variables that govern the operation of the

system

•Detection and correction of error

•Encourage double-loop learning through:

1.Sharing control of learning process

2.Participation in design and implementation of actions

Relationships

•To focus energies on framing and resolving issues rather than

taking positions

•Quality of openness

•Lack of ‘hidden agendas’

•Understanding of others beliefs

•Focus on authentic communication

•Clear understanding of roles and responsibilities

•Mutual respect

CONDITIONS NEEDED TO IMPLEMENT DESIGN CRITERIA

• The design criteria can be successfully implemented when partners are mindful to the presence of certain conditions as they provide the context within which the partnership operates.

• These considerations deal with fundamental ideals of effective governance. In this regard, protected area tourism planning partnerships represent a type of governance system.

• Building effective partnerships mindful of these considerations requires three conditions: trust, power and access to knowledge.

Trust

• It is an important foundational condition to any partnership.

•“regular, honest and cooperative behavior, based on

commonly shared norms.” (Fukuyama, 1995)

• Trust is difficult to construct but easily to lose.

• Lack of trust is one of the most fundamental barriers to

implementation of protected area plans (Lachapelle, McCool &

Patterson, 2003)

• It is something that must be continuously monitored and attended to over time, especially in a messy situation where a variety of actors engage in a purpose with multiple objectives holding a diversity of views.

• Trust includes both organizational and interpersonal dimensions (Moore, 1995)

• Protected area tourism planning partnerships lead to planning

documents which may be viewed as a type of social contract

between governments and those affected by its decisions.

Ideally, the contract outlines the actions that will be taken by

partners who have collaborated in the planning process. It also

contains agreements about the processes by which it will be

modified and amended.

Power

• It is the ability to influence people to behave in ways that may not be in their own immediate self-interest.

• Certain groups or interests, because of their political power, hold virtual “veto” authority over plan implementation.

•Forster argues that if planners ignore those in power, they assure their own powerlessness.

•Partners must address the notion of power.

• Such empowerment leads to incorporation of a wider diversity

of knowledge in the planning process, greater potential for

constructing consensus and more ownership in the plan and the

protected area.

Access to knowledge

• Protected area agencies have access to or hold specialized

knowledge about the area: ecological, biological and

climatological data, species and habitats, disturbance processes,

spending and economic impact information and visitor use

levels, patterns and preferences.

• Some may have operationally or systematically limited information. It may be as a matter of policy or as a result of lack of technical proficiency among partners to understand and assimilate information.

• Acknowledging that issues arise in situations of multiple

competing goals and conflicting interests might occur allows

partnership to address processes to deal with such situations.

• There can be structural distortions in knowledge access, and such distortions are counter to the notion of a partnership.

BENEFITS OF PROTECTED AREA TOURISM PLANNING PARTNERSHIPS

1. Identification of socially acceptable actions.

2. Construction of social agreement about the character of a

desired future.

3. In democratic contexts, plan development and

implementation may be more efficient.

4. Help to fulfill expectations that protected areas provide a

model of governance that is more sensitive to people’s

needs, and better integrates conservation with sustainable

tourism development.

CONCLUSION

• Partnerships become an important strategy in enhancing the

stewardship of protected areas. They are formed because

protected area agencies and tourism industry can no longer

work without each other.

• Tourism protected planning partnerships are designed to

identify desired futures and develop pathways to those futures.

• Constructing planning partnerships is based upon shared goals

and visions, and requires attention to the rationale for the

partnership as well as the attributes that make for success:

ownership, learning, representativeness and relationships.

• Such attributes will be successful only when partners attend to

the distribution of political power, access to knowledge and trust

among the partners.

• Action in a messy society requires multiple actors working in a

coordinated and cooperative manner in variety of roles.

• Partnerships provide the opportunity for more realistic,

integrative and more effective protected area tourism planning.

Sources Cited:

1. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y_cm671oZ_4

2. p. 172, Kaye Sung Chon. The Routledge Handbook of Tourism Research

2. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0018/001826/182647e.pdf

3. A Case Study About Rice Terraces of the Ifugao

4. https://prezi.com/h3nda1fv4i6_/a-case-study-about-rice-terrace-of-ifugao-

philippines/

5. http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1679-

39512010000400003