Constructing environments logbook compressed

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Lecturer: Clare Newton Senior Tutor: Rebecca Cameron Tutor: Jullian Tuckett Semester 1, 2014 Paige Collett 698753 [email protected] Bachelor of Environments ENVS10003 Constructing Environments Logbook

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Transcript of Constructing environments logbook compressed

Page 1: Constructing environments logbook compressed

Lecturer: Clare NewtonSenior Tutor: Rebecca Cameron

Tutor: Jullian TuckettSemester 1, 2014

Paige [email protected] of Environments

ENVS10003Constructing Environments Logbook

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Contents

W E E K 1

W E E K 2

W E E K 3

W E E K 4

Construction Workshop

W E E K 5

W E E K 6

W E E K 7

W E E K 8

W E E K 9

W E E K 10

Glossary

References

01 - 05

06 - 10

11 - 17

18 - 22

23 - 25

26 - 32

33 - 38

39 - 43

44 - 49

50 - 57

58 - 61

62 - 64

65 - 65

ENVS10003

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W E E K 1

01.

ENVS10003Key Terms

Compression -Tension -

Building Envelope -Facade -

Context -Building ‘Systems’ -

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02.

Mind Map

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Materials: an Introduction The modern construction industry has vast option when it comes to materials, di�erent execution methods with those materials, and the di�erent components and features that can e�ect the properties of a certain material. Some of the key basic principles of construction materials

are stated, de�ned and examples are given:

StrengthDi�erent materials have di�erent strength properties - and those di�erent properties also vary based on the ‘type’ of strength being measured a material can have di�erent variations of strength in the context of structural forces such as compression and tension.

Sti�nessImpartial to ‘strength’ - simply an appraisal of �exibility and sti�ness

ShapeCan e�ect all other material properties. Certain materials are Monodimensional, Bidimensional and Tridimensional (Newton, 2014)

Material BehavioursThe behabviour of a material in responce to forces. A material istypically Isotropic or Anisotropic(Ref. Glossary for de�nition)

EconomyIs it economically viable to ascertian that particularmaterial?

SustainabilityThe environmental impact of a material is very important in the 21st century. This encompasses not only how the material will last and perform over time, but also the impact of sourcing that particular material - The embodied energy (ref. Glossary for de�nition). The materials long term performance is the longituidy of itslife, the recyclability of it, and how it minimises other services that cause environmentalimpact; such as the required heating/cooling/lighting of a structure.

Images: MDF Block Tower displaying compressionpowers, approx. 1700mm tall, balancing a weight of approx 4kg at peak; Paige Collett (2014)

MDF - Medium DensityFibreboard. Made of very�ne wood dust particles, glued and compressed together with resin underheat and pressure. - economic - even density - vast availability- good workability

03.

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Tension and Compression

Forces and ScaleForces and scale can be expressed in the mathematical term of ‘Vectors’. They can represent compression, tensionor any other form of ‘movement’ - as is thede�nition of ‘force’. They also depict the measurable scale of that force. (UOM Department of Mathematics and Statistics, 2014)

Basic Structural Forces

The two most common and basic structural forces one must familarise themselves with are Tension and Compression.

Tension describes a pulling force, in which the material or structure experiences elongation to a certain degree. A common structural example of where tension is evident is in the construction of bridges, where steel wiring under a great deal of tension is often used as a key part of the structure.

Compression is the opposite force, in which thematerial or structure is compressed often due to weight and gravity. Brick structures are a

COMPRESSION

TENSION

Image: Ching ‘Building Construction Illustrated p2.11 (2008)

The Power of Compression

Images: Stages of MDF block tower construction and destruction; Paige Collett (2014)

04.

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Loads: Depiction, Measurements & Types

Dead Load Live/Static Load

Above is an image of the MDF block tower built in W1 of Constructing Environments. The image shows a section that was partially destroyed to test the power of compression. The arrows show how the load is distributed throughout the tower and how that distribution changes around the void in the tower. Tarrows show where the load is not spread evenly, however it can be seen that very quickly, the load levels out again throughout the MDF blocks. The more evenly spaced the building materials, (MDF blocks) the more evenly spread the load will be.

Image: MDF Block Tower midway through distruction; Paige Collett (2014)

Load Path

Dead Load is the load of a structure itself; its materials and permenant structure in order for a Structure to stand there must be a balance of equal and opposite forces - the earth must be able to support and push up, the weight of the structure being pushed down. The Dead load must also be balanced or able to counterbalance through strength or some other property - this is shown in the sketch of a �oating bench:

Live load is the applied and often changing loadthat a structure endures, it is often unbalanced inthe structure so the structure must be designed towithstand this change, a bridge is an excellent example with cars as the ‘live’ load.

Image: Bloukrans Bridge, South Africa; ‘Fiona in Monbulk (2012)

05.

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W E E K 2

06.

ENVS10003Key Terms

Structural Joint -Stability -Tension -

Frame -Bracing -Column -

Load Distribution -

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07.

Mind Map

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Structural Systems

Solid SystemsCompression is the key structural force present in this building method, a very early method of construction. E.g. stone, bricks

Shell/Surface SystemsA planar structure relying on compressiontension and tensile forces. Typically construcedof steel reinforced concrete, coming to popularity post WWII (EncyclopaediaBritannica Inc. 2014)

Frame/Skeletal SystemsThe most common form of construction in the 21st century. An e�cient way of transfering loads (Newton, 2014) and the structure can be made out of a vast range of materialsE.g. wood, steel

Membrane SystemsE�cient and economic. Able to coverlarge surfaces of area, with the primaryforce being tension. The membrane is typically thin and �exible such as fabric (Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc. 2014)

Hybrid SystemsNewest system to the Construction Industry, a combination of structural systems are usedE.g. Skeletal and Membrane

The Great Pyrimid of Giza, Egypt; Nina (2005)

Sydney Opera House, Australia; Unknown (2011)

Vodafone Headquarters, Portugal; Unknown (2014)

National Aquatics Centre, Beijing; Unknown (2008)

Sports Park Stozice, Slovenia; Unknown

The Sytem Breakdown:

Structural The purely practical side to a structure: the mathematics, the physics,the backbone to everything else. Superstructure is the above ground structure of a building, the beams, the columns, loadbearing walls etc. Substructure encompasses is the underground aspect of the structure,the foundations whether it be reinforced concrete slabs, piles, etc.

EnclosureThis is not simply the aesthetic of a structure but also the protective outer layer. The facade, exterior walls, entrance points and roof allmake up the external envelope system. It must form a divide creating an internal and external space where the two environments can opperate independent of one another. Weather control, light �ooding, temperature control, security and privacy are just some of the systems abuilding enclosure can e�ect and regulate.

Mechanical/ServicesThe mechanical systems of a structure are the ones that are regarded asnecessary for a ‘comfortable’ dwelling - however the sustainability and environmental aspects of a structure can realistically impact the services required, or altar the ‘way’ in which those systems are required. Some ofthe systems are: water, electricity, heating/cooling, ventilation, sewage(Ching 2014)

08.

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Key Considerations in Construction

PerformanceWanted performances can be things that

must �t a use, such as an area to accomodatea certain quantity of people. Need performances tend to be based on location and also building use - �re escape, natural disaster considerations,

soil types, sound resistence, ongoing maintenance

AestheticTend to be solely ‘want’. But also e�ect

the way a building can be used. Environmental and neighbourhood context

should be taken into consideration EnvironmentalWill the Structure be sustainable not only now, but over time? Willthe building materials assist in

minimal electricity usage? What isthe embodied energy of the materials?

EconomicDoes it �t the Budget?

It all starts with... NEED and WANTAn individual or company requires a building

Construction LimitationsWhat are the building codes and regulations?

What is the material availability? Are their labourers available with the appropriate

quali�cations?

It should be noted that this processdoes not stop when the constructionbegins, this is a circular processes thatwill continue to change and evolvethroughout the entire construction

09.

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Structural Joints

Roller JointAllows horisontal movementIdeal for structures with a moving load E.g. bridges

Pin JointAllows rotational movementOften found within a truss system

Fixed JointA complex joint that allows nomovement, because of this a lotof pressure can be put on the joint and columns/structure when a loadis applied and result in bending

(Newton, 2014)

Week 2 brought the experimentation of structural joints.A structure is only as strong as its weakest joint. Regardlessof the materials used, the joint type, and strength has a paramount e�ect on the stability and strength of a structurethis was �rst shown in the demonstration of a ‘water tank’ built with straws for columns and pins for joints - although thecolumns were weak, it must be noted that the failing point in the experiment occurred at the ‘pin’ joints. Following this,students were asked to construct towers with a skeletal frame using balsa wood - A major �aw observed was the lack of stability and support in the footings - at a certain point of heightthe structure would fail due to becoming unbalanced

10.

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W E E K 3

11.

ENVS10003Key TermsMoment -

Retaining Wall -Pad Footing -

Strip Footing -Slab on Ground -

Substructure -

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Mind Map

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13.

Terminology

Beam- experiences both tension and compression- upper side of beam undergoes compression - lower side of beam undergoes tension- idel to be built from materials that can withstand both forces(e.g. timber, steel)

Tie- a tension element- hold loads in place

Strut- a compression element(e.g. a column or truss element)

Slab/Plate- distributes loads in more than a single direction - thickening of slab can encourage loads to go in a certain direction- used often when discussing foundations

Panels- wall panels carry load via compression - shear wall panels are there purely for protection from forces that may blow the structure over (wind)

MonolithicDe�ned in both new and old construction methods and typicallyused in mass construction due to the strong compression traits andalso the size of materials. Monolithic construction materials are typically larger in scale allowing mass construction to occur in a timely manner. Typically weak in tension but made up of durable and hard components.

Monolithic Materials:Modular - components that �t together- Clay Bricks - Mud Bricks- Concrete Blocks- Ashlar Stone

Non Modular - Concrete- Rammed Earth- Monolith Stone

MasonryA subset of Mass construction, similar materials are used but at a smaller scale. The smaller components are used due to the smallerscale of the structures (e.g. houses).

Masonry Elements:Vertical- walls, columns, piersHorizontal/Curved- Beams, lintels, arches Spanning/Enclosing - Vaults, domes

Masonry units act as a monolithic whole (Newton, 2014)

Image1: Monolithic Concstruction, Pallavi Pengonda, (2012), http://www.livemint.com/Money/3gJH3g3g9gGNjNpRAwEXsI/Good-September-quarter-for-Sintex.htmlImage 2: Masonry Construction, Dewen Property Builders, (2014), http://dewanpb.com/services-3/

Equilibrium - a state of balance - the addition of forces are equal to zero

A ‘Moment’ - a measurement of rotation forceis equal to Force x Distance M = F x D

When Horizontal Forces = 0there is no side to side movement

When Vertical Forces = 0there is no up or down movement

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14.

Foundations - Slab on Grade

Image 1: Bamtec, (2010), http://www.prlog.org/10968784-adverse-winter-weather-beaten-by-bamtec-to-deliver-urban-regeneration-development-on-time.htmlImage 2: Spanwright, (2010), http://www.spanwright.co.uk/concrete-�ooring

Image 1: Reinforcement (steel) being put in place

Image 2: Concrete being poured over steel reinforcement

The below sketches show the make-up of a Concrete Slab on Grade with a masonry foundation wall, and also a thickened edge slab. Highly compressed soil is ideal if not a requirement of this type of foundation system. The concrete component holds high compression features - the addition of steel reinforcement allows for any tension needs required from the foundations, and prevents cracking when movement occursin the soil.This is an In-Situ form of construction (executed on site).

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More FoundationsShallow Foundations: Spread FootingsDepicted below are examples of a ‘Strip Footing’ system and a ‘Continuous Footing’system. The major di�erence between the two is what they support (foundation wall and columns respectively). Isolated footings are the single spread footing support of a single column/pier (Ching, 2008). The appeal of this foundation system is the greater surface area for loads to be transferred through, and therefore ideal for greaterloads.

Deep Foundations: Pole and Pile FoundationsIdeal for various reasons - unstable ground, sloped ground surface, high dead load. Pole Foundations are typically used in timber structures to elevate them above the groundfor �ood reasons or in the case of sloping ground foundations. Treated timber poles are inserted into the ground at varieddepths (determined based on load and slope) and furthersupported by either a) concrete pads, b) concrete colar or c) concrete back�lling (as opposed to soil back�ll). Piles extend through unstable soil until a point where they reachsoil suitable to withstand the compression of the structural load above. Piles can be either timber, steel pre-cast or pre-pressed concrete, or concrete �lled pipes - dependant on the load

Image 1: Treated Wood Pole awaiting back�lling, Badger Inc, (2014), http://badgerinc.com/hydrovac-application/pole-holes-piling-holes/

Pile Foundation

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Bricks

Standard Size: 230x76x110

230mm

110mm

76mm

Image 1: Unknown, (2014), http://www.fatherryan.org/page.cfm?p=558Image 2, 3 and 4: Paige Collett, (2014).

(Below) Brick Joints: Typically 10mm wide

Some Facts:Bricks are shaped clay and water that have been �red at high temperatures. The more iron present in the clay the pinker the colour of the brick becomes, the more Manganese present, the more grey/black the colour becomes. Bricks were originally hand made, then machine pressed, and today are more commonly extruded as a length and wire cut.

Below (Image 4), lines can be seen going bothhorizontally and vertically across a brick wall these lines are in fact expansion joints. Due tobrick’s permeable nature, they can expand, retract and generally move over time. To prevent damage to the structure, foam inserts are placedin approximately 10mm wide gaps in the brickwork (this also prevents water penetration). The spacing and frequency of expansion joints vary and are calculated based on the estimated brick wrythe due to moisture expansion and environ-mental factors (The Brick Industry Association, 2006)

Weep holes are common in brick structures because bricks are porous.Bricks wil absorb and expire water throughout their life cycle - weep holes

allow ventilation which prevents dampness from occuring within a wallcavity (space between the external and internal walls) and also allow an

escape for any condensation that does occurr (refer to Image 3, left).

Image 3: Weep Holes in a brick structure at The University of Melbourne, Parkville.

(Right) Types of Brick Joint Finishes

Brick Laying:A ‘course’ represents a single row of bricks.

Image 2: Brick structure close up

Bed Joints

Perpends

Horizontal Expantion Joints

Vertical Expansion Joints

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Stone & Blocks

Stone

Igneous - formed when molten lava cools- dense and dark in colour - high compressive strength- ideal for footings of a structure - impervious to water (e.g. Granite, Basalt, Bluestone)

Sedimentary - formed by weathering of other stones- softer, less dense - light in colour - easily carved and broken (e.g. Limestone, Sandstone)

Metamorphic - formed by high pressure/heat of other stones- dense- translucent in colour - typically used for �ooring, cladding and bench tops(e.g. Marble, Slate)

Image 1: Basalt Rock, Sandatlas, (2013), http://www.sandatlas.org/2012/12/basalt/Image 2: Basalt Structure, Bruce Railsback, (unknown), http://www.gly.uga.edu/railsback/BS/BS-Loa.htmlImage 3: Sandstone Rock, Jon Zander, (2007), http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Millet-Seed_Sandstone_Macro.JPGImage 4: Sandstone Wall, Stone Walls, (2013), http://earthmovingstonewalls.com.au/rock-walls/wall-cladding/Image 5: Marble Rock, US Government, (2005), http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MarbleUSGOV.jpgImage 6: Marble Bench, Interiors by Darren James, (2012), http://www.interiorsbydarrenjames.com.au/services/kitchens/inside-your-kitchen

Image 1 Image 2

Image 3 Image 4

Image 5 Image 6

Blocks

A masonry construction material very similar to bricks but larger. The blocks weigh approximately 11kg (bricks are 3-4kg) and is manufactured with largeholes through the brick. These holes help with insulation but also in minimi-sing the weight of the blocks.

Manufactured from cement/sand/gravel/waterthe slurry is mixed, moulded and ‘cured’ (a chemical process involving hydration).

The holes in the blocks are also veryuseful as they allow reinforcement rods to be used or grout, to further support a block constructed wall.

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W E E K 4ENVS10003Key Terms

Joist -Steel Decking -

Span -Concrete -

Concrete Plank -Spacing -

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19.

Mind Map

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20.

Span & Spacing, In Situ & Pre Fab

Span

The distance measured between two structural supports Horizontal members are measured to their vertical supportsVertical members are measured to their horizontal supports

Spacing

The distance measured between elements Spacing depends on the spanning capabilities of a memberand is measured from the centre of each element

In Situ

A form of construction that takes place on the constructionsite itself. Walls, �ooring etc are constructed and erected onsite.Non standard structural elements are made In Situ due to their oneo� nature - this is not to say they cannot be pre-fabricated.

E.g.In Situ concrete is poured and moulded on site and in position.All elements involved in the process of concrete curing take placeon site such as framework construction, reinforcement, curing and vibration.

Image 1: In Situ Concrete Slab, Grant Smith, (unknown), http://www.constructionphotography.com/Details.aspx?ID=1653&TypeID=1Image 2: Pre Cast Concrete Slabs, CW Sta�, (2014), http://www.constructionweekonline.com/article-17403-precast-takes-the-lead/

Pre Fab

Pre fabrication is when construction elements such as, frames,wall sections, �ooring sections are fabricated o� site and delivered in whole, to be secured in place.

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Flooring SystemsThere are three main types of �ooring systems, steelconcrete and timber.

Steel sheeting is often used as a frame for casting concrete �ooring and can remain as part of the structure or be taken down. Steel is also used as structural beams in �ooring, as a way to carry loads

In concrete �ooring systems, slabs of concrete span 1 or 2 (depending on size) directions to structural beams. Thebeams carry the load of the �oor to columns and down. The width of the concrete slab can assist with the span capabilities. The width is typically determined by

Span required by slab, divided by 30

Timber �ooring is very common in Australia and the USA. It can be used as not only the �ooring but also the bearers (primary beams) and joists (secondary beams). Floorboards can typically span between 450-600mm.

The Choice of �ooring system used is often due to cost but also spanningand load requirements.

Image 1: Steel �ooring, Unknow, (2014), http://www.directindustry.com/prod/meiser/shelving-gratings-18604-530096.htmlImage 2: Concrete �ooring, Keith Porter, (2013), http://www.nexus.globalquakemodel.org/gem-building-taxonomy/overview/glossary/precast-concrete-�oor-with-reinforced-concrete-topping--fc3Image 3: Timber �ooring, Unknown, (2014), http://www.wisegeek.org/what-is-joist-span.htm

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22.

Concrete

Unknown, (2012), http://www.construction-machine.org/2012/03/choosing-the-best-concrete-mixer-for-the-job/Bill Bradley, (2007), http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Curing-concrete.jpg

Concrete is made from the binding of Water and Cement through mixing and curing. Cement gravel aggregates are used to form a hard material, the typical recipe is: 1 x Cement (portland, lime) : 2 x �ne aggregate (sand) : 4 x course aggregate (crushed rock) : 0.4-0.5 x water

During the mixing, the cement and aggregate mixture must be hydrated to form an almost liquid form, too much water will cause the concrete to be weak, too little water and the concrete will not be workable, as concrete should be plastic before it is set. Concrete is put in forms, typically temporary frame work, andthen dries hard into the desired shape. The Framework is typically timber, metal or plastic, or a combination. Before setting, the concrete must be supported, but post setting it can support its own weight - this is importantto take into consideration when forming concrete �oors/ceilings.

After 7 days of being poured, the concrete is capable of 75% of its total compressive strength, �nal testing of thehardened concrete occurs after 28 days typically. Treatment of the concrete is very important during the setting stage, or what is better referred to as the ‘curing’ stage. - both by builders and also by the weather. Moisture is important for the concrete to gain its full strength, cracking can occur when the concrete is too dry and so can shrinking - so ponding can be a technique to ensure the concrete is hydrated appropriately (See image 2).

Concrete is very strong in compression however not in tension, under tensile strength it is likely to crack and when the earth moves beneath concrete slabs this can be a problem. Steel Reinforcement is used in conjunctionwith the concrete to assist in tensile strength. The amount of reinforcement varies in di�erent conditions.

Concrete is a cost e�ective material however expensive environmentally, with high embodied energy. It has a long lifespan as it is a hard material and low in porosity. It is a poor conduction of heat and electricity so workswell in hot weather.

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ENVS10003

23.

C O N S T R U C T I O N W O R K S H O P

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24.

The Construction Workshop’s main goal was to construct in groups a structure spanning a distance of 1000mm and put under a point load pressure - and see at what point the structure would fail.

This task resembled almost the task a bridge executes, a car travelling along is a form of point load - although a moving point load. A bridge must span a given distance and be able to withstand a loadfrom a given point (in a bridge’s case - all points). The bridge is at its most vulnerable in the centre, bracing and trusses can assist in transfering the load back to the edges where the structure is supported.

To the right we see how a point load applied to a simple beam and column structure can fail, the load(depending on weight of course) will put the beam under compression and tension forces before it has time to reach the columns and be transferred to the ground. These forces can result in the structurewarping and inevitably failing (breaking).

The best design in this case (that my group of 3 came to the conclusion of ) would be to design a structurein which the load was directed to the groundings as quickly as possible. It should be noted that the design we chose would be ideal for a point load only positioned at the peak of the structure however.

The Task

Sydney Harbour Bridge, Jim, (2010), http://sydney-city.blogspot.com.au/2010/06/sydney-harbour-bridge.html

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The StructureThe (messy, rushed) Planning Phase

For the Structure we were given: 1 x Ply 1200x3.2x90 mm2 x Pine 1200x42x18 mm

The Construction Phase The Point Load Test, and Destruction

Final failing point: The structure failed at 350kg, with a de�ection of 55mm. This was the best result of the class, surprisingly. The structurewas di�cult to test due to the unstable peak -time constraints meant that we were unable to create a �at surface at the peak to accomodate the load and so the structure would just de�ect out of place. The Failing points which can be seen below were the joints - which was consistent through all the participating groups. Any position nails had been used cause weak points in the structure and the splitting of the wood occurred around these areas.

To further support the junctions between the trusses and base of the structure, a cut out wasformed to prevent the trusses from sliding outof place when load was applied.

Bracing was also applied, but only to one side of thestructure due to time delaythis was successful in helpingthe structure remain rigid in its angled shape, but the nailsused in the base to secure thebracing became the weakpoint when the structure failed.

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ENVS10003W E E K 5

Key TermsStud -

Nogging -Lintel -Axial -

Buckling -Seasoned Timber -

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27.

Mind Map

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28.

Wall Systems Wall systems are a fundamental part of a structure, to create space, as a form of protection, sun light �ltration, weather protection, andas a structural support for the roof. Creating an internal and external environment is a key function of the walls (and roof ) of a structure .

Structural Frames:- Concrete (typically for large scale structures)- Timber (typically for small scale structures)- Steel (used in both large and small scale structures,often in conjunction with other structural elements)

Load Bearing Walls: - Concrete (used often in newer apartment buildings)- Masonry (these can be core �lled for more structural support)- Brick work (typically double skinned with a cavity space between)

Stud Walls:- Light gauge steel frame - Timber frame

Concrete Frame

Timber Frame Steel Frame

Image 1: Sentinel Square-Phase 1, Renee Meador, (2009), http://hwablog.com/2009/06/sentinel-square-phase-i-sustainable-secure/Image 2: Maine Barn Company, (2008), http://www.mainebarncompany.com/Image 3: Xinguangzheng Steel Structure Co. Ltd. (2010), http://www.steelstructurechina.com/news/news_show_564.html

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Stud Frame System

Stud Frame Image: Van Damme, (2008), http://tttvandamme.blogspot.com.au/2008/02/on-friday-we-continued-on-with-our.htmlTimber Frame Image: Timberlast, (unknown), http://www.timberlast.com/Predesignedkits.cfm

Timber Frame: Beam spacing can be quite large

Timber Stud Frame: Stud spacing is typically 400mm

Stud Frames are very common in Australia with a Brick Veneer �nish. The internal structural element is the stud frame which consists of some of the elements we see in the sketches (right). Due to the longand slender nature of the studs, ‘noggings’ are required to ensure thestud does not buckle when load is applied, and occasionally bracingalso. Bracing can be either temporary timber, permanent steel bracingand can be either diagonal or cross bracing in shape. A cavity is found between the stud frame and external non-structural wall as a further barrier between the internal and external spaces.

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From Wood to TimberTimber is a natural material that has many di�erent species, but similarities in all. The centre of a log is called the ‘heart wood’, and rings around thisdevelop annually, alternating from light to dark depending on season - the more rings the older the tree. The grain of the wood can determine itsstructural performance: A piece of timber is sti� and strong when load is applied parallel to the grain, however when load is applied perpendicularto the grain the timber is weaker. In order to strengthen the timber it must be ‘seasoned’ this is a process in which it is dehydrated of water cells, timber typically has less than 15% water content but this can vary based on di�erent timbers and standards. It takes approximately 6 months - 2 yearsfor 50mm of timber to ‘season’, in order to speed up the process, kilns are often used. Solar kilns are used as a more energy e�cient alterative.

- Slower to season - Rings can split away- Good for �oors/furnishing

- Seasons quickly- Less prone to splitting- Likely to warp/cup

- Unclear structural properties- Good use of wood - Ideal for weatherboards

Softwood Douglas Fir, Simon Fraser University, (2007), http://www.sfu.ca/geog/geog351fall07/Group06/Interior%20Douglas-Fir.htmlSoftwood Pinus Sylvestris, Beentree, (2008), http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pinus_sylvestris_wood_ray_section_1_beentree.jpg Hardwood Jarrah, Nathan Brown, (2011), http://www.timberfurnituremelbourne.org/2011/11/21/australian-timbers-used-in-furniture/Hardwood Oak, Design Resource, (2014), http://www.designresource.info/hardwood.html

Softwood: Pinus SylvestrisSoftwood: Douglas Fir

Hardwood: Jarrah Hardwood: Oak

Typically Pine Trees

Typically EucalyptusSpecies in Australia

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Properties & EngineeringProperties:- Hard material- Will not shatter- Plastic and Ductile- In its living state, can be manipulated into shapes - A permeable material - will expand when �ooded- Good insulator - Poor conductor of heat- Easily re-used and recycled - Low embodied energy is sourced locallyand from renewable forrests- Cost e�ective typically

Restrictions: - Size of timber can only be as large as the tree it came from- Timber is ‘graded’ based on strength and other speci�cations- ‘Knots’ which are caused by branches of the tree cause weak points, timber under tension can not have knots, timber under compression can have knots. - when timber fails it will fail parallel to the grain - Timber should be treated for protection against things suchas termites and water penetration

Engineered Timber:Is done for recycling, strength enhabncement and for more wood to be put to use that otherwise could not (e.g. Chip board)

Laminated Veneer Lumber (LVL) Glue Laminated Timber Cross Laminated Timber PlywoodMDF Chip Board

- Thin layers of woodglued with adhesive- Grain parallel to long end- Useful for Structuralbeams and postsLVL, Metsawood, (2014), http://www.metsawood.us/products/pages/masterplanklvl.aspxGlue Laminated Timber, A.J. Smith and Son, (unknown), http://www.ajsmith.uk.com/glulam.htmCross Laminated Timber, Cross Laminated Timber, (unknown), http://www.crosslaminatedtimber.com.au/Bene�ts.aspxMDF, Kronospan, (unknown), http://www.kronospan.co.uk/kronobuild/products/view/mdf/standardPlywood, Rotor DB, (2007), http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Plywood.jpgChip Board, Titus Tscharntke, (2013), http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Chipboard_texture.jpg

- Dimensional timberlayers glued together- Useful for structural members and curved structures

- Layered timber, grain runs perpendicular toneighbouring layers- Useful for �oors, walls

- Broken down Hardwood/Softwood into wood �bres- Wax/resin used to glue - non-structural uses

- Made from sheets ofwood veneer (wood �bre)- grain runs perpendicularto neighbouring layers- non-structural uses

- Wood chips/shavings/sawdust compressed withresin- bracing/�ooring

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32.

Tutorial Activity

The Tutorial Activity this week involved, as a group, building a structural element of the Oval Pavillion atThe University of Melbourne. The Structural elementwas the structural support system of the Pavillion’s Canopy. Built at 1:20 out of balsa wood.

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33.

ENVS10003W E E K 6

Key TermsRafter -Purlin -

Cantilever -Portal Frame -

Eave -So�t -

Top Chord -

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34.

Mind Map

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35.

Roof Systems

Parapet Roof, Art Grice, (2010), http://blog.buildllc.com/2010/12/smart-�at-roofs-the-craft-of-parapet-detailing/Gable Roof, Unknown, (2009), http://www.diychatroom.com/f9/question-altering-one-side-gable-roof-shed-roof-53010/Hip Roof, Unknown, (2010), http://www.diychatroom.com/f9/hip-roof-venting-69970/Dutch Gable Roof, Colourco, (unknown), http://www.colourco.com.au/single-pergolas-verandahs-05-dutch-gable-roof.html

For centuries stone was used as a structural buildingmaterial for not only walls but ceilings and roofs too, creating internal spaces. Below are some methods thathave been used over time to create stone spaces. Today, the types of primary sheltering structure are morestructured and can created larger internal spaces: Below are some examples of these designs.

Parapet Roof- Hidden gutter- appears like a box from outsite

Gable Roof- angled roof - has ‘gable’ ends

Hip Roof- no gable ends- di�erent structural layout

Dutch Gable Roof- combination of Gable/Hip Roof

What Type of Roof?

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36.

Gable vs. Hip RoofsKey Elements of a Roof System (some are exclusive to either Gable or Hip Roof Systems)- Ridge Beam- Wall Beam- Gable End- Fascia- Battens/Purlins- ‘Common’ Rafters- ‘Hip’ Rafters- ‘Valley’ Rafters- ‘Jack’ Rafters- Eaves- Outriggers- Top Chord- Bottom Chord- So�t

So�te.g. the underside of an eaves

Top Chord

Bottom Chord

Gable Roof

Hip Room (above)

Hip Roof

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37.

MetalsFacts:

- Steel is one of the most prominant materialsin the construction industry - Metals are typically strong in both compressionand tension- Typically found in minerals and the metals are extracted - Pure metals - 1 element- Alloys - 2 or more elements- Vary in weight and density- Aluminium is the lightest metal- Good re-use and recycling abilities - Ferrous metals are quick to corrode and rust- Non Ferrous alloys do not contain iron

Galvanic Series

Metals take up/give up irons to one another and this e�ects their corrosion tendencies

- Cathodic Metals are less likely to corrode- Anodic Metals are more likely to corrode

The further apart 2 metals are on the Galvanic Series, the morelikely it is they will corrode if in contact with each other and moisture.

The term ‘Galvanised’ means to coat in a layer of zinc. It is a chemical treatment done to metals to help protect them from corrosion.

Image 1: Process Flow, Wuxi Anber Machine Co., (2013), http://www.china-anbermachine.com/Wire-Galvanizing-Line/Hot-Dipped-Wire-Galvanizing-Line.htmTable 1: The Galvanic Series of Metals, AMAC Corrosion, (unknown), http://www.amacgroup.com.au/index.php?ID=12

Image 1: Galvanising Preperation

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38.

Ferrous vs. Non FerrousFerrous Metals

Iron - good compressive strength - corrodes through rusting

Wrought Iron Steel- heated and hammered to desired shape - labour intesive

Cast Iron - melted iron poured into moulds to cool- high compressive strength - heavy in weight- comparatively brittle

Steel- alloy of iron and carbon

Structural Steel- used for framing

Hot Rolled Steel - shaped while metal is hot

Cold Formed Steel- lighter in weight - folded from sheet steel- used for purlins etc.

Stainless Steel- high quality alloy with chromium - corrosion resistant - used for sheets, plates, wiring, and ideal in harsh environments

Steel is often galvanised for protection. It can be used as Roof Sheeting, Reinforcing bars (due to high tensile strength)

Non Ferrous Metals

Aluminium - light weight - high embodied energy, high cost - easily cast (door handles etc.)- sheets are used as cladding- reacts with oxygen in air - created a thin monoxide layer which self protects and prevents further oxidisation - treatments include Powder Coating and Anodise

Copper- conductor of electricity, used for electrical wiring- found naturally in earth - often used as a roo�ng material, as corrosion resistant - patina develops changing colour from bronze to green (removable by acid, but does strip copper too)

Zinc- pure form used for roof/wall cladding- thin layers of zinc are applied to steel to protect from rusting (Galvanising)

Lead- not used highly due to reacting with water and become toxic to humans

Tin- ‘tin roofs’ actually tends to be Galvanised steelas opposed to tin

Titanium - thin material, excellent corrosion resistence - occiasionally used as cladding- high cost

Bronze- copper and tin alloy - corrosion resistant - used for hinges, springs etc.

Brass- low melting point- malleable therefore easy to cast- used for handles, taps etc.

Iron Bars, unknown, (2014), http://www.indiamart.com/vee-vee-wheels/metal-scraps.html Steel I Beam, Machinery Maintenance Servies, (unknown), http://www.hillssa.com.au/clientwebs/mms/cat.php?catid=50Stainless Steel Sheet, Taybroh Alloyse, (2009), http://www.taybrohalloys.co.uk/products/Stainless-Steel/index.htmlAluminium Can, unknown, (2014), http://www.co.saint-croix.wi.us/index.asp?Type=B_BASIC&SEC=%7BE3C296A5-7173-406B-9693-5D43A54DC530%7DBCopper Pipes, Hutmen S.A., (unknown), http://www.antimicrobialcopper.com/uk/�nd-products-and-partners/�nd-antimicrobial-copper-semi-�nished-products.aspxBronze Sheet, Backgroundsy, (2012), http://www.backgroundsy.com/tag/metalBrass Sheet, Metal O� Cuts, 2010, http://metalo�cuts.co.uk/shop/brass-sheet-metal.html

Structural Steel I Beam

Iron Rods

Stainless Steel Sheet

Aluminium Can

Copper Pipes

Bronze Sheet

Brass Sheet

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39.

ENVS10003W E E K 7

Key TermsDrip -

Vapour Barrier -Gutter -

Parapet -Downpipe -

Flashing -Insulation -

Sealant -

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40.

Mind Map

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41.

Moisture & Heat ControlThe internal spaces of structures should be air tight - internal and external spaces should be separate. Heat and Moisture control are key things to control.

Strategies For Moisture Control:- planned openings such as windows and doors should be designed so water does not penetrate their gaps - eaves and verandahs can be included to shield openings - sealants should be used in gaps such as window/door frames- break lines- �ashing - avoiding pressure variances (high external, low internal - water will want to run internally)- sealants should go inside the barrier to create a Pressure Equilisation Chamber (PEC)- gutters and downpipes

Gutter

Down Pipe

Gutter & Down Pipe, Smart Gutter Guard, (unknown), http://www.smartgutterguard.com/guttertypes.htm‘Break’ line: Paige Collett, (2014)Sarking: PeterH, (2008), http://forum.homeone.com.au/viewtopic.php?f=20&t=19801

Flashing in a Double Skin Wall

Sill in a windowor door frame

Box Gutter with Parapet Wall

‘Break’ So water can not rununder the structure due to ‘capillary action’

Capillary ActionWater can �ow along surfaces despite forces such as gravity

Strategies For Heat Control:- heat control is important for cost and energy savings- thermal insulation prevents heat conduction- thermal breaks reduce conduction in high conduction material- double glazing reduces �ow of heat - sarking (e.g. re�ective foil laminate) assists with water/air leakage from a structure- external shade is ideal to prevent heat penetration- internal shade is ideal to prevent heat lossSarking

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42.

Basement Moisture Control

Basement Tanking

Basements are at high risk of water penetration as the earth around themcan become saturated and penetrate the walls of an underground room. ‘Tanking’ is a waterproo�ng technique for wet sites where the structure is completely covered in a waterproof membrane. In dryer environments where tanking is not necessary, an agricultural drain is apprpriate. This is adrain (pipe) that runs parallel to the surface of the ground for a certain distance. Loose aggregate covers the drain to allow water penetration, holesperiodically throughout the pipe will then allow water to penetrate it, and the water will then be carried away through storm water drainage

Agricultural Drainage Pipe

Holes for water penetration

Basement Tanking Image: Damp Proo�ng London, (2011), http://www.dampproo�nglondon.co.uk/tanking-walls.htmlAgricultural Drainage Image: Polypipe, (unknown), http://www.polypipe.com/wms/products/product-range/ridgidrain-ridgisewer-landcoil/landcoil-land-drainage

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43.

Rubber & PlasticNatural Rubber- from rubber tree sap- low embodied energy- used for seals, �oor linings, insulation, hosing and piping

Arti�cial Rubber- made in lab- technically a plastic - used for gaskets, control joints, silicone

Rubber is highly �exible material, an ideal waterproofer and easily recycled. Rubber is poor conductor of heat/electricitybut a very useful insulator

Thermo Plastics- polythylene (insulation material around copper pipes)- perspex (popular replacement to glass)- acrylic - PVC (cheap material, bad for environment)- polycarbonate (used for roo�ng/walling/some insulation)

Thermosetting Plastics- can only be shaped once, therefore not reusable - laminex, melamine- polystyrene insulation panels

Elastomers- a synthetic rubber- EPDM (waterproo�ng roof decks)- neoprene (waterproo�ng, sealant)

Plastic is a polymer made up of linked monomers, it is easily moulded into di�erent shapes as it is �exiblewhen heated and does not shatter or break. Plastic iswaterproof and light weight, reasonably durable but can deteriorate in certain weather conditions (e.g. light).Embodied energy varies, and only certain plastics can be recycled easily.

Rubber Waterproo�ng Membrane: ETRMA, (2011), http://www.etrma.org/rubber-goods/construction/ruwaPolystyrene Insulation: Sally-Ann Norman, (unknown), http://www.constructionphotography.com/Details.aspx?ID=8067&TypeID=1

Rubber Waterproo�ng Membrane

Polystyrene Insulation

Rubber Sealant around window

Rubber Waterproof Membrane

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44.

ENVS10003W E E K 8

Key TermsWindow Sash -

De�ection -Moment of Inertia -

Door Furniture -Stress -

Shear Force -

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45.

Mind Map

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46.

Windows & Doors

Allow:- Openings- Air�ows- Entrances/Exits- Composition- Light- Ventilation

Door Types:- Sliding- Hinged- Bifold

Window Types:Pictured right.

Window Opening Types

Window Opening Types: Barron’s Real Estate Dictionary, (unknown), http://www.answers.com/topic/window

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47.

Glass

Made of:- Silica (sand)- Fluxes (melts at low temperatures)- Stabilizers (helps life span, does not crumble)

History:1 Century BC - Blown GlassXI-XII C - Sheet Glass (sliced from blown glass)XVII C - Lead Glass (lead oxide added to ease cutting)XVII C - Plate Glass (improved optical properties)1910 - Lamination (celluloid layer between 2 sheets of glass)1959 - Molten Glass (poured over bath of molten tin andcreates an even surface)

Properties:- non porus- transfers heat/light- does not transfer elextricity - dense, hard material, yet fragile- brittle, but ‘toughening’ prevents this- low ductility, low �exibility - durable and resistant to rusting-recyclable - high embodied energy and carbon footprint- high cost

Double/Tripple Glazed Gless- Heat insulation properties- Noise Insulation properties

Float Glass- glass melted and �oated onto molten tinto create perfectly �at glass- cheap and simple product- most common form of glass

Laminated Glass- ‘safety glass’ - 2 layers of glass with a plastic interlayer- if broken the glass will not shatter - �oat glass or toughened glass

Tempered Glass- toughened glass- heated to very high temperatures and cooled rapidly - glass’s tension properties increase - often used for facades of structures

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48.

Tutorial Activity

Image of Roof/Wall Section at the Oval Pavilion

This weeks tutorial involves sketching a detail of the Oval Pavilion at a scale of 1:1

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50.

ENVS10003W E E K 9

Key TermsSandwich Panel -

Bending -Skirting -

Shadow Line Joint -Cornice -

Composite Beam -

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51.

Mind Map

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52.

Construction Details

Construction Details are important not only structurally in some cases but also �nishings that enable to structure to work e�ciently and safely over a long period of time.

1. Details should be easy to construct/assemble2. Details should be forgiving - inaccuracies are easy to work around3. E�cient use of available tools, material and labour

Movement Joints: A horizontal or vertical break wherein a foam strip is inserted to allow for the movement, expansion and contracting of materials such as brick veneer walls

Dimensions According to Building Codes of Australia (Australian Building Inspection Services, 2014).

Movement Joints: Paige Collett (2014)

Paints and Coatings:High salt levels and industrial polluted air can cause materials to age and deteriorate quicker than otherwise. Matte/Satin �nishes tend to age better than gloss surfaces do. Glazed tiles arean exception to this to an extent. Timbernaturally turns grey as it ages, stains and coatings can disguise this however.

Cleaning and Repairing Plasterboard is an easily repaird material, skirtingis used to prevent damage from shoes at the bottom of walls and to also hide wall/�oor joints which allowgaps to be left for movement. Certain buildings require certain cleaning standards such as hostpitalsand restaurants.

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53.

Composite Materials

Metal alloys - 2 or more metals put together to create a new materialComposite - 2 or more materials put together but are dstinguishable

Fibre Reinforced Concrete/Cement - Cellulose (glass) �bres, sand, water, cement- Sheet and shape products (tiles and pipes)- �re, water and warping resistant

Fibreglass- used for baths, basins, waterproo�ng- used in insulation- loose or woven �bres- can be transparent or translucent - weatherproof- reasonably strong

Aluminium Sheet - aluminium layer on resin core- sandwich panel construction- Can be curved- �nancially and environmentally inexpencive- roughly thickness of glass, can �t in window frame system

Timber Composites- joists in domestic construction - e�cient use of timber as opposed to solid timber- services run through the web of joists- top/bottom/middle chords, �tted the gang nail plates

Fibre Reinforced Polymers- polymer (plastic) with glass/carbon/timber �bres- corrosion resistant

Timber Composite withgang nail plates

Fibre Reinforced Concrete: Civil Digital, (unknown), http://civildigital.com/�ber-reinforced-concrete/Fibreglass Insulation: Warm Care Insulation, (unknown), http://www.warmcareinsulation.co.uk/alternative_insulation.htmlTimber Composite: Mitek, (unknown), http://www.mii.com/site/frameset.aspx?siteid=16&langid=2057&main=%2Fpage%2Fopen%2Easp%3Fpid%3D12255

Fibre Reinforced Concrete

Fibreglass Insulation

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Tutorial Excursion

54. All Images: Paige Collett (2014)

Temporary structure in placeat the front of the Lonsdale st site so pedestrians can still use the street safely while cranes are in use above

Here we see the external glass cladding thatwill be craned to the levels above and put into place

Temporary structure continues down theside street for material and worker access,the ‘alimak’ is also housed above this space

The Crane visible at the top �oor of the structure

A cooling system is being connectedto be taken up by crane to the ‘plant room’ where it will provide the high rise with cool air and water Temporary sca�olding on the ground level

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Tutorial Excursion

55. All Images: Paige Collett (2014)

Temporary steel sca�olding and stairs give access to workers and materialsto the ‘alimak’

Steel sheets make up temporary �ooring. The Steel is embossedwith a pattern which we canassume is to ensure friction whenwalking on it

The ‘Alimak’ is a site elevator. A temporary structure that runs along theside of the site building up to the top �oors where construction is takingplace (levels 19-24)

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56.

Tutorial Excursion

The Crane on the 24th �oorand the base as it protrudesthrough the lower levels to its base at the 20th �oor - where steel planks supportthe base of the crane

Temporary Railing on the 24th �oor

The Pre-cast light weight concrete �ooring has been is designed like modules and are slotted together in place on site. Steel reinforcement is then placed in the grooves of the connections and �lled in with concrete

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57.

Tutorial Excursion

The Structure is steel with timber stud walls and a sustpended ceiling wherein all of the facilities such as aircon, electricity are hidden above (see far right image)

Fire safety is very important in largebuilding with high occupancy. Thisstructure has cross stairs (2 accesspoints from each �oor). Fire escapesmust meet certain structural require-ments to ensure in the event of a �re the structure can remain standing long enough for all occupants to leave. We also see left, structural beams have been sprayed with a �re resistant membrane.

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58.

ENVS10003W E E K 1 0

Key TermsShear Wall -

Soft Storey -Braced Frame -

Life Cycle -Defect -Fascia -

Corrosion -IEQ -

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59.

Mind Map

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60.

Lateral Forces

Lateral Supports are needed in response to forces such as wind and earth quakes. Wind forces take advantage of the exposed surface areas of a structure, and Earthquake forces take advantage of the mass load on the foundations. Wind attacks the top of a structure, Earth quakes the base of structures.

- Bracing helps resist horizontal forces by making the structure more rigid- Shear walls resist lateral forces by transfering them into vertical forces - Slabs and Columns with moment joints are ‘moment resisting frames’ - Seismis Base Isolator - metal plates/rubber layer/lead core, helps with lateral forces

- Assymetry can be detrimental in earth quakes as parts of a structure may not react the same as others to the lateral forces - the building may then hit against other elements easier- Soft storey is open to the street with structure above, bracing can be used to help support it- re-entrant (internal) corners of buildings can be e�ected by lateral forces as the 2 wings mayreact indipendantly - Discontinuous structural members may have issues as the force cannot move directly to the ground

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62.

GlossaryAlloy: An alloy is a uniform mixture. It is made up of two or more chemical elements, of which at least one is a metal

Anisotropic: describes something with physical properties that are di�erent in di�erent directions, e.g. crystals that measure di�erently along each of two or more axes

Arcuate: curved like a bow

Axial Load: A load applied along or parallel to and concentric with the primary axis

Buckling: the process or an instance of becoming crumpled or warped.

Cantilever: a beam, girder, or structural framework that is �xed at one end and is free at the other

Composite: Made up of distinct components; compound

Compression: the reduction of the volume or mass of something by applying pressure, or the state of having been treated in this way

Dead Load: the permanent weight of a structure such as a bridge, exclusive of its load

Equilibrium: condition in which all acting in�uences are canceled by others, resulting in a stable, balanced, or unchanging

Façade: the face of a building, especially the principal or front face showing its most prominent architectural features

Isotropic: having physical properties that do not vary with direction

Lintel: a horizontal beam, as over a door or window

Live/Static Load: the permanent weight of a structure such as a bridge, exclusive of its load

Masonry: Masonry is the building of structures from individual units laid in and bound together by mortar; the term masonry can also refer to the units themselves

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63.

GlossaryMoment: In physics, moment relates to the perpendicular distance from a point to a line or a surface, and is derived from the mathematical concept of moments

Monolithic: Architecture . Monolithic architecture, a style of construction in which a building is carved, cast or excavated from a single piece of material

Nogging: A short horizontal wooden beam used to strengthen upright posts in the framework of a wall

Physics; the stress resulting from a force of tension, or a measure of it

So�t: Technically, a so�t is the underside of any element of a building

Span: span 1 (spăn) n. 1. The extent or measure of space between two points or extremities, as of a bridge or roof; the breadth.

Strut: A strut is a structural component designed to resist longitudinal compressionTension: the degree to which something such as a wire, string, thread, or muscle is stretched

Stud: An upright post in the framework of a wall for supporting sheets of lath, wallboard, or similar material.

Torque: force that causes twisting or turning, e.g. the force generated by an internal-combustion engine to turn a vehicle's drive shaft

All de�ntions gathered from knowledge gained through semester and www. thefreedictionary.com

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64.

ReferencesPerson responsible, A. A. (Role). (Year, Month day). Title [Audio podcast]. Retrieved from web address

From <http://www.lib.unimelb.edu.au/recite/citations/apa6/ref25-ElecSourceOnlineAudioPodcast.html?style=1&type=4&detail=6>

Ching, F. (2008). Building Construction Illustrated (4th Ed.). USA. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc. (2014). Shell Structure. Retrieved from http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1385998/shell-structure

Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc. (2014). Membrane Structure. Retrieved From http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1382569/membrane-structure'

Newton, C. (Producer). (2014, March). W02 s1 Structural Systems. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l--JtPpI8uw&feature=youtu.be

Newton, C. (Producer). (2014, March). W01 m1 Introduction to Materials. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s4CJ8o_lJbg&feature=youtu.be

Newton, C. (Producer). (2014, March). W02 s1 Structural Joints. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kxRdY0jSoJo&feature=youtu.beThe

Newton, C. (Producer). (2014, March). W03 _m2 Introduction to Masonry. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DC8Hv8AKQ8A&feature=youtu.be

University of Melbourne, Department of Mathematics and Statistics. (2014). MAST10005 Calculus 1: Lecture Slides. Melbourne, University of Melbourne.

The Brick Industry Association. (2006). Technical Notes on Brick Construction. Retrieved from http://www.gobrick.com/portals/25/docs/technical%20notes/tn18a.pdf

Australian Building Inspection Services. (2014). Balustrades, Handrails & Stairs. Retrieved from http://www.abis.com.au/balustrades-handrails-stairs

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