Constitutional Provisions and Scheduled...
Transcript of Constitutional Provisions and Scheduled...
73
Chapter No. – III.
Constitutional Provisions and Scheduled Tribes.
3.1. Introduction.
3.2. The term scheduled tribes under the constitution
3.3. Constitutional Provisions and Scheduled Tribes.
3.4. Constitutional Guarantees.
3.5. Constitutional Safeguards for Scheduled Castes
and Scheduled Tribes of India.
3.6. Reservation in Services.
74
Constitution of India 1949
( PREAMBLE )
Preamble – WE, THE PEOPLE OF INDIA, having solemnly
resolved to constitute India into a SOVEREIGN SOCIALIST
SECULAR DEMOCRATIC REPUBPLIC and to secure to all its
citizens :
JUSTICE, social, economic and political;
LIBERTY of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship;
EQUALITY of status and of opportunity; and to promote
among them all;
FRATERNITY assuring the dignity of the individual and
unity and integrity of the Nation;
IN OUR CONSTITUTENT ASSEMBLY this twenty – sixth
day of November, 1949, do HEREBY ADOPT, ENACT AND
GIVE TO OURSELVES THIS CONSTITUTION.
75
Chapter No.-III
Constitutional Provisions and Scheduled Tribes.
3.1. Introduction:
The founding fathers of the constitution Bharatratna Dr. Babasaheb
Ambedkar were aware of the political, social and economic inequalities,
which existed in the country due to historical reasons. They were aware of
the prevailing miserable and appalling conditions of the scheduled Tribes
who had remained far behind and segregated from national life. It became
imperative, therefore, to adopt a policy of protective discrimination as an
equalizer to those who were too weak to compute with the advance section
of the society in the race of life. The constitutional provisions set fourth a
programs for the reconstruction and transformation of Indian society of a
firm commitment to raise the sunken status of the pathetically neglected and
disadvantages sections of our society.
The provisions visualized by founding fathers of our constitution
reflected their anxiety and emotion to bring the poor tribals at par with
the general social level and into the main stream of Indian political and
socio – economic life.
3.2. The term Scheduled Tribes under the Constitution.
The term, ‘Scheduled Tribes’ is of recent origin which came into
being with the birth of the Republication constitution of India on Jan.,
26,1950. Prior to that scheduled Tribes were variously termed as
“Aboriginals,” “Adivasis,” “Forest tribes,” “Hill Tribes,” and
“Primitive Tribes,” The term tribe came to be used in denotation of a
particular stage of socio-political evolution of a community of people
76
within a given territory and language area upto 1919, they were
included along with other categories of backward classes under the
head of “Depressed classes” should include-
a) criminal and wandering tribes.
b) aboriginal tribes.
c) untouchables.
The need for separating ‘aboriginal tribes’ from ‘Depressed
classes’ was badly realized by Indian French committee in 1919 and
consequently tribals were accorded a separate nomenclature. In 1931
census, the term “Primitive Tribes” was used to specify the tribal
population of India, who were till these termed ‘forest tribes’ or ‘hill
tribes.’ The 1941 census just mentions “tribes” all adjectives for the
first time being dropped to quality the tribes. Today under the
Constitution of India, the tribals are scheduled and are popularly
termed “Scheduled Tribes.”3(51)
Scheduled Tribes:
The term ‘Scheduled Tribes’ first appeared in the Constitution of
India. Article 366 (25) defined Scheduled Tribes as, “ Such tribes or
tribal communities as are deemed under Article 342 to be Scheduled
Tribes for the purposes of this constitution.”2
Article 342, which is reproduced below, prescribes procedure to
be followed in the matter of specification of scheduled tribes.
Sec. S.11 of Constitution (1st Amendment) Act,1951; S.29 and
Schedule of Constitution (7th Amendment) Act, 1956.
Scheduled Tribes-(Article-342):
1) The president may, after consultation with the Governor or
Rajpramukh of a State, by public notification, specify the tribes or
77
tribal communities or parts of or groups within tribes or tribal
communities which shall for the purpose of this Constitution be
deemed to be Scheduled Tribes in relation to that State.
2) Parliament may by law include in or exclude from the list of
Scheduled Tribes specified in a notification issued under clause (1) any
tribe or tribal community or part of or group within any tribe or tribal
community, but save a aforesaid notification issued under the said
clause shall not be varied by any subsequent notification.
Thus the first specification of Scheduled Tribes in relation to a
particular state/ union territory is by a notified order of the President,
after consultation with the State Governments concerned. These orders
can be modified subsequently only through an Act of Parliament.
Above Article also provides for listing of scheduled tribes State /
Union Territory wise and not on an all India basis.
3.3. Constitutional Provisions and Scheduled Tribes.
Article 46 Promotion of educational and economic
interests of scheduled castes, scheduled tribes
and other weaker sections: - the state shall
promote with special care the educational and
economic interest of the weaker sections of the
people, and in particular of the scheduled castes
and the scheduled tribes and shall protect them
from social injustice and all forms of
exploitation.4(15)
Article 244 The scheduled and Tribal areas
78
Administration of scheduled areas and Tribal
areas: - 1) The provisions of the fifth schedule
shall apply to the administration and control of
the scheduled areas and scheduled tribes in any
state specified in part ‘A’ or ‘B’ of the first
schedule other than the state of Assam.
2) The provisions of the sixth schedule shall
apply to the administration of the tribal areas in
the state of Assam.5(82)
Article 330 Special provisions relating to certain classes-
Reservation of seats of scheduled castes and
scheduled tribes in the house of the people-
1) Seats shall be reserved in the house of the
people for –
a) The schedule caste.
b) The scheduled Tribes except scheduled tribes
in the tribal areas of Assam.
c) The scheduled tribes in the autonomous
districts of Assam.
2) The number of seats reserved in any state for
the scheduled castes or the scheduled tribes
under clause [I] shall bear, as nearly as may be,
the same proportion to the total number of
seats allotted to that state in the house of the
people as the population of the scheduled castes
in the state or of the scheduled tribes in the state
79
or part of the state, as the case may be, in
respect of which seats are so reserved, bears to
the total population of the state.6(114)
Article 332 Reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes and
Scheduled Tribes in the Legislative Assemblies
of the state:--
1) Seats shall be reserved for the scheduled
castes and the scheduled tribes, except the
scheduled tribes in the tribunal areas of Assam,
in the Legislative Assembly of Every state
specified in part ‘A’ or part ‘B’ of the first
schedule.
2) Seats shall be reserved also for the
autonomous districts in the legislative Assembly
of the state of Assam.
3) The number of seats reserved for the
scheduled caste or Scheduled Tribes in the
legislative Assembly of any state under clause
[I] shall bear, as nearly as may be, the same
proportion to the total number of Seats in
Assembly as the population of The Scheduled
Castes in the state or of the Scheduled Tribes in
the state or part of the State, as the case may be,
in respect of Which seats are so reserved, bears
to the Total population of the state.
4) The number of seats reserved for an
80
autonomous district in the legislative Assembly
of the state of Assam shall bear to the total
number of seats in that Assembly proportion not
less than the population of the district bears to
the total population of the state.
5) The constitution for the seats reserved for any
autonomous district of Assam shall not comprise
any area outside that district except in the case
of the constituency comprising the cantonment
and municipality.
6) No person who is not a member of
Scheduled Tribes of any autonomous District of
the state of Assam shall be Eligible for election
to the legislative Assembly of the state from any
constituency of that district except from the
Constituency comprising the cantonment and
municipality of shillong.7(114, 115)
Article 334 Reservation of seats and special representation
to cease after ten years- Not with standing any
thing in the foregoing provisions of this part, the
provisions of this Constitution relating to-
a) The reservation of seats for the Scheduled
Castes and Scheduled Tribes in the House of the
People and in the Legislative Assemblies of the
States; and
b) The representation of the Anglo – Indian
81
community in the House of the People and in
the Legislative Assemblies of the States by
nomination; shall cease to have effect on the
expiration of a period of ten years from the
commencement of this Constitution:
Provided that nothing in this article shall affect
any representation in the House of the People or
in the Legislative Assembly of a State until the
dissolution of the then existing House or
Assembly, as the case may be.7(115)
Article 335 Claims of scheduled castes and scheduled tribes
to services and posts:- The claims of the
members of the scheduled castes and the
scheduled tribes shall be taken into
consideration, consistently with the maintenance
of efficiency of administration, in the making of
appointments to services and posts in connection
with the affairs of the union or of a state.8(116)
Article 338 Special officer for Scheduled Caste, Scheduled
Tribes etc:-
1] There shall be a special officer for the
Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribes to be
appointed by the president.
2) It shall be the duty of the special officer to
investigate all matters relating to the safeguards
provided for the Scheduled Castes and
82
Scheduled Tribes under this Constitution and
report to the president upon the working of those
safeguards at such intervals as the president may
direct and the president shall cause all such
Reports to be laid before each house of
Parliament.
3) In this article, references to the Scheduled
Caste and Scheduled Tribes shall be construed
as including references to such other backward
classes as the president may, on receipt of the
report of a commission appointed under clause
[I] of article 340, by order specify and also to
the Anglo Indian community.9(116,117).
Article 339 Control of the union over the Administration of
Scheduled Areas and the Welfare of Scheduled
Caste and Scheduled Tribes:-
1) The president may at any time and shall at the
expiration of ten years from the commencement
of this constitution by order appoint a
commission to report on the administration of
the scheduled areas and the welfare of the
Scheduled Tribes in the states specified in part
A and B of the first schedule.
The order may define the composition,
powers and procedure of the commission and
83
may contain such incidental or ancillary
provisions as the president may consider
necessary or desirable.
2) The executive power of the union shall
extend to the giving of directions to any such
state as to the drawing up and execution of
schemes specified in the direction to be
essential for the welfare of the Scheduled Tribes
in the State. 9(117).
Article 340 Appointment of a commission to investigate the
condition of backward classes:-
1) The president may by order appoint a
commission consisting of such persons as he
thinks fit to investigate the conditions of socially
and educationally backward classes within the
territory of India and the difficulties under
which they labour and to make
recommendations as to the steps that should be
taken by the union or any state to remove such
difficulties and to improve their condition and as
to the grants that should be made for the purpose
by the union or any state and the conditions
subject to which such grants should be made,
and the order appointing such commission shall
define the procedure to be followed by the
commission.
84
2) A commission so appointed shall investigate
the matters referred to them and present to the
president a report setting out the facts as found
by them and making such recommendations as
they think proper.
3) The president shall cause a copy of the report
so presented together with a memorandum
explaining the action taken thereon to be laid
before each house of parliament.9(117).
Article
341
Scheduled Castes:-
1) The president may, after consultation with the
Government or Rajpramukh of a state, by public
notification, specify the castes, races or tribes or
parts of or groups within castes, races or tribes
which shall for the purpose of this constitution
be deemed to be scheduled castes in relation to
that state.
2) Parliament may by law include in or exclude
from the list of scheduled castes specified in a
notification issued under clause [i] any caste,
race or tribe, but save as aforesaid a notification
issued under the said clause shall not be varied
by any subsequent notification.10(117, 118).
342 Scheduled Tribes:-
1)The president may, after consultation with the
85
Governor or Rajpramukh of a state, by public
notification specify the tribes or tribal
communities or parts of or groups within tribes
or tribal communities which shall for the
purposes of this constitution be deemed to be
scheduled tribes in relation to that state.
2) parliament may by law include in or exclude
from the list of Scheduled Tribes specified in a
notification issued under clause [i] any tribe or
tribal community or part of or group within any
tribe or tribal community, but save a aforesaid a
notification issued under the said clause shall
not be varied by any subsequent
notification.10(118)
3.4- Constitutional Guarantees: --
For the protection, socio-economic and political development
of scheduled Tribes, the constitution of India guarantees:-
A. Social:
Article 14 Equality before law.
Article 15(4) The state to make special provisions for the
advancement of any socially and educationally
backward classes of citizens or for the
Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes .
Article 16 Equality of opportunity for all citizens in matters
relating to employment or appointment to any
86
office under the state.
16(4A) The state to make provisions in matters of
promotion to any class or classes of posts in the
services in favour of the Scheduled Castes and
the Scheduled Tribes.
Article 338 A national commission for Scheduled Caste and
Scheduled Tribes to investigate, monitor
and evaluate all matters relating to the
constitutional safeguards provided for the
Scheduled castes and the Scheduled Tribes
in the states.
Article 339 Appointment of a Commission to report on the
administration of the Scheduled Areas and the
welfare of the Scheduled Tribes in the states.
Article 340 Appointment of a commission to investigate the
conditions of socially and educationally
backward classes and the difficulties under
which they labour and to make
recommendations to remove such difficulties
and to improve their conditions.
Article 342 To specify the tribes or tribal communities to be
scheduled tribes.2
B *Economic:
Article 46 The state to promote with special care the
educational and economic interest of the weaker
sections of the people, and in particular, of the
87
Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes and
protect them from social injustice and all forms
of exploitation.
Article 275[i] Grant-in-aid from the consolidated fund of India
each year for promoting the welfare of
Scheduled Tribes and administration of
Scheduled Areas.
Article 335 The claims of the members of the Scheduled
Tribes in the appointment to services and posts
in connection with the affairs of the union or of
a state to be taken into consideration consistent
with the maintenance of efficiency of
administration.
C *Political:
Article 244(c) Through the fifth Scheduled the administration
and control of Scheduled Areas and the
Scheduled Tribes in any state, other than the
states of Assam Meghalaya, Tripura and
Mizoram by ensuring submission of Annual
Report by the Governors to the president of
India regarding the Administration of the
Scheduled Areas and setting up of a Tribal
Advisory council to advise on such matters
pertaining to the welfare and advancement of the
Scheduled Tribes.
Article 244(21) Special provisions through the sixth scheduled
88
for the administration of Tribal Areas in the
states of Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and
Mizoram by designating certain Tribal Areas as
Autonomous Districts and Autonomous
Councils and Regional Council.
Article 330 Reservation of seats for the Scheduled Castes
and the Scheduled Tribes in the house of the
people.
Article 332 Reservation of seats for the Scheduled Castes
and the Scheduled Tribes in the Legislative
Assemblies of the state.
Article 243-D Reservation of seats for the Scheduled Castes
and the Scheduled Tribes in every Panchayat.
Extention of the 73rd and 74th Amendments
of the constitution to the Scheduled Areas –
through the Panchayat (Extension to the
Scheduled Areas) Act 1956- to ensure effective
participation of the tribals in the process of
planning and decision making.2
3.5. Constitutional Safeguards for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled
Tribes of India.
The Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, according to the
1981 census, about 23.51 per cent of the total population of the country
excluding Assam. Their habitation are generally scattered in parts of
villages or small villages all over the country. It is a category, which
comprises a number of communities hierarchically ranked. They are
89
economically dependent, educationally backward and socially the
worst sufferers. Due to this spirit apart from various constitutional
safeguards a number of voluntary organizations started providing
various facilities for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes for their
upliftment.
Undoubtedly the efforts were directed towards the formation of a
social structure based on socialism, democracy, social justice and
egalitarian values. However, the outcome of all these efforts was not
as desired. Even after a period of forty-one years of our independence,
it is now widely being experienced that caste discrimination, traditional
disabilities and intimidation of weaker sections by the caste Hindus are
still going on although their nature and expression are modified. It is,
therefore, necessary to first visualize, in short, the constitutional
safeguards and welfare measures provided to the Scheduled Castes and
Scheduled Tribes and then to evaluate the extent of success achieved
due to these efforts, while the constitution has prescribed certain
protective measures and safeguards for these classes, the successive
five year plans have regarded their progress as a major objective of
national policy’s.12(57)
*Constitutional Safeguards:
The constitution prescribes protection and safeguards for the
scheduled castes and scheduled Tribes, and other weaker sections
either specially or by the way of insisting on their general rights as
citizens with the objects of promoting their educational and economic
interests and of removing the social disabilities. The main safeguards
are:
90
1) The abolition of ‘untouchability’ and forbidding of its practice in
any form (Article 17).
2) The promotion of their educational and economic interests and
their protection from social injustice and all forms of exploitation
(Article 47).
3) The throwing open by law of Hindu religious institutions of a
public character to all classes and sections of Hindus (Article 25b).
4) The removal of any disability, restriction or condition with regard
to access to shops, public restaurants, hotels and places of public
entertainment or the use of wells, tanks, bathing ghats, roads and
places of public resorts maintained wholly or partially out of state
funds or dedicated to the use of the general public [Article15 (2)].
5) The curtailment by law in the interest of any scheduled tribes of
the general rights of all citizens to move freely, settle in and
acquire properly [Article 19 (5)].
6) The forbidding or any denial of admission to educational
institutions maintained by the sate or receiving and out of state
funds [Article29 (2)].
7) Permitting the state to make reservation for the backward classes
in public services in case of inadequate representations and
requiring the state to consider the claims of the Scheduled Castes
and Scheduled Tribes in the making of appointments to public
services (Article 16 and 335).
8) Special representation in the Lok Sabha and State Vidhan Sabhas
to Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes till 25th –Jan.-1990.
(Article 330, 332 and 334).
91
9) The setting up of tribes advisory councils and separate
departments in the states and the appointment of a special officer
at the center to promote their welfare and safeguard their interest
(Articles 164 and 338 and fifth schedule).
10) Special provision for the administration and control of scheduled
and tribal areas (Article 244 and fifth and sixth scheduled). 11) Prohibition of traffic in human being and forced labour (Article
23).13(58)
3.6. Reservation in Services:
Article 335 of the constitution provides that the claims of the
members of scheduled castes and scheduled tribes shall be taken in to
consideration, consistent with the maintenance of efficiency of
administration, in making appointment to posts and services in
connection with the affairs of the union or of a state. Article 16(4)
permits reservation in favour of citizens of backward classes, who may
not be adequately represented in services. In pursuance of these
Provisions, the government has made reservations for scheduled castes
and scheduled tribes in the services under their control.
For the scheduled castes, reservation is 15% of the vacancies for
which recruitment is made by open competition of all India basis and
16 2/3% of the vacancies to which recruitment is made on all India
basis otherwise than by open competition. For the Scheduled Tribes
the reservation is 7.5% in both cases.
Reservation in direct recruitment to Group C and D posts, which
normally attract candidates from a locality or region, is fixed in
92
proportion to population of the Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribes
in the respective states and Union Territories.
Reservation is also made at 15% of the vacancies for the
Scheduled Castes and 7.5% for the Scheduled Tribes in promotion on
the result of the competitive examinations limited to departmental
candidates in Group B, C and D and in promotion by selection in
Group B, C and D and to the lowest rung of Group A in grades or
services to which direct recruitment, if any, does not exceed 66.2/3%.
Reservation had been provided for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled
Tribes in promotion on the basis of seniority subject to fitness in Group
A, B, C and D posts in grades or services to which direct recruitment if
any, does not exceed 66 2/3%.
A number of recommendations were made regarding relaxation
of standards of suitability in posts by direct recruitment as well as
promotion on the posts of departmental examinations. The Government
has accepted following recommendations.
A) Scheduled Tribe candidates should not be compared in merit with
general candidates,
B) Lower minimum standard should be fixed for Scheduled Tribes in
examination for direct recruitment,
C) Relaxed standard should be applied for promotions/ confirmation
and in the Departmental Qualifying Examinations, which are
prescribed as the criteria for fitness of the candidates in respect of
promotions on the basis of seniority subject to fitness as well as on
the basis of selection.
The benefits of employment have also been extended to
Scheduled Tribe candidates in public Sector Undertakings. In the
93
matter of application of the scheme of reservation in the case of Public
Sector undertakings, the Government has accepted the following
recommendations of the Commissioner.
A) Introduction of reservation in posts and services under the Public
Sector Undertakings.
B) Appointment of Liaison officers in the Public Sector Undertakings.
C) Issue of a comprehensive draft directive by the Bureau of Public
Enterprise.
D) To implement reservation orders for Scheduled Tribes in
Apprenticeship Scheme.
E) Introduction of reservation in posts filled by promotion in the face
of opposition by the labour unions.
F) Opening of Scheduled Tribes Cells in the Public Sector
Undertakings.
G) Adoption of all instructions issued by the Government of India in
the matter of reservation and other concessions etc. for Scheduled
Tribes in the services under the Public Sector Undertakings.
H) To conduct training courses for fresh graduates belonging to
Scheduled Tribes candidates having aptitude and flair of
stenography.
I) Reduction of the amount of surety bonds in favour of Scheduled
Tribes candidates at the time of entry into service.
J) Associating of senior Scheduled Tribe officers in the meetings of
the D. P. C. / Selection Boards.
K) Preparation of a larger panel of Scheduled Tribe candidates so that
in the event of a person declining the offer the next man on the
panel could be offered the post.
94
The representation of Scheduled Tribes in Central Government
service as on 1st January 1983.
Table No.-3.1
Scheduled Tribes representation in Central Government.
Groups (Class) No. of Employees
Scheduled Tribes
% of Scheduled
Tribes to total A (Class I) 53,165 761 1.43
B (Class II ) 62,600 922 1.47
C ( Class III ) 21,28,746 88,149 4.14
D (Class IV )
(excluding
sweepers)
13,03,005 71,812 5.51
Total 35,47,516 1,61,644 4.56
All India services
IAS
IPS
4,236
2,198
181
77
4.27
3.50
(Source:-Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribes of India, 1994, P.68)
II) Administration of Scheduled and Tribal areas.
III) Welfare and Advisory Agencies.
IV) Parliamentary Committee.
V) Welfare Departments in States.
VI) Reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled
Tribes in Educational and Technical Institutions.
VII) Reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled
Tribes candidates in Post Graduate Classes.
VIII) Removal of Untouchability.
95
IX) Voluntary Organizations.
X) Welfare Schemes.
XI) Coaching and allied schemes for Scheduled Caste and
Scheduled Tribe Candidates.
XII) Post - matric scholarships for Scheduled Castes and
Scheduled Tribes students.
XIII) Girls Hostels Scheme for Scheduled Castes.
XIV) Research and Training.
XV) Book Bank Scheme for S.C and Scheduled Tribe Students.
XVI) Pre – Matric Scholarship.
XVII) Special Central Assistance, etc.2
In this way efforts are put in relation to the above topic to dot
down the articles mentioned in the Indian constituion for the economic,
social, cultural and political development of Scheduled Tribes. In the
next topic efforts are made to study the social condition, cultural life
and economic status of the Scheduled Tribes. And the magnitude of
their development in the respective fields in the present era.
References:
1. Gomango Giridhar, “Consitutional Provisions for the Scheduled
Caste and the Scheduled Tribes,” Himalaya Publishing House,
Girgaon Mumbai, (1992).
2. http://tribal.nic.in/chapter1.html
3. Mehata P.L., “Constitutional Protection to Scheduled Tribes in
India,” [Retrospect and prospect], H.K. Publishers and Distributors,
Delhi, (1991), P.51.
96
4. Mehata S.M., “Constitution of India and Amendment Acts,” Deep
and Deep publications, New Delhi, (1990), P.15.
5. Ibid, P.82.
6. Ibid, P.114.
7. Ibid, P.115.
8. Ibid, P.116.
9. Ibid, P. 116,117.
10.Ibid, P. 117, 118.
11.“The Constitution of India,” published by Government of India with
Government of Maharashtra, (1988), (marathi edition).
12. Upadhyay H.C., “Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Teibes in India,”
Anmol publications, New Dehli, (1991), P.57.
13. Ibid. P.58.
97
Topic No. IV.
Social and Economical Development of Scheduled Tribes in
Thane District.
4.1 Introduction.
4.2. An overview / development of Scheduled Tribes.
4.3. The setting.
4.4 Material culture / social development.
4.5. The constitution of India guarantees for the protection, social
development of Scheduled Tribes.
4.6. Political development.
4.7. The constitution of India guarantees for the protection, political
development of Scheduled Tribes.
4.8. Economic development.
4.9. Economic life and Concept of economic development.
4.10. The constitution of India guarantees for the protection,
economical development of Scheduled Tribes.
4.11. Landholding pattern.
4.12. Decadal variation in Scheduled Tribes population.
4.13. Sex Ratio of Scheduled Tribes by tahsil for total
Rural and urban.
4.14. Education / literacy of tribal and non-tribal students in Thane
district.
4.15. Tribal households in below poverty line.
98
Chapter No. IV.
Social and Economical Development of Scheduled Tribes in
Thane District.
4.1. Introduction:
This chapter highlights, on the meaning of development, the
constitution of India guarantees for the protection, Social, Economical
and Political development of Scheduled Tribes, Social and economical
life of scheduled tribes, landholding pattern, education, literacy,
income sources, expenditure pattern etc. among Scheduled Tribes in
Thane district.
The Tribals constitute a significant portion of the population.
Development of an economy is positively related to the tribals – their
social, cultural and the economic development. Social and economic
developments are interlinked. Social conditions and customs naturally
affect the economic conditions and vice-versa. If there is an importance
to the social condition it is bound to have a good effect on the
economic conditions. The researchers have tried to explain how Tribal
Development is a serious impediment to an individual growth and to
social and economic development of the nation.
In the developing countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America,
development requires social and cultural change as well as economic
growth, which have a reciprocal relationship. Hence development
means change plus growth. From this point of view development of
persons – men or women – in turn means awareness. Awareness
includes self-awareness, awareness of what is going on within and of
the world around us, awareness of our own feelings and needs,
awareness of the impact that the world around us has on us, and the
99
impact that we have or could have on the world, and in this inter-action
of the world as well as house blocking growth.1(25).
4.2. Development of Scheduled Tribes- An overview:
Scheduled Tribes are designated by several popular names like
Adivashi, Vanvasi, Girivasi, Junglevasi, Vanyajati, Adimjati,
Anusuchit Janjati (ST) and so on. Among all these terms Adivasi is
known as Anusuchit Janjati, the constitutional name is Scheduled
Tribes.
Anthropologists, economists and social scientists have given the
following definitions regarding these tribals.
Elizabeth E. Bacon in the encyclopedia America, “ Tribals is a
group of families who have a feeling of community through occupying
a common territory and following similar customs.”
“A Tribes is a collection of families or groups of families bearing
a common name, members of which occupy the same territory, speak
the same language and observe certain taboos regarding marriage, a
profession or occupation and have developed a well assessed system
of reciprocity and mutuality of obligations. A tribe is ordinarily an
endogamous unit, the members of which confine their marriage within
the tribe.” 12(39,40).
Meaning of Development:
The term development has been used in a wider sense; it is slow
process of civilization. The purpose of development is to provide
increasing opportunities to all the people for a better life. It is
essential to bring about more equitable distribution of income and
wealth for promoting social justice and efficiency of production, to
100
provide a greater variety of facilities like education, health services,
nutrition, housing etc. The aim of development were spelled out in
1970’s in the preamble of the international development strategy for
the second United Nations Development Decade.
According to Pedley seers, “Development means creating
conditions for the realization of human potential.”8
“Development is an elusive concept and involves mobilization of
natural resources augmentation of trained manpower, capital and
technical known – how and their utilizations for attainment of
constantly multiplying national goals, higher living standards and the
changes over from a traditional to a modern society. The essence of
development is generally perceived as industrialization and
modernization. Development is a multidimensional and multilinear
process.”9
“Development is usually conceived as an aspect of change that
is desirable, broadly predicted or planed and administrated or at least
influenced by governmental action. Thus the concept of development
consists of – a) an aspect of change b) a plan or prediction and c)
involvement of the government for the achievements of that planed or
predicted goal. The term development is also used for the process of
allowing and encouraging people to meet their own aspirations.” 9
The main aim of development is to increase national as well as
per capital income and to raise the standard of living of the people and
secure justice, freedom equality and security for them in society. The
focus of development is new increasingly on – a) equitable distribution
of wealth and income, b) full utilization of manpower, c) better
101
utilization of natural resources and d) protection of human environment
etc.
Hence development means change plus growth, i.e. it includes
growth, modernization, increase in social facilities etc.7(7).
4.3. The setting:
According to the census 2001 the total population in Maharashtra
is 9,68,78,627 and the tribal population is 85,77,276. The percentage
of tribal population to total population is 8.85% out of this the total
population in Thane district is 81,31,849 and Scheduled Tribes
population is 11,99,290. The percentage of tribal population to total
population is 14.74%.
The Scheduled Tribes people prefer to stay in hilly and remote
forest areas, so mostly they remain cut off from the main population.
The habitation of Scheduled Tribes can be found in Maharashtra and
Gujarat in India. In Maharashtra they are found in Thane, Raigad,
Pune, Nashik, Ahmadnager, Dhule, Nandurbar, Bhandara, Chandrapur,
Gudchiroli, Nanded, Aurangabad districts.
Following four taluka places from Thane district are selected for
study purpose.
Jawhar:
This taluka, which consist of 109 villages. It is situated in the
North of Thane district geographically. The area consists of 617.4 sq.
km. population is 1,11,039 and Scheduled Tribes population is 99,932,
the percentage of Scheduled Tribes to total population is 90.00%.
102
Jawhar taluka is in North border of Gujarat State and West of
Mokhada taluka. The distance between Jawhar to Mokhada is 22 km.
This place is known as cool place in Thane district, situated in the
midst of highlands. It is 150 km. away from Mumbai; and connected
by only roadways. There is no rail transport, it is interior, isolated
place, from all sides by all means.
Mokhada:
This taluka, which consist of 59 villages. It is situated in the
North of Thane district geographically. The area consists of 489.00 sq.
km. According to the census 2001 the total population of Mokhada
taluka is 67,319 and Scheduled Tribes population is 60,964 the
percentage of Scheduled Tribes to total population is 90.56%.
Vikramgad:
This taluka, which consist of 100 villages. It is situated in the
North in Thane district geographically. The area consists of 496.07 sq.
km. According to the census 2001 the total population of Vikramgad
taluka is 1,14,254 and Scheduled Tribes population is 1,03,223 the
percentage of Scheduled Tribes to total population is 90. 35%.
Wada:
This taluka, which consist of 167 villages. The area consists of
496.07 sq. km. According to the census 2001, the total population of
Wada taluka is 1,42,753 and Scheduled Tribes population is 75,185
the percentage of Scheduled Tribes to total population is 52.67%.
103
The Scheduled Tribes population in Maharashtra is 85,77,276
and it forms 8.85% of total population of Maharashtra. Thane district
is the main center of tribal population. However, they are also
scattered in different district of the state. The district wise population is
as follows.
Table No. 4.1
District wise Total and Tribal Population of Maharashtra State
(As per 2001 census) population in thousand.
Sr. No.
State/Division/District Total
Population Tribal
Population
% of Tribal Population to
the total population.
* Maharashtra State 96,879 8,577 8.85
1. Mumbai Suburban 8,640 71 0.82 2. Mumbai City 3,338 21 0.62 3. Thane 8,132 1,192 14.74 4. Raigad 2,208 269 12.18 5. Ratnagiri 1,697 20 1.18 6. Sindhudurg 869 5 0.58
* Total Konkan Division 24,884 1,585 6.37
7. Nashik 4,994 1,194 23.91 8. Dhule 1,708 444 25.99 9. Nandurbar 1,312 860 65.53 10. Jalgaon 3,683 436 11.84 11. Ahmednager 4,041 303 7.50
* Total Nashik Division 15,738 3,237 20.57 12. Pune 7,232 262 3.62
13. Satara 2,809 22 0.78 14. Sangali 2,584 18 0.69 15. Solapur 3,850 69 1.79 16. Kolhapur 3,523 21 0.60 * Total Pune Division 19,998 392 1.96
17. Aurangabad 2,897 100 3.45
104
18. Jalna 1,613 32 1.98 19. Parbhanni 1,528 35 2.29 20. Hingoli 987 87 8.81 21. Beed 2,161 24 1.11 22. Nanded 2,876 254 8.83 23. Osmanabad 1,487 28 1.88 24. Latur 2,080 48 2.31 * Total Aurangabad
Division. 15,629 608 3.89
25. Buldhana 2,232 115 5.15 26. Akola 1,630 100 6.14 27. Wasim 1,020 71 6.96 28. Amaravati 2,607 357 13.69 29. Yavatmal 2,458 473 19.24 * Total Amravati
Divisonl. 9,947 1116s 11.22
(Source:-Tribal sub plan 2006-07).
As seen from the above table out of 29 district having Scheduled
Tribes population, 8 districts having the maximum Scheduled Tribes
population. It is more than 11% to the toatal population.
The population of Scheduled Tribes in different taluka places in
Thane District is as follows:
Table No. 4.2
Talukawise population in Thane District.
Sr.
No. Taluka
Total
population
Tribal
population
% of total
popul. to
the trbal
popul.
1 Thane 24,86,941 48,739 1.16
2 Vasai 7,95,863 81,272 10.21
105
3 Palghar 4,54,635 1,40,732 30.95
4 Dahanu 3,31,829 2,15,162 64.84
5 Talasari 1,21,217 1,07,379 88.58
6 Jawhar 1,11,039 99,932 90.00
7 Mokhada 67,319 60,964 90.56
8 Wada 1,42,753 75,185 52.67
9 Bhivandi 9,45,582 73,419 7.76
10 Shahapur 2,73,304 89,997 32.93
11 Murbad 1,70,267 38,518 22.62
12 Ulhasnagar 4,73,731 3,533 2.73
13 Kalyan 12,76,614 34,894 0.75
14 Ambernath 3,66,501 26,341 7.19
15 Vikramgad 1,14,254 1,03,223 90.35
Total- Thane 81,31,849 11,99,290 14.74
(Sources – Annual Tribal sub plan 2006-07, Govt. of Maharashtra).
The Table No 4.2 highlights that out of fifteen districts having
Scheduled Tribes population, Jawhar, Mokhada and Vikramgad has the
maximum Scheduled Tribes (above 90%) population. Talasari taluka
has 88.58% Scheduled Tribes population.
The total figures of Scheduled Tribes population of 400 families
of 4 taluka places of Thane district is given in the following table.
106
Table No. 4.3
Selected Taluka Places with total and Scheduled Tribes Population
in Thane District.
Sr. No.
Name of the taluka Total popul. STribes
population
% of ST popul. to
total popul. 1 Jawhar 1,11,039 99,932 90.00
2 Mokhada 67,319 60,964 90.56
3 Vikramgad 1,14,254 1,03,223 90.35
4 Wada 1,42,753 75,185 52.67
Total district 81,31,849 11,99,290 14.75
(Source:- Statistical office thane –2007) Tribal population in selected taluka places of surveyed families
has minimum 90.00% and above except Wada taluka which consist of
52.67% tribal population.
4.4. Material Culture / Social development:
Scheduled Tribes peoples in Thane district live in remote forest, hilly
areas and are completely left to nature for the survival. They have limited
means livelihood and have to put-up a struggle for the existence. Following
points are considered at the time of research work to know the social,
cultural and economical status of the scheduled tribes people.
i) Housing:
House is one of the basic needs of every human being, which
constitute the protecting base for any individual and his family. It is
therefore, essential to consider style, shape, size, material used for the
house.
Tribals have cultural norms, taboo’s meaningful customs,
traditions and rituals associated with house construction. Every social
107
action in the context of house building ritual in symbolic and
meaningful to the tribals. Their housing designs and settlement patterns
may have been involved to suit their ecological and environmental
needs. There could be some scientific base behind the creation of
house architecture, designs and settlement patterns.14(1)
In Maharashtra as elsewhere housing conditions of many of
tribals are miserable. This is especially so in the case of some of the
landless labourers in Kolaba, Thane and Yeotmal districts, who not
having a site of their own, are at present living on the sites given to
those very landlords thus resulting in a certain amount of exploitation.
We feel that if these landless labourers are able to live in houses of
their own their mobility as well as their bargaining power would
increase. The State Government is willing to provide lands but they
will not be in a position to give subsidy for housing.11(310).
Traditional Hut of Tribals.
108
Each family has its own house. The 400 families selected for
study had their own houses. The Table No.4.4 gives the information
regarding benefited families from housing schemes like Gharkul
Yojana and Indira Awas Yojana.
Table No.4.4
Families benefited under the housing Schemes.
Sr. No.
Name of the taluka
Benefited families.
Not benefited families.
No. % No. %
1 Jawhar 28 7.00 72 18.00
2 Mokhada 47 11.75 53 13. 25
3 Vikramgad 57 14.25 43 10.75
4 Wada 31 7.75 69 17.25
Total 163 40.75 237 59.25
(Source : Field servey –2006-07)
The table No.4.4 shows that only 163 families out of 400
families have taken the benefits from housing schemes like Gharkul
Yojana, Indira Awas Yojana 40.75% etc. Another 237 families have
not taken any type of benefit from housing schemes implemented by
the Government of Maharashtra.
Table No.4.5.
Total No. of living rooms of Tribal peoples in study area.
Sr. No. Number of rooms. Total families. Percentage.
1 1 200 50.00% 2 1-2 163 40.75% 3 2-3 29 07.25% 4 4 & above 08 02.00%
Total. 400 100.00%
(Source : Field Survey 2006-07).
109
Above Table No. 4.5 shows that total number of living rooms of
Tribal peoples in study area. At the time of field visit researcher
observed that near about 50% of Tribal families live in hut, 40.75%
tribal families live in two room huts because they are benefited by
housing schemes, 7.25% tribal families live in three or four room huts.
The medium sized huts belong to rich tribals and only one or two
houses in the village have four or more room house.
Mostly the Scheduled Tribes people require wood for
construction of the house. For the roofing of house they use manglore
tiles, cement roof sheets or dry grass, leaves etc. House is well built
with walls of mud, wooden doors and roofs either tiled or thatched.
They do not have window for their houses.
ii) Clothing:
The Scheduled Tribes men wear dhoti and shirt or half pant or
langoti and shirt. Some men wear Gandhi Cap to cover the head.
Some tribal men wear Mangeli Roomal instead of dhoti, and Cabana
instead of shirt. Boys wear mostly half or full pant and shirt.
The Scheduled Tribes women wear saree and blouse with
different styles with their own culture. Girls wear peticoat and blouse
or the regular dresses like non-tribal girls up to 10 years and after that
these girls wear blouse and saree.
iii) Ornaments:
Scheduled Tribes women try to wear maximum ornaments like,
in nose a silver ring which is known as nath, earnings are made by
silver or white metal, they wear a silver or white metal chain, black
and coloured bead necklace. They also wear jodwa (rings) on the feet
110
fingures, paijan in feet. These women’s wear green or silver bangles in
hand.
iv) Entertainment : Tribals have their own culture and social life. Music is
usually played on social as well as on religious occasions. With
culture they also have their own folklore, folk songs, dances, etc.
Dancing is very popular among the tribals. It is a part of their daily life
and medium of entertainment - like Tarafa dance, Dhol nach, Zingi
nach, Gaouri nach, Tur nach, Mukhavate nach, Kamadi nach, etc.
Tribals use musical instruments like Dhol, Drum, Bansuri, Kahali,
Ahuj, Ghangali, Tur, Tarafa, and Topari etc.
Tribal Peoples enjoy their traditional cultural life.
111
v) Festivals:
Scheduled Tribe people celebrate Ganapati and Gauri festivals,
Dasara, Diwali, Holi, and other local festivals like Vaghadeo,
Narayandeo (Suryadeo) puja, Kansaridevi puja, pitra pujan etc. They
celebrate these festivals with their own culture.
Tribal peoples trust and worship Gods such as Narandeo, (Suryadeo), Kansaridevi, Himayedevi.
vi) Food and drinks:
Scheduled Tribe people in Thane district eat dal and rice, roti of
nagli (nachani) or rice flour, vegetable, fish and other non – veg.
Majority of the tribes, men and women both drink tadi and liquor. The
men also enjoy smoking beedies and chewing tobacco.
4.5. The constitution of India guarantees for the protection, social
development of Schedule Tribes:
112
Article 14 - Equality before law.
Article 15(4) - The state to make special provisions for the
advancement of any socially and educationally backward classes of
citizens or for the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes.
Article 16 - Equality of opportunity for all citizens in matters relating
to employment or appointment to any office under the state.
16 (4A)- The state to make provisions in matters of promotion to any
class or classes of posts in the services in favour of the Scheduled
Castes and the Scheduled Tribes.
Article 338 - A national commission for Scheduled Caste and
Scheduled Tribes to investigate, monitor and evaluate all matters
relating to the constitutional safeguards provided for the Scheduled
castes and the Scheduled Tribes in the states.
Article 339 - Appointment of a Commission to report on the
administration of the Scheduled Areas and the welfare of the
Scheduled Tribes in the states.
Article 340 - Appointment of a commission to investigate the
conditions of socially and educationally backward classes and the
difficulties under which they labour and to make recommendations to
remove such difficulties and to improve their conditions.
Article 342 -To specify the tribes or tribal communities to be
scheduled tribes.(3)
4.6. Political Development:
Lucian Pie defined political development in terms of cultural
defusion and adopting turning and adjusting old patterns of life to new
ones.4
113
Colemen even thought of a development syndrome depending upon
the level of three factors present in each developing country, viz.:-
i. The principle of equality present behind the basic changes in
population – awareness about such a principle and obedience to
relevant laws.
ii. The capacity of the political system for satisfying the demands,
resolution of conflicts and governance of public affairs, and
iii. The structural factors in the organization of the political system and
the capacity to finally differentiate between such factors.
Rostow considers four stages of the process of political
development. These are :
A) Concentration of political power in the state and, through it,
political integration.
B) Economic development through industrialization.
C) National welfare through the political and economic power of the
state which benefits of them and
D) Abundance, upgradation of the material life of the people.
Milton J. Esman says that through out the developing world, the
political system is the legitimate, other - maintaining or transferring
system of society. This “political” element involves,
i. a “governing elite,” that moves and guides the modernizing
process-
ii. a “doctrine” which legitimizes, in terms of programmed action, the
norms, priorities, instruments and strategies of the governing elite:
and
114
iii. a series of instruments through which two – way communication is
facilitated and through which commitments to action are translated
in to operating programmes. 2(24).
The political approach for the tribal welfare may be understood
in the context of the pre and post independence period. The colonial
rule created “excluded” and “partly excluded” areas and gave separate
political representation to the tribes. Nationalists opposed their
measures as part of a diabolic conspiracy to a new separatism.
After independence the constitution has given the tribes a
number of safeguards considering them to be the weaker section of the
population. The first instance a period of ten years was given to active
the goal, but as the problem was too complicated to be solved in a
single decade, it has persisted through decades. We are to continue to
guard the tribal interests. A number of articles of the Indian
constitution provide proper safeguards for the tribal people.9(17)
Article 330-Special provisions relating to certain classes-
Reservation of seats of scheduled castes and scheduled tribes in the
house of the people- 1) Seats shall be reserved in the house of the people for –
a) The schedule caste.
b) The scheduled Tribes except scheduled tribes in the tribal areas of
Assam.
c) The scheduled tribes in the autonomous districts of Assam.
2) The number of seats reserved in any state for the scheduled castes or
the scheduled tribes under clause [I] shall bear, as nearly as may be,
the same proportion to the total number of seats allotted to that
state in the house of the people as the population of the scheduled
115
castes in the state or of the scheduled tribes in the state or part of
the state, as the case may be, in respect of which seats are so
reserved, bears to the total population of the state.
Article 332 - Reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled
Tribes in the Legislative Assemblies of the state:
1) Seats shall be reserved for the scheduled castes and the scheduled
tribes, except the scheduled tribes in the tribunal areas of Assam, in
the Legislative Assembly of Every state specified in part ‘A’ or part
‘B’ of the first schedule.
2) Seats shall be reserved also for the autonomous districts in the
legislative Assembly of the state of Assam.
3) The number of seats reserved for the scheduled caste or Scheduled
Tribes in the legislative Assembly of any state under clause [I] shall
bear, as nearly as may be, the same proportion to the total number
of Seats in Assembly as the population of The Scheduled Castes in
the state or of the Scheduled Tribes in the state or part of the State,
as the case may be, in respect of which seats are so reserved, bears
to the Total population of the state.
4) The number of seats reserved for an autonomous district in the
legislative Assembly of the state of Assam shall bear to the total
number of seats in that Assembly proportion not less than the
population of the district bears to the total population of the state.
5) The constitution for the seats reserved for any autonomous district
of Assam shall not comprise any area outside that district except in
the case of the constituency comprising the cantonment and
municipality.
116
6) No person who is not a member of Scheduled Tribes of any
autonomous District of the state of Assam shall be Eligible for
election to the legislative Assembly of the state from any
constituency of that district except from the constituency
comprising the cantonment and municipality of shillong.
Article 334-Reservation of seats and special representation to case
after ten years-not with standing any thing in the foregoing provisions
of this part, the provisions of this Constitution relating to-
a) The reservation of seats for the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled
Tribes in the House of the People and in the Legislative Assemblies
of the States; and
b) The representation of the Anglo – Indian community in the House of
the People and in the Legislative Assemblies of the States by
nomination; shall cease to have effect on the expiration of a period
of ten years from the commencement of this Constitution:
Provided that nothing in this article shall affect any
representation in the House of the People or in the Legislative
Assembly of a State until the dissolution of the then existing House or
Assembly, as the case may be.10(115)
4.7. The constitution of India guarantees for the protection,
political development of Schedule Tribes:
Article 244(c) - Through the fifth Scheduled the administration and
control of Scheduled Areas and the Scheduled Tribes in any state,
other than the states of Assam Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram by
ensuring submission of Annual Report by the Governors to the
117
President of India regarding the Administration of the Scheduled Areas
and setting up of a Tribal Advisory council to advise on such matters
pertaining to the welfare and advancement of the Scheduled Tribes.
Article 244(21) - Special provisions through the sixth scheduled for
the administration of Tribal Areas in the states of Assam, Meghalaya,
Tripura and Mizoram by designating certain Tribal Areas as
Autonomous Districts and Autonomous Councils and Regional
Council.
Article 330 -Reservation of seats for the Scheduled Castes and the
Scheduled Tribes in the house of the people.
Article 332 -Reservation of seats for the Scheduled Castes and the
Scheduled Tribes in the Legislative Assemblies of the state.
Article 243(D) - Reservation of seats for the Scheduled Castes for the
Scheduled Tribes in every panchayat.
Extension of the 73rd and 74th Amendments of the Constitution to the
Scheduled Areas through the panchayats (extension the Scheduled
Areas) Act. 1996 to ensure effective participation of the tribals in the
process of planning and decision making.4.
During the last two decades, political participation of the
Adivasis has considerably increased. In some of the primary political
activities like voting, interest or discussion, their participation is as
much as that of the cast Hindus. In the campaign activities also they
actively participate. But their participation decreases in the activities
which involve complex procedures and which require initiative on the
part of the actors. Some of them are party members and only few
participate in party activities. By virtue of the reservations, they hold
various political positions in decision – making bodies. But they do
118
not enjoy political power as much as the caste Hindus even in
predominantly tribal areas.13(158).
Today in Thane district Congress I, Nationalist Congress party,
Bhartiya Janata Party (BJP), Shiv-Sena, Bhumi-Sena, Kunbi-Sena,
Markswadi Communist Party of India, Shramjivi Sangthatana etc.,
these various parties and organizations are doing political and social
work.
The various people from Scheduled Tribes community
participate in the above political parties and organizations. Following
is the few members elected as political leaders and some of a social
workers. The members of parliament are, Mr. Matera, Mr. Laxuman
Kakdya Dumada, Mr. Lahanu Shidva Kom, Mr. Damu Barku
Shingada, Mr. Shankar Vanasha Nam, Mr. Chintamani Navasha
Vanaga, Member of Legislative Assembly, Mr. Shankar Aba Govari,
Mr. Somanath Rama Wani, Mr. Ramji Vartha, Mr. Mahadu Barora,
Mr.Vishnu Savara, Mr. Krushna Arjun Ghoda, Mr. Daulat Daroda, Mr.
Rajaram Ozare, and the social workers are Mr. Kaluram Dodhade, Mr.
Mahadeo Ander, Mr. Appa Bhoye, Mr. Sahnkar Bhoye, Mr. RevajiBhai
Chaudhari, Mr. Nandu Mahadu Hindola, Mr. Maya Shingada, Mr.Jagan
Mhase, Mr. Kama Tabale and Mrs. Venubai Meghawale etc.
4.8. Economic development:
Socio- economic development is differently defined by different
scholars, Prof. Mahapatra has highlighted two major approaches of
development: - I) development of the material and human resource is
sought as catering to the material progress of the nation, and
ii) Development of region or its people in terms of the objectives, goals
and values of the people concerned, which may not always be in
119
conflict with the national objectives and requirements, which in turn
must respect and accommodate regional people’s aspirations and
potentialities.
Development, in a very general or common sense may refer to a
qualitative change or progress so far as the material needs are
concerned. In a populated and poverty stricken country like that of
ours fulfillment of basic material needs may occupy the top most
position on the way to the qualitative change or progress.
Subsequently, it may allow the wholesome living condition in respect
of education, consciousness, participation in the national or regional
progress etc. to be incorporated. Therefore development may
basically said to imply creating required condition in a particular
society for wholesome living of its members.11(10).
Tribal women busy in her traditional business.
120
Tribal women selling fruits and vegetable.
4.9. Economic life and concept of Economic development:
The economic life of the tribals is specific in nature. “In a
community like the tribals the price system is normally absent and
social tradition regulates the economic activities.” 6
“Economic activity is concerned with all such activities of man
as are designed to secure him physical survival.” 6
It is very difficult to find a simple and precise definition of the
tribal economy. “The socio-economic structure on tribal communities
is marked by difference from that of the non-tribals or, advanced
groups of people. They have a very simple technology which fits well
with their ecological surroundings and conservative out look.
Moreover their economy can be said to be of subsistence type. They
121
practice different types of livelihood strategies to sustain themselves
and live on marginal economy.” 6
In a marginal economy, primitive people practice different types
of occupations to take our its subsistence and combined hunting with
gathering. Shifting cultivation with domestication of animals, show
the complexity of economic subsistence in the lower culture. 6(151)
Concept of economic development:
Economic development is the process of securing a higher level
of productivity in all the sectors as the economic, which primarily
depends upon the technological advances the community is to make.
Economic growth with social justice is one of the most important
goals of developing economy like ours. Harmonious growth of inter
sectoral income, trade and income distribution are some of the pre-
requisite of accelerated economic development. In the process of
growth, agriculture and industry depend on each other for raw
materials and market, besides, it is often argued that declining output
ratio of agriculture and industry increases the net domestic product and
affects the income distribution pattern in the economy.8(11)
4.10. The constitution of India guarantees for the protection,
economical development of Schedule Tribes:
Article 46 - The state to promote with special care the educational and
economic interest of the weaker sections of the people, and in
particular, of the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes and
protect them from social injustice and all forms of exploitation.
122
Article 275(i) - Grant-in-aid from the consolidated fund of India each
year for promoting the welfare of Scheduled Tribes and administration
of Scheduled Areas.
Article 335 - The claims of the members of the Scheduled Tribes in
the appointment to services and posts in connection with the affairs of
the union or of a state to be taken into consideration consistent with the
maintenance of efficiency of administration.5
Economic development of any region is conditioned by various
economic factors of the respondents including tribal communities such
as the size of their landholding, economic status, income pattern,
expenditure pattern, cropping patterns, housing condition, population,
density, sex ratio, poverty etc.
4.11. Landholding pattern:
In developing countries like India where the economy is
basically agriculture, land is greatly valued by the people. The extent
of land possessed by a man contributes tremendously to enhance his
social status and more particularly his economic status. It was found
that average size of landholding was very small in study areas.
The following table gives the information about the size of
landholding.
123
Table No. 4.6.
Classification of Scheduled Tribe households according to the size
of land possessed. (area in hectores)
Size classes of land
possessed
Number of scheduled
Tribes
Total land possessed
Average size of land
per ST. family
% with the possessed
total.
1 2 3 4 5
Landless 1,93,212 ------ ----- 44.39
Below01.00 47,202 27,000.70 0.57 10.84
01.00-02.00 58,624 76,928.40 1.31 13.47
02.00-05.00 93,232 2,79,313.40 3.00 21.42
05.00-06.00 9,997 52,470.00 5.25 2.30
06.00-10.00 21,683 1,59,672.60 7.36 4.98
10.00-20.00 8,566 1,05,976.00 12.37 1.97
20.00and above.
2,742 1,51,804.30 55.36 0.63
4,35,258 8,53,155.40 1.96 100.00
(Source :- Universal Bench Mark Survey 1980.,Tribal Sub-Plan 2006).
It is evident from the table that 44.39% of households were
landless, 48.03% of the households were having less than 6 acres of
land. Only 4.98% of the households had more than 6 acres less than 10
acres of land. Only 1.97% of households had more than 10 acres of
land and 0.63% households had above 20 acres of land. The problem
of landholding poses a serious obstacle for Scheduled Tribes.
124
4.12. Decadal Variation in Scheduled Tribe Population:
The following table gives an idea of the growth of population for the
last three decades in selected taluka places.
Table No. 4.7
Decadal Variation in Scheduled Tribe Population.
SrNo
Name of Tahsil
1981 1991 2001 %Decadal variation (1981-91)
%Decadal variation (1981-01)
1. Jawhar 94,307 1,25,624 99,932 33.21 5.96
2. Mokhada 59,570 76,838 60,964 28.98 2.34
3. Vikramgad ----- ----- 1,03,223 ----- ------
4. Wada 48,863 61,157 75,185 25.16 53.87
Total District
7,29,424 9,51,205 11,99,290 30.40 64.42
(Source:- Census of Thane district 2001).
Out of the total Scheduled Tribes population of the Thane district
in the year 1981 is 7,29,424, it has increased in the year 1991 by
2,21,78, it consist of 30.40%, hence in the year 1991 total Scheduled
tribe population was 9,51,205. And in the year 2001 the total
Scheduled Tribe population increased by 4,69,866 as compared to
1981, it consist of 64.42%, hence in the year 2001 total Scheduled
Tribe population is 11,99,290. It results from a net increase of birth
rate over death mainly caused by gradual decrease in infant mortality
and a longer average life span. Secondly, the ideal sex ratio, massive
poverty and socio – religious factors contribute to an over-flooding
population, it created adverse economic condition.
125
4.13. Sex Ratio of Scheduled Tribes by Tahsils for total rural and
urban.( females per 1000 males).
Table No. 4.8.
Sex Ratio of Scheduled Tribes by Tahsils in Thane District.
Sr. No. Name of Tahsil Total Rural Urban
1. Thane 915 981 914
2. Vasai 990 996 963
3. Palghar 973 974 909
4. Dahanu 996 997 963
5. Talasari 1010 1010 -----
6. Jawhar 1007 1009 925
7. Mokhada 985 985 -----
8. Wada 965 965 968
9. Bhiwandi 938 956 777
10. Shahapur 950 949 998
11. Murbad 954 955 931
12. Kalyan 906 956 994
13. Ulhasnager. 948 963 901
District Total. 977 985 912
(Source:- census ofThane District 1991).
The above table reveals that, Thane district having 954 females
per every 1000 males. In the rural area of Jawhar and Talasari the
female population has exceeded the male population, the sex ratio is
126
1007 and 1010 females respectively to every 1000 males. The Table
No. 4.7 shows a great variation in rural urban sex ratio.
4.14. Education / literacy of Tribal and non-tribal students in
Thane District:
After the advent of democracy in India, for the first time, a
special consideration is made for the education of the tribals. After the
attainment of independence in the year 1947 the constituent assembly
provided statutory safe guards in the constitution for the people of SC
and ST and other depressed classes by defining them as socially and
educationally backward classes. In order to bring the illiterate and
economically backward tribals in to the mainstream of national life,
various schemes were started by the government of India after
independence. In these schemes the priority was given to the
educational development of tribals.
The following two tables show the educational status of tribal
students in Thane district.
Table No.4.9 Educational status of tribal and non-tribal students in Thane
District.
Sr. No.
Institutions No. of
school and colleges.
Total student
Tribal student
1 Primary 4,648 10,22,000 1,69,252 2 Secondary and
higher secondary 480 5,84,000 51,664
3 colleges 75 56000 22,916 (source: district social and economic survey, district Thane 2005-06 Marathi edition)
The above table clearly shows that, there are 4,648 primary
schools in Thane district, but only 1,69,252 tribal students are
127
benefited by this education. It consist only 16.56% as compared to
non-tribal student. Out of this, only 51,664 tribal students got the
education upto secondary and higher secondary. It means, there is a
dropout of 30.52%. Only 22,916 tribal students have got the education
up to graduation in Thane district.
Table No. 4.10. Educational position of scheduled tribe students in selected tahsils
in Thane Districst.
Sr. No. Name of
tahasil
Primary
school
Secondary
school
Higher
secondary Colleges
1 Jawhar 15,380 2,339 432 191
2 Mokhada 9,702 2,159 138 119
3 Vikramgad 13,473 3,804 295 157
4 Wada 13,477 4,613 697 187
District
total
1,69,252 47,436 4,228 2,209
(source: district social and economic survey, district Thane 2005-06 Marathi edition). 4.15. Tribal households in below poverty line:
Table No. 4.11
Tribal households in below poverty line in Thane District.
Sr.
No.
Name of
tahsil
Agricult
-urist
Agricultural
labour
Others Total
1 Jawhar 8,877 15126 2648 26,651
2 Mokhada 1949 6191 237 8,377
3 Vikramgad ----- ----- ----- -----
4 Wada 3614 8905 1417 13,936
District
total
52369 80631 21523 1,54,523
(source: district social and economic survey, district Thane 2005-06 Marathi edition).
128
Above table shows that, in Thane district total 1,54,523 families
live Below the Poverty Line. In Jawhar taluka total 26,651 families
including agriculturist, agricultural labour and others live Below
Poverty Line, it consists of 17.25% compared to Thane district. In
Mokhada taluka this percentage is increased as compared to Jawhar
taluka. There are 8,377 families living below the poverty line. It
means they do not meet their basic needs, food, cloth and shelter.
Density in Thane district:
The overall density of population in Thane district is 549 persons
per square kilometer as compared to State average of 257. Among the
30 districts of the State, Thane holds the 2nd place in density of
population, a situation similar to 1981 when an average density of 351,
the district was ranked 2nd.
Table No.4.12
Density of selected taluka places in Thane District.
Sr.
No.
Name of
tahsil
Geographical
area
(in hectors)
Total
Population Density
1. Jawhar 61,700 1,11,039 180
2. Mokhada 48,900 67,319 138
3. Vikramgad 49,700 1,14,254 230
4. Wada 42,100 1,42,753 339
District total
81,31,849 8.40
(Source:- Statistical Office Thane 2007).
129
The distribution of Scheduled Tribes families in the Tribal Sub-Plan
Areas according to their income ranges:-
Table No.4.13
The distribution of Scheduled Tribes families in the Tribal Sub-
Plan Areas according to their income ranges.
Sr. No.
Income Range (Rupees)
No. of ST. Families
% of ST. Families
according to income range
1. Up to 2000 26,944 4.25
2. 2001 to 3600 92,510 14.58
3. 3601to 5000 1,78,116 28.07
4. 5001 to 7000 1,44,192 22.72
5. 7001 to 11000 1,36,374 21.49
6. 11001 to20000 37,893 5.97
7. 20001 and above 18,551 2.92
Total 6,34,580 100.00
(Source: - Bench Mark Survey -1996-97).
It is seen from the above table that 4.25% of Scheduled Tribes
Families (26,944) were in below the annual income of Rs.2000/-.
However the 21.49% (1,36,374) of the families were in the middle-
income range of Rs. 7001 to 11,000 and only 2.92% (18,551)
Scheduled Tribes families were in upper income range of Rs.20, 001
and above.
130
The distribution of Source wise Income of Scheduled Tribe
Families:
Table No. 4.14
The distribution of Source wise Income of Scheduled Tribe
Families in Thane Distrisct.
Sr. No. Source Percentage with total income.
1. Agricultural farming 43.41
2. Agricultural labour 35.80
3. Forest labour 2.75
4. Trading 0.75
5. Services 13.50
6. Dairy 1.23
7. Other sources 2.56
Total 100.00
(Source :- Tribal sub –plan 2005-06).
Table No. 4.14 shows that, in Maharashtra 2.75% Scheduled
Tribes got the employment as the forest labour in collection of forest
products through- out the year. Only 43.41% tribals have their own
lands for cultivation and 2.75% tribals work as a agricultural labourers.
Hence their annual income is very low. Some scheduled tribe people
are engaged in trading and services but their annual income is not
sufficient.
131
Expenditure pattern:
Table No.4.15
Expenditure Pattern of the Tribal Families in the Tribal Sub-Plan
Areas of Maharashtra State.
Sr. No. Item %composition of expenditure
of Tribal Families.
1. Food 76.89
2. Clothing 7.86
3. Smoking 3.02
4. Drinking liquor 3.05
5. Education 0.04
6. Entertainment 1.00
7. Others 8.14
Total 100.00
(Source :- Tribal sub –plan 2005-06).
The expenditure pattern of Scheduled Tribes is given in the
above table. The table clearly shows that the expenditure pattern on
food items is very high, it consist of 76.89% of total expenditure. It
means tribals spend more income on food items. Compared to this
only 0.04% amount they spend on education. They spent on smoking
and drinking liquor bear about 3.02% and 3.05% respectively.
It may conclude that, the uneconomic landholding, low
productivity, low income, poverty, illiteracy, unbalanced expenditure
pattern, etc. these factors are taken together are responsible for slow
economic growth of Scheduled Tribes people in Thane district. In the
132
next topic the efforts are made to study the role played by government
and non-government organizations for the all-round development of
Scheduled Tribes in Thane district.
References:
1. Deogaonkar S. G, “Tribal Administration and Development,”
Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi, (1994), P-25.
2. Deogaonkar S. G., “Tribal Administration and Development,”
Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi, (1994), P-24.
3. http://tribal.nic.in/chapter1.html
4. http://tribal.nic.in/chapter1.html
5. http://tribal.nic.in/chapter1.html
6. Jain Navinchandra, Dr. Tribhuvan Robin D., “An Overview of
Tribal Research Studies,” published by Tribal Research and
Training institute, Pune, (1995), P.151.
7. Mehta Prakash Chandra, “Development of Indian Tribes,”
Discovery Publishing House, New Delhi, (2006), P-7.
8. Mehta Prakash Chandra, “Development of Indian Tribes,”
Discovery Publishing House, New Delhi, (2006), P.11.
9. Mehta Prakash Chandra, “Development of Indian Tribes,”
Discovery Publishing House, New Delhi, (2006), P-17.
10. Mehata S. M., “Constitution of India and Amendments Acts,”
Deep and Deep Publications, (1990), New Delhi.P.115.
11. Singh Anil Kumar, “Tribal Culture and Policy,” Sarup and
Suns, New Delhi, (1994), P-310.
133
12. Sahoo Rajan Kumar, “Tribal Development in India,” Mohit
Publications, New Delhi, (2005), PP-33,40.
13. Shah Ghanshyam, “Politics of Scheduled Castes and Tribes,”
Vora and Co. Publishers Pvt. Ltd., Bombay, (1975), P. 158.
14. Tribhuwan Robin D., “Tribal Housing Issues,” Discovery
Publishing House, New Delhi, (2005), P-1.