CHAPTER 7

CONSERVATIONSTRATEGIES:"GREENPRINTS" FOR SUSTAINABILIlY

To developa strategyfor susUlinableUvingwe must harnessthe insightsand skiUsof the worldconservation movement and integrate in developmental strategies the principles of equity with those of economic efficiency

and ecological susUlinability. (Swaminathan, 1991, p. 47)

DEVELOPING A CONSERVATIONSTRATEGY

One of the most significant challenges togovernments and citizens who wish to imple-ment any fonn of develop-ment is to set priorities andobjectives for action. Theeconomic, social, and envi-ronmental choices, particu-larly for sustainable devel-opment, can be over-whelming. Communitiesand decision makers maywell ask, "Where do Istart?" One option is to develop a conserva-tion strategy.

Conservation strategiescan facilitate thesetring of goals and the development ofaction plans for the sustainable use ofresources, usuallyby seekingbroad-scale con-sensus through comprehensive consultations.Unlike many traditional planning exercises,which are uni-sectoral or focus solely onland-use planning or economic planning,conservation strategies can encompass envi-ronmental, social, and economic goals. Theyare "greenprints" for joint action towardssustainable development. In fact, manyjurisdictions have come to use the tenn"sustainable development strategy" inter-changeably with the tenn "conservationstrategy," in effect merging the objectives ofconservation and sustainable development.

Operating from the premise that thesecurity and continued availability of the

Earth's resources is the foundation of asustainable future, conservation strategies

provide a mechanism foridentifying those resourcesmost at risk and settingmeaningful objectives fortheir conservation. Whileindividual approaches toconservation strategies willvaty, each respecting theunique needs and oppor-tunities of each region or

ecosystem, all share the recognition thatconservation of the environment is a keyelement in planning for a sustainable furure.Individual strategies may address regionalissues, such as the protection of specificecological treasures in a rainforest region ormay be expanded to address more compre-hensive issues of integration of environ-mental, social, and economic planning at thenational level. While rhe concept began as ameans to safeguard critical ecologicalresources as part of national or broadregional plans, in practice the approach hasevolved towards a more comprehensiveplanning approach, integrating a wide rangeof social goals in a single long-term plan.

Conservation strategies should be under-stood as both process and product. How thestrategy is developed is almost as importantas the contents of the strategy itself, as themeans of development generate the buy-in of

Conservation: The management ofhuman use of organisms or ecosys-tems to ensure such use is sus-

tainable, as well as the protection,maintenance, rehabilitation, restora-tion, and enhancement of popula-tions and ecosystems.

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THE CHALLENGE OF SUSTAINABILITY

the partners who will put the strategyelements into effect. This chapter discussesboth the contents and objectives of conser-vation strategies and the steps required toformulate them effectively.

The conservation strategy process wasoriginally developed to be used at thenational level, but many smaller commun-ities, regions, and transnational groups havealso adopted the process. In principle, anypublic or private institution, agency, orenterprise facing the mandate to incorporatethe principles of sustainability in its oper-ations can adopt a conservation strategy. Byinvolving all stakeholders in a long-termplanning exercise, many benefits can beobtained by the initiators and by participants.In Honduras, a form of regional strategydevelopment helped mobilizefarmers on theedge of a conservation area as participants inits management. In the region of Lac St.Jean, Quebec, a new partnership was forgedbetWeen business and various governmentbodies to achieve common regional develop-ment objectives. Alone, conservation strat-egiesdo not ensure sustainable development;they can, however, be a crucial first step.

THE WORLD CONSERVATION STRATEGY

Until recently, many conservation advocatestook an "anti-development" position, arguingfor the protection of resources, wildernesslands, and habitat from any human use. Thisstance made conservation appear to be avety unattractive approach for many devel-oping countries relying on resource use togenerate economic growth, as completeprotection would in effect remove large areasfrom future use. Further, many countriescould not afford to create protected spacesprograms, or to clear settlement from desig-nated areas and establish protection andmanagement for them. In some cases, thosethat did set aside tracts for wilderness pro-

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tection found that resource exploitation wassimply intensified in the non-protected areas.As the global environmental crisis becamemore pronounced in the 1970s, the tensionbetWeen preservation and developmentincreased, and it became clear that theinternational community had to find a wayof reconciling the goals of environmentalprotection with those of economic develop-ment. Such a solution appeared to lie in anapproach that placed both preservation anddevelopment within a broad framework of .

conservation. The World Conservation Stra-

tegy (wcs)was released in 1980, intended tobring about such a reconciliation.

The wcs aimed at providing a frameworkand policy guidance for resource conserva-tion. The wcs was created by the Interna-tional Union for the Conservation of Nature

(nJCN), the United Nations EnvironmentProgram (UNEP), and the World WildlifeFund (WWF). The wcs targets governmentpolicy makers, conservationists, resourcemanagers, and development practitioners,including non-governmental organizations(NGOs),donors, the private sector, and labororganizations. As a document, it both pro-vides information and establishes clear prior-ities for action. The wcs has been the basis

for action at many scales to address thesepriorities.

The wcs was the first international docu-

ment to clearly recognize the link betweenthe economy and the environment. Whatseems obvious today - that social andeconomic development and the preservationand conservation of natural resources are

interdependent objectives - found its firstexpression in the WCS. It represented a sig-nificant departure from tradition, by re-defining conservation to include human useand development activities explicitly: "themanagement of human use of the biosphereso that it may yield the greatest sustainablebenefit to present generations while main-

CONSERVATION STRATEGIES: "GREENPRINTS" FOR SUSTAINABILITY

taining its potential to meet the needs of andaspirations of future generations" (IUCN/UNEP/WWF,1980, p. 1). Resource conserva-tion, then, became a development strategy,rather than a barrier to development. At thesame time, it is recognized that protection ofspecific species and ecosystems may also becritical to any overall conservation program.Thus the creation of protected spacesbecomes one of the strategies available tothose who would implement an overallconservation strategy.

The WCS identifies three critical objec-tives for conservation:

~ to maintain essential ecologicalprocessesand life support systemsthrough rationalplanning, allocation, and management ofresources;

~ to preserve genetic diversity through thecollection and banking of geneticmaterial, and ecosystem protection; and

~ to ensure the sustainable utilization of

ecosystems, through knowledge andunderstanding of the productive capac-ities, and measures to ensure that utiliz-ation does not exceed those capacities(IUCN/UNEP/WWF,198O, p. 1).

The strategy provided a comprehensive dis-cussion of major issues relating to theseobjectives and established conservationtargets. It also identified key problem areaswith respect to achieving each of the threeobjectives. Soil degradation, deforestation,threatened coastal areas and freshwater sys-tems, and species loss were highlighted asthe most critical issues. It then identified"priority requirements," specific steps thatmust be taken to reverse the crisis of deplet-ing living resources. Among the priorityrequirements were the following.

~ Reserve good cropland for crops.

~ Manage cropland to high ecologicalstan-dards.

~ Ensure that the principal managementgoal for watershed forests and pastures isthe protection of watersheds.

~ Control the discharge of pollutants.

~ Preserve as many varieties as possible ofcrop plants, forage plants, timber trees,livestock, and other domesticated organ-isms and their wild relatives.

~ Co-ordinate national protection area pro-grams with international ones.

~ Adopt conservation management objec-tives for the utilization of species andecosystems.

~ Equip subsistence communities to utilizeresources sustainably (IUCN/UNEP/WWF,1980, pp. 9-14).

The priority requirements can be summarizedas the pursuit of development through man-aging resource use in an integrated manner.The challenge of the WCSis one of manage-ment and planning. It identifies six keyobstacles to achieving sustainable develop-ment through conservation:

~ lack of conservation awareness at thepolicy-makinglevel;

~ lack of environmental planning andrational resource allocation;

~ poor legislation and organization;

~ lack of training and information;

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THE CHALLENGE OF SUSTAINABILITY

~ lack of broad-based support for conserva-tion; and

~ lack of conservation-based, rural develop-ment initiatives (IUCN/UNEP/WWF,1980,p. 16).

Change at the national and internationallevels was identified as essential to overcome

these obstacles and meet the three objectivesof conservation. The need for changefocused on policy making and planning. Thekey requirement was defined as integration- integrating the social, political, and eco-nomic objectives of development withapproaches to resource allocation that areecologically appropriate and sustainable.Improved management skills, training, educa-tion, and building commitment are recurringthemes, as the wcsoutlines priority require-ments for achieving the objectives of conser-vation. The need for international co-oper-ation and action was also recognized, withparticular emphasis placed on global andregional approaches.

NATIONAL CONSERVATION STRATEGIES

The wcs challenged individual nations andthe wider international community to facethe crisis of resource depletion by integratingconservation and development. While itclarified threats to the environment throughirrational and unmanaged resource use andallocation, it did not layout specific sol-utions. Instead it offered a process throughwhich nations could respond to the prioritiescited in the WCSto create their own national

and regional conservation strategies. Manyresponded, and by the 1986 Conference onConservation and Development (Ottawa),nations from all continents were prepared topresent the results of their own strategydevelopment. By 1986, such nations asIndonesia, Australia, and Zambia had nation-

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ai-level strategies in place.The aim of a national or regional con-

servation strategy is to provide a frameworkfor reviewing conservation priorities andobstacles, and to identify means to integrateconservation objectives into the mainstreamof national and regional planning. As well,such strategies typically provide the means toco-ordinate the efforts of governmentagencies with conservation and social organ-izations to achieve shared objectives. Eachnational conservation strategy is a uniqueexpression of that country's needs and objec-tives. However, most strategies aim to fulfilthree common functions, deriving from thewcs priorities:

~ to establish priority requirements forachieving the three conservation objec-tives;

~ to identify obstacles to meeting theserequirements; and

~ to propose cost-effective means of over-coming these obstacles (IUCN/UNEP/WWF,1980, p. 15).

A nation's conservation strategy is bestviewed as an operational document, settingpolicy directions and actions for achievingthe three conservation objectives. Yet, theprocess by which the strategy is developed isalso very important, and the wcsoffersguid-ance for the planning and analysis throughwhich conservation strategies are formulated.The process of developing a national conser-vation strategy begins with three steps:strategic review, analysis, and actionplanning.

Strategic review. In developing a conserva-tion strategy, planners review their nationaldevelopment objectives in light of the threeconservation objectives. The status of- and

CONSERVATIONSTRATEGIES:"GREENPRINTS" FOR SUSTAINABILITY

threats to - living resources are an integralparr of this review. Specific measures toreach the objectives are identified. Thestrategic review is also the time to identifythe main obsracles ro achieving developmentand conservarionobjectives and limitingthrears to resources. Where there is a con-

flict, or in cases where neither set of objec-rives is being met, the strategy may establisha set of priority requirements aimed at ensur-ing that development planning and conserva-tion are compatible. Also, this step caninclude a review of the state of the nation's

living resources; ecosystems and species atrisk are identified, and priority requirementsfor their protection established (IUCN/UNEP/WWF,1980).

Analysis. The next step in developing aconservation strategy is to carry out an in-depth analysis of practices and to identifyareas for change. This analysis criticallyexamines development activities - currentand anticipated - with respect to the threeconservation objectives and the priorityrequirements established during the strategicreview. Analysis of activities can alsomeasure their performance against the devel-opment objectives established during thereview. It can highlight for change activitiesinconsistent with conservation and develop-ment objectives and promote practices thatwould further the objectives. Economic andfinancial analyses are normally included inthis step; an operational conservation strat-egy relies on an understanding of the finan-cial resources available to implement neededchange. Finally, the analysis can incorporatean examination of the political and socialresources - including legislation, publicsupport, and organizations - available tofurther the objectives and priority require-ments of a conservation strategy (IUCN/UNEP!WwF,1980).

Action planning. Once the strategic reviewhas established objectives and priorityrequirements and analysis has identified areasfor change, an action plan should be formu-lated. The action plan proposes means ofsupplying the economic, social, and politicalresources necessary to meet the conservationobjectives. The plan can also identify respon-sibilities for implementation, and explicitlyauthorize appropriate ministries, agencies,and organizations to carry out the requiredactions. Where possible, time lines andmeasurable objectives are incorporated intoan action plan. This plan is also the founda-tion for a program of legislative and policymeasures, which will forward the objectivesof the conservation strategy and facilitate itsimplementation (IUCN/UNEP!WwF,1980).

The purpose of these steps is to begin aprocess of understanding how specificelements of a nation's development strategyimpact on conservation objectives. Throughreview, analysis, and development of actionplans, countries can formulate conservationstrategies that refer specifically to nationalobjectives, needs, and resources. Thisapproach recognizes that each country willbe facing unique conservation challenges andthat strategies for achieving the three objec-tives of conservation must address these

challenges in ways that are meaningful andsupportable in the national context. Whilethe wcs provides a framework, it rests witheach country to develop a national strategyand provide the necessary resources andpolitical commitment to advance its imple-mentation.

THECONSERVATIONSTRATEGYAT THECORPORATELEVEL

The process outlined above can provide auseful model for any enterprise facing theneed to restructure its decision making tomeet the challenges of sustainability. The

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THE CHALLENGE OF SUSTAINABILITY

wcs document provides a framework - anda mandate - for national governments todirect resources and policy instrumentstowards meeting the three conservationobjectives within the context of nationaldevelopment activities. This has been rein-forced by the work of the World Commissionon Environment and Development (WCED)and by the results of the 1992 Earth Summit.These have encouraged national, sectoral,and local organizations to develop environ-mentally sensitive strategies to achieve con-servation or sustainable development goals.Every organization or enterprise - be it agovernment department, small business, orNGO - makes resource allocation decisions

that impact on conservation objectives. Thechallenge is to identify where those impactsare made. Then, managers can developstrategies for minimizing negative impactsand enhancing opportunities for positiveactions. Finally, all enterprises can ensurethat their own strategies for meeting conser-vation objectives complement the activitiesin other sectors. The conservation strategyprocess allows an enterprise to meet theserequirements. Organizations and enterprisessetting out to develop their own strategiescan follow the same three steps of review,analysis, and action planning. Reviewing thenational strategy, if one is in place, is alogical first step. If no such strategy exists,the work by regional groups or sectoralorganizations to put such strategies in placecan act as a catalyst for senior levels ofgovernment to respond by developing theirown strategies, or by supporting ones alreadyin place.

Over SO countries have developednational conservation strategies since therelease of the WCS in 1980. Sub-national

strategies also exist in many countries andcommunities. These provide the backgroundfor any work by individual enterprises toparticipate in solutions. In cases where a

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national strategy is not in place, enterprisescan outline actions to meet their organiz-ational objectives and priority requirements.By using this process, organizations not onlybecome players in conservation, but actuallyenhance their national strategies; enterprisesbecome a resource for meeting conservationobjectives.

The conservation strategy process is alsoof value to government and private organiz-ations in providing the framework for imple-menting change. As in the national case, theprocess suggested by the conservation strat-egy model is a useful one for identifying thelinks between development objectives andconservation. It can also play an importantrole in setting focused, achievable goals forimplementing action for sustainability. Just aseach national conservation strategy will be aunique approach, reflecting the availableresources and development needs of a coun-try, individual sub-national strategies will alsoreflect the specific relationship between anenterprise and natural resources.

In spite of this individual character,however, there are four strategic principlesthat organizations should seek to incorporatein their conservation strategies (IUCN/UNEP/WWF,1980).

Integration. Conservation strategies providea process for integrating conservation anddevelopment goals. As organizations engagein this process, they can also seek usefulmechanisms for employing multidisciplinary,cross-sectoral approaches to resource man-agement and the achievement of objectives.Individual enterprises can use the process tocreate links among other departments orstakeholder groups where they do not cur-rently exist.

Retain options. One serious obstacle tosustainable resource allocation and use islimited knowledge of various ecosystems.

CONSERVATION STRATEGIES: "GREENPRINTS" FOR SUSTAINABILITY

New information and data on the absorptive,productive, and regenerative qualities ofenvironments can alter the acceptability ofsome resource-use decisions. Managers cancompensate for the knowledge gap by retain-ing as many options as possible. This prin-ciple is particularly imporrant when planningfor resource use in sensitive ecosystemssuchas tropical rainforests, watersheds, or coastalwetlands.

Address prevention as well as cure. Therisk to some ecosystems and species is sogreat that planners may be tempted to stressremedial actions over long-term policychanges. Conservation strategies should aimto set priority requirements and objectivesthat also address the need to prevent suchcrises from developing in the future.

Address causes as well as symptoms. It isnot enough for a conservation strategy roidentify ecosysremsand resources that are atrisk; they must also address the causes ofthese risks. If a forest is threatened by unsus-tainable rates of harvest, planners need toknow why trees are being raken at thoserates. Is there an inadequate fuel supply tolocal people? Is forestry mismanaged? Prior-ity requirements and objectives should con-front these problems, as well as the largersymptom, i.e., deforestation. Conservationstrategies provide an excellent process forrecommending action ro address the underly-ing causes of resource depletion.

STAKEHOLDER CONSULTATIONS

Consultation plays an important role in theprocess of developing a conservation strat-egy, both at the national and sub-nationallevels. Most of the issues addressed by con-servation strategies go beyond the scope ofanyone sector of national life, or anyonedepartment within an enterprise. When

reviewing conservation objectives againstdevelopment activities, it soon becomes clearthat there are stakeholders and resource

users among all sectors and strara of society.Including stakeholder groups in the conser-vation strategy process will enrich the pro-cess in several ways.

Broadly based, cross-sectoral involve-ment will increase the amount of information

available to the process, helping to clarifythe range of values and concerns that needto be addressed. Each sector or group thathas a stake in the allocation or use of natu-

ral resources will bring a unique perspectiveto a review of objectives and requirements.Also, including a variety of stakeholders inthe development of a strategy encourages anintegrated approach to conservation or tosusrainable development. Ideally all depart-ments, organizations, and stakeholders inconservation initiatives can be co-ordinated

so that they are working together to meetconservation objectives. Bringing the varioussectors together as the strategy is beingdeveloped can foster and strengthen theseco-operative relationships. Finally, by involv-ing multisector stakeholders in the process,the action plan of the conservation strategyis more likely to be accepted and promotedby a wider number of people (IUCN/UNEP/WWF,1980, p. 25).

Governments cannot implement a con-servation strategy alone; public support andparticipation are crucial if the objectives ofconservation are to be met. This is particu-larly true when, in order to meet conserva-tion objectives, some development objectivesmust be amended or postponed. Widespreadparticipation in the process of formulatingthe strategy will ensure that srakeholderconcerns are reflected, so that all groups cansupport the strategy and its objectives. Manymodels can be used to institute a process ofconsulration and involvement. Three are

particularly useful for organizations and

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THE CHALLENGE OF SUSTAINABILITY

The Case of Prince Edward Island

The government of the Canadian province of Prince Edward Island decidedin the early 1980s to take action to create a conservation strategy for thatprovince. A comprehensive consultative process was put in place that broughttogether government officials, industry and business leaders, local communitygroups, representatives of conservation groups, indigenous groups, andchurches in meetings in all communities. A Conservation Strategy for PrinceEdward Island was adopted in 1987 as " ...a plan for the wise use of ourresources. It demonstrates that conservation and economic development neednot conflict but can proceed in harmony. We believe that this report suggestsa path leading to a goal of sustainable development. If we follow that path,future generations of Islanders will derive their livelihood from the sameresource base that we use today" (Co-ordinating Committee for Conservation,1987, vL).

The P.E.1. Conservation Strategy provided a long-term shared vision for thefuture of that small province (100,000 people) in the form of a 20-year plan.It also identified roles for all of the participants in achieving the desiredresults. In the ensuing years, the Strategy has served as a touchstone for newdevelopment planning and has brought together parmers from differentindustries and governments to address joint problems such as the integratedmanagement and cleanup of a river basin, with benefits for farmers, fishers,and residents. The Strategy has also provided bargaining strength for theprovincial government in negotiating on behalf of Islanders with the nationalgovernment and with large corporations in terms of their role in Islanddevelopment (Co-ordinating Committee for Conservation, 1987).

enterprises engaged in formulating sub-national strategies: conferences, roundtables,and commissions.

Conferences. The conference is probablythe most familiar style of consultation. Itinvolves convening a meeting, organizedaround specific topics. Representatives fromvarious sectors are invited to make presen-tations, followed by group discussions. Anorganization using this model may invitelocal community leaders, conservationgroups, scientific advisors, and local author-ities to make presentations and lead dis-cussions. A series of conferences can be

organized to follow the three steps: one to

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review and set the agenda, one to analyzerequirements and objectives, and one tocontribute to the development of actionplans. This model can be particularly usefulfor an organization taking the lead in devel-oping a regionally or sectorally based conser-vation strategy, especially when confrontingproblems that require a certain degree ofspecialized information. The government ofCosta Rica successfully used the conferencemodel while developing its national conser-vation strategy (Quesada Mateo, 1990, pp.vii-viii). The model was also used extensivelyto prepare for the Earth Summit, held in Riode Janeiro in 1992.

CONSERVATION STRATEGIES:"GREENPRINTS" FOR SUSTAINABILITY

Roundtables. The roundtable model alsoincludes representatives from a number ofsectors and stakeholder groups. Members ofthe roundtable meet on a regular basis toformulate a working agenda, establish prior-ities, and recommend action. The roundtableformat was developed in Canada as a meansto mobilize all sectors of society to discusscommon goals and the means to achievethem; it is now in use in every province andmany municipalities. At a corporate levelthis model of consultation has been tried byinviting representatives from the workforce,management, and directors to sit at theroundtable with stakeholders from the localcommunity and conservation groups. Theroundtable then acts as a working group tocarry out the three steps of the strategyprocess. In this way, the roundtable modelallows for a greater degree of direct involve-ment by stakeholders in the formulation of astrategy (Manning, 1990). In several prov-inces in Canada, the continuing role of theroundtable also includes monitoring theongoing implementation of conservationstrategies and sectoral initiatives, and publicreporting of results through state of environ-ment reports and public newsletters.

Commissions. This model has been used bymost nations in the development of theirconservation strategies. It involves organiz-ing meetings for each of the recognizedstakeholder groups and soliciting representa-tions to a committee charged with formulat-ing the conservation strategy. This model isthe most limited of the three, in somerespects. Different stakeholder groups do notinteract, so consensus building is not intrinsi-cally part of the process. Also, while takingpart in the consultation, stakeholder groupsare removed from the actual development ofthe strategy. It could be useful, however,when an organization wishes to develop itsstrategy quickly, as this process can be more

fully managed by the lead organization. Inpractice, if this form of development is used,and urgent issues have been incorporatedinto an action plan, other forms of consulta-tion can be employed to encourage thesupport and participation of stakeholdergroups.

Consultation and involvement can be diffi-cult and lengthy processes. Some issues mayhave a greater impact on certainstakeholders than others, and some mayinvolve conflicting objectives and needs thatmake agreement difficult to reach. Theachievement of conservation objectives -especially as they relate to endangered orseverely degraded ecosystems - may makefull cross-sectoral participation impossible.Organizations mandated to implement con-servation strategiesmay have to abandon themodel of consultation in order to address themost critical requirements. However, when-ever practical, widespread participation canplay an important role in the process offormulating a conservation strategy.

Consultation is itself a useful process,enhancing education, debate, and support forthe resulting action plans. This process alsomeets the priority requirements for animportant objective for all conservationstrategies: changing attitudes to foster aconservation ethic for development. Inpractice, smaller jurisdictions such as PrinceEdward Island or smaller nations have foundthe consultation process easier, particularlywhere there are common values. Larger,more varied jurisdictions have used a lessconsultative process, or as with Canada andAustralia, developed regional (provincial orstate) strategies. In areas where there areconfrontations over resource allocationalready in a heated state (e.g., forestry vs.preservation, urbanization vs. agriculturalland preservation), a holistic planning pro-cess could either help by identifyingcommon

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THE CHALLENGE OF SUSTAINABILIlY

ground or simply exacerbate the conflict byproviding a forum for dissent. Each strategydevelopment process will be unique, and themanagers of such processes will need toknow any such issues very early in the pro-cess to decide on the means to be used andthe timing of the process.

SUSTAINABLEDEVELOPMENTSTRATEGIES

The report of the WCED(1987) reinforced theconcept that environmental conservationand sustainable development are complemen-tary and overlapping objectives. In fact,many of the efforts to develop conservationstrategies that had begun in the early 1980sexpressly adopted the sustainable develop-ment goal, as reflected in the choice bymany jurisdictions to name their strategies"sustainable development strategies," or"strategies for conservation and sustainabledevelopment." This step marked the clearrecognition that conservation goals could notbe achieved outside the process of broadplanning and economic development activiry.It also expressly recognized the key role ofconservation of natural resources as the

underpinning of sustainable developmentstrategies.

The focus of conservation strategies isevolving towards a more comprehensiveplanning approach. Many of the earlierstrategies had an explicit conservation focusand dealt primarily with the definition ofobjectives for wildlife and ecological con-servation, including the designation of sys-tems of protected areas; some strategy devel-opment continues to focus on ecosystemprotection (e.g., Costa Rica, Indonesia). Bythe late 1980s the next generation of conser-vation and sustainable development strat-egies tended to address a broader range ofecological, economic, and social issues.

The changing understanding of

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sustainable development has resulted in theinclusion of new objectives and criteria thatgo beyond the mandate of natural resourceconservation. These often include consider-

ation of economic well-being, social andintergenerational equity, and integration of abroad range of objectives into a holistic long-term plan. In addition, a focus has beenadded on the management of humandemands on the system and the reduction ofthe impacts of technology. Nevertheless, theinitial recommendations set out in the 1980

wcs provided a good point of departure anda procedure that has led to over 50 nationalstrategies being put in place.

The framework set out in the wcs is a

productive first step towards the develop-ment of a more comprehensive sustainabledevelopment strategy. The conservation ofliving resources is a critical requirement forsustainable development. Where resourcesand ecosystem health have been jeopardized,a strategic response to meeting conservationobjectives must take place before the largerchallenges of sustainable development can bemet. By following the conservation strategyprocess, a nation, region, or individual enter-prise can objectively assess to what extentnatural resources are at risk due to develop-ment patterns. If the risk is great, then thethree objectives - maintenance of essentialecological processes and life support systems,preservation of genetic diversity, andsustainable use of ecosystems within theirproductive capacities - should be the focusof strategic planning. When risks to ecosys-tem health are manageable, the process ofreview, analysis, and action planning can beapplied to the formulation of a more compre-hensive, broad-based, long-term sustainabledevelopment strategy.

Caring for the Earth

In 1991, IUCN, UNEP, and WWF released a

CONSERVATION STRATEGIES: "GREENPRINTS" FOR SUSTAINABILITY

follow-up document to the World Conset-vation Strategy - Caring for the Earth: AStrategy for Sustainable Living. Broader inscope than the original strategy, Caring forthe Earth presents a framework forsustainable development strategies based ontwo fundamental requirements: building awidespread commitment to the ethic ofsustainable living, and integrating conserva-tion and development. In effect, theapproach reflects the work of the WCED,which more strongly merged the ecologicaland socioeconomic objectives inherent in thecreation of a sustainable system. The newwcs document presents nine principles ofsustainable living (IUCN/UNEP/WWF,1991, pp.9-12) based on the following requirements.

. Respect and care for the community oflife.

. Improve the quality of human life.

. Conserve the Earth's vitality anddiversity.

. Minimize the depletion of nonrenewableresources.

. Keep within the Earth's carryingcapacity.

. Change personal attitudes and practices.

. Enable communities to care for theirown environments.

. Provide a national framework for inte-

grating development and conservation.

. Create a global alliance.

These principles, in turn, generate 132 rec-ommendations for action at all levels ofsociety, from governments, international

bodies, and local authorities to business andindustry, community groups, and NGOs. Thefinal section of the Strategy charges govern-ments, organizations, and individuals withthe task of responding to the Strategy forSustainable Living by reviewing specificaction recommendations and targets(IUCN/UNEP/WWF,1991, pp. 165-173). Thedocument can also be considered as one of

the preparatory documents for the 1992Earth Summit - a focus on the means to

implement a sustainable future includingrespect for the broad range of values listedabove.

Conservation Strategies andthe EarthSummit

The global meeting of world leaders on thesubject of environment and developmentthat occurred in Rio de Janeiro in June of1992 renewed the call for comprehensiveefforts to deliver a more sustainable future.Agenda 21, the global agenda that emergedfrom the Earth Summit, provides decisionmakers with a comprehensive list of actionsneeded to implement sustainable develop-ment. From poverty alleviation to the devel-opment of science and technology; from theprotection of specific types of ecosystemssuch as forests and mountains to the role ofwomenin development- Agenda 21 repre-sents the closest the international commun-ity has come to a consensus on the require-ments for sustainable development. Agenda21 could be characterized as a form of globalconservation strategy, based on one of themost extensive consultation processes everundertaken, and including all of the objec-tives identified by the wcs and WCED.Theoverall objectives of Agenda 21 are the"...fulfilment of basic needs, improved livingstandards for all, better protected and man-aged ecosystemsand a safer, more prosperousfuture" (UNCED,1992, p. 1). This sweeping

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THE CHALLENGE OF SUSTAINABILITY

agenda is meant to be achieved through co-operation and participation of a multitude ofimplementing agencies, social groups, andbusinesses, with national governments takingthe lead. All activities at the national levelare also to be co-ordinated with international

efforts, through better systems of global co-operation.

The objectives and priority requirementsset out in both Agenda 21 and Caring for theEarth are too numerous to be achieved at

once by any nation. A strategic approach

towards sustainable development requires acritical assessment of where the most urgentneeds lie, and how they can be met within ashort time frame. For a nation whose eco-

nomic development has been based largely

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on resource extraction industries such as

mining and logging, the focus may wellremain in the areas of resource conservationand alternative economic activities. For a

nation whose economic activities are alreadydiversified, the need for more sustainable

consumption patterns and the developmentof environmentally sound technologies mayset the immediate priorities for action. Theimportant point is that all nations shouldconsider themselves mandated to formulate

some strategy to ensure sustainable develop-

ment for the future. New approaches that

achieve human development and enhanced

protection of living resources requireinformed and co-ordinated planning at alljurisdictional levels.

CONSERVATIONSTRATEGIES: "GREENPRINTS" FOR SUSTAINABILITY

Questions for Review1. What is the World Conservation Strategy and what are its key elements?

2. How did the World Commission on Environment and Development buildon the concept of conservation? How do the elements of the WorldConservation Strategy relate to the idea of sustainable development?

3. What are the three basic steps in the process of developing a conservationstrategy?

4. How does a national or regional strategy differ from the World Conserva-tion Strategy in priorities, scope, etc.? What are the main functions of anational strategy?

5. In what ways can a conservation strategy provide a framework withinwhich to implement change?

Questions for Discussion and Research1. How can we involve all sectors of society in defining what they desire for

our common future?

2. Are there models for strategy development that seem well suited to theneeds of your region, nation, or community?

3. What are the barriers to greater public participation in the definition ofvalues and development goals? What steps appear to be key to thebroadening of the process?

4. What are the key benefits and costs associated with greater communityinvolvement in the development and implementation of holistic strategies?

5. Are there optimal units (spatial, political, cultural, or ecological) fordevelopment of such strategies? How can we ensure that both local andglobal goals and concerns are considered?

6. What is the difference between a conservation strategy and a sustainabledevelopment strategy? Is there a substantive difference?

7. What do you think should be the key elements of a sustainable develop-ment strategy for your sector or region?

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THE CHALLENGE OF SUSTAINABILITY

REFERENCES

Co-ordinaring Committee for Conservation. 1987. AConservation Strategy for Prince Edward Island.Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island, vi.

IUCN/UNEP/WWF.1980. World ConseIVation Strategy.Gland, Switzerland: IUCN, UNEP, and WWF.

IUCN/UNEP/WWF.1991. Caring for the Earth. Gland,Switzerland: IUCN, UNEP, and WWF.

Manning, E.W. 1990. Conservation strategies:Poviding the vision for sustainable development.Alternatives 16(4):24-29.

Quesada Mateo, C. 1990. Estrategio de ConseIVacionpara eI Desarrollo Sostenible de Costa Rica. San Jose,Costa Rica: EcoDEs!Ministry of Natural Resources,Energy and Mines.

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Swaminathan, M.S. 1991. From Stockholm to Rio deJaneiro: The Road to SustainableAgriculture. Mono-graph No.4. Madras, India: M.S. SwaminathanResearch Foundation, Centre for Research onSustainable Agricultural and Rural Development.

UNCED.1992. "Press Summary of Agenda 21: DraftProposal." New York: UNCED.

WCED.1987. Our Common Future.New York: OxfordUniversity Press.