Consciousness

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Chapter 9Consciousness

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Consciousness

• Analyzing Consciousness• Sleeping and Dreaming • Hypnosis • Psychoactive Drugs• Linked Exercises

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Analyzing Consciousness

Can unconscious thoughtsaffect your behavior?

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What is Consciousness?

• Medical definition: Medical definition: – Awareness demonstrated by any ability to recall an experience Awareness demonstrated by any ability to recall an experience

• Psychological definition: Psychological definition: – Awareness of the outside worldAwareness of the outside world– Awareness of one’s mental processes, thoughts, feelings,

and perceptions

• An aspect of many mental processes

• May not be a uniquely human capacity

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The Mind-Body Problem

• Dualism– The mind and brain are separate– Championed by René Descartes– No longer considered relevant

• Materialism– The mind and brain are the same– Complex neural interactions create consciousness– Good evidence from studies of brain damage

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Is Consciousness a Unitary Entity?

• Theater view– Consciousness is a single entity– Aspects of awareness appear there, as if on stage– Supported by laws of psychophysics

• Parallel distributed processing (PDP) models– May not be any single form of consciousness– Many interacting streams of information– Supported by separate functions of brain regions

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Relationship Between Consciousand Unconscious Mental Activities

• Unconscious mental activity affects our behavior

– Posited by Freud • Though his work is not supported by current research

– Many important mental activities do occur outside our awareness

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Some Functions of Consciousness

• Helps us adapt to changing environments

• Provides a unified representation of the world– Interpretation of sensory information– Based on memories and other information

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William James

• Consciousness is a stream– Multilayered– Ever changing

• Levels of consciousness—variations in quantity

• Consciousness states—variations in quality

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Levels of Consciousness

• Conscious level– Current level of awareness– Look at the Necker Cube

• Which square is the front surface?• Which square is the rear surface?

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Levels of ConsciousnessLevels of Consciousness

• Nonconscious level– Regulation of most autonomic functions– Biofeedback training can help provide some control

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Levels of ConsciousnessLevels of Consciousness

• Preconscious level– Information you can bring to consciousness (memory)– Example: What color underwear are you wearing?

• (Wow book, seriously?)(Change this question)

• Unconscious level– Freud: Primitive urges kept out of consciousness– Current concept: Unperceived mental activity that

influences conscious thought

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Mental Processing Without Awareness

• Blindsight– Visual processing without awareness

in some cases of blindness

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Mental Processing Without Awareness

• Priming– Brief, unrecalled

exposure to stimuli

– Affects later behavior• Participants read rude or Participants read rude or

polite word listspolite word lists• Unknowingly primed to Unknowingly primed to

exhibit rude or polite exhibit rude or polite behaviorbehavior

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Priming

• Look at the figures below• Decide as quickly as you can whether they can exist • Priming studies suggest you’ll do much better with figures

you’ve seen before, even if you’ve forgotten them

Figures 1, 4, 5, 7, 10, and 12 can exist in three-dimensional space.

Jump to Subliminal Messages

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Neuropsychology of Consciousness

• Based on studies of brain damage• Impairments in consciousness

– Prosopagnosia• Inability to recognize faces • Linked to damage in the temporal lobes

– Anterograde amnesia• Inability to form new memories• Linked to damage in the hippocampus

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Consciousness States• Waking consciousness is the baseline stateWaking consciousness is the baseline state• Some states are active, others are passive• Altered states of consciousness involve distinct changes

in mental processing• Culture defines what is considered normalCulture defines what is considered normal

In some cultures hearing voices is considered normal and desirable. In others, such perceptions are considered hallucinations and are thought to require treatment.

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Altered States of Consciousness

• Sleep

• Hypnosis

• Psychoactive drugs

Back to TOC

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Sleeping and Dreaming

Does your brain go to sleep when you do?

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Sleep is an Active, Complex State

EEG shows stages of sleep

• Non-REM sleep– Stage 1– Stage 2– Stage 3– Stage 4

• REM sleep

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VIDEO: Sleep Cycles

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A Night’s Sleep

Adapted from A Primer of Sleep and Dreaming by Rosalind Cartwright. © 1978 by Addison-Wesley. Reprinted by permission of the author.

• Sequence of stages in a typical night’s sleep

• Deepest during the first part of the night

• Later, REM sleep becomes more prominent

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People Sleep Less as They Get Older

•Sharp reduction in the percentage of REM sleep

– Total of about 8 hours per day in infancy

– Total of about an hour per day by age seventy

• Non-REM also decreases but not as much

•After age 20, non-REM sleep contains less and less of stage 4 sleep

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Sleep-Wake Cycles as Human Biological Rhythms

• Circadian rhythms are cycles of behavior and physiology Circadian rhythms are cycles of behavior and physiology that repeat about every 24 hoursthat repeat about every 24 hours– Cued by cycles of light and darknessCued by cycles of light and darkness

• Controlled by the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN)– SCN also prompts release of melatonin from pineal gland

• Individual variations– Owls—stay up later at night– Larks—wake up earlier

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Disruptions to Circadian Rhythms

• Jet lag– Caused by travel across several time zones– Worse when traveling eastward– May be treated with melatonin

• Monday morning blahs– From sleeping in on weekends, disrupting regular rhythms

• Rotating work shifts, long shifts, and long work weeks

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Functions of SleepFunctions of Sleep

• Non-REM sleep has restorative functionsNon-REM sleep has restorative functions– Helps restore body & brain for future activitiesHelps restore body & brain for future activities– Helps consolidate memories of newly learned factsHelps consolidate memories of newly learned facts

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Sleep DeprivationSleep Deprivation

• Can lead to fatigue, irritability, and inattentionCan lead to fatigue, irritability, and inattention• Can be dangerous to self and othersCan be dangerous to self and others

– Errors in patient care among sleep-deprived doctorsErrors in patient care among sleep-deprived doctors– Sleepy children more prone to injuries at day careSleepy children more prone to injuries at day care– Impaired learning and academic performanceImpaired learning and academic performance– Lowers effectiveness of immune systemLowers effectiveness of immune system– Automobile accidentsAutomobile accidents

• Driving while sleep-deprived is now illegal in NJDriving while sleep-deprived is now illegal in NJ

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ABC VIDEO: Sleepless in America

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Special Functions of REM Sleep?Special Functions of REM Sleep?

• Improves neuronsImproves neurons’’ sensitivity to norepinephrine sensitivity to norepinephrine– affects alertness and moodaffects alertness and mood

• Strengthens neural connectionsStrengthens neural connections• Solidifies experiences and new skillsSolidifies experiences and new skills• May improve creativityMay improve creativity• Sleep deprivation results in REM rebound Sleep deprivation results in REM rebound

Back to States of Consciousness

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Sleep Disorders

• Insomnia• Narcolepsy• Sleep apnea• Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS) • Nightmares• Sleep terror disorder• Sleepwalking• REM behavior disorder

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Insomnia

• Persistent difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep• Associated problems:

– Mental distress– Reduced sense of well-being– Impaired daily functioning– Elevated likelihood of developing mental disorders

• Treatments– Prescription drugs– Progressive muscle relaxation training– Stimulus control techniques

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ABC VIDEO: Curing Insomnia

Back to Sleep Disorders

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Narcolepsy

• Abrupt shift from an active, often emotional waking state into REM sleep

• Usual onset between ages 15 and 25

• May experience cataplexy

• Associated with decreased activity in the hypothalamus

• Most common cause appears to be a lack or deficiency of orexin

• May stem from a genetic defect

• Treatment:– Regularly scheduled daily naps– Combinations of certain drugs, such as modafinil


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Sleep Apnea

• Stop breathing hundreds of times every night• No recall of brief awakenings to resume

breathing• Results in:

– Tired feeling– Reduced attention and learning ability

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Sleep Apnea

• Causes:– Genetic predisposition– Obesity– Failure of brain mechanisms controlling breathing– Compression of the windpipe

• Effective treatments:– Weight loss– Continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) mask – Widen the air passageway in the upper throat

with surgery


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• Sleeping infants stop breathing and die• Most common cause of unexpected

infant death in Western countries• Possible causes:

• Problems with brain systems regulating breathing• Exposure to cigarette smoke• Exposure to other forms of air pollution• Genetic causes• Accidental suffocation from sleeping face-down on a soft

surface

Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS)

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• Prevention:• Place their babies in a face-up

sleeping position•May prevent suffocation•May prevent inhaling potentially toxic bacteriagrowing in some foam mattresses

Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS)


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Nightmares

• Distressing REM sleep dreams• Occurrence:

– 4 to 8 percent of the general population– Higher percentage in people who suffer from

posttraumatic stress disorder following military combat, torture, or rape

• Treatments:– Drugs– Imagery therapy


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Sleep Terror Disorder

• Horrific images during stage 4 sleep• Symptoms:

– May awaken with a bloodcurdling scream– May be intensely frightened for up to 30 minutes– May not recall the episode in the morning

• Especially common in boys• Adults can suffer milder versions• Treatable with drugs


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Sleepwalking

• Occurrence:– During non-REM sleep– Usually in childhood

• Most sleepwalkers forget their wanderings and sometimes bizarre activities

• No consistently effective medical treatments• If accompanied by sleep apnea, may be helped by

wearing a CPAP mask at night • Most children simply outgrow the problem• Waking a sleepwalker is not harmful


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REM Behavior Disorder

• Normal REM paralysis does not occur, so sleepers move as if acting out their dreams, which may include eating, drinking, defecating, or even having sex

• Can be dangerous to the dreamer or people nearby• Sometimes comorbid with daytime narcolepsy• May be caused by a brain tumor• Commonly comorbid with Parkinson’s disease• Often the first sign of a degenerative brain condition • Treated with prescription drugs


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Dreams and Dreaming

• Brain activity during sleep that is experienced as story-like sensations and perceptions

• Happens in all stages of sleep• Most bizarre, vivid dreams occur in REM sleep• May last a few seconds or for many minutes• Despite senselessness, often contain some logic• Daytime activities may influence dream content• Lucid dreaming—intentionally directing dream

content

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Why Do We Dream?

• Fundamental process in all mammals

• Helps to analyze and consolidate significant information

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Sigmund Freud’sPsychodynamic Theory

• Dreams are a disguised form of wish fulfillment

– Manifest content is what you see in the dream• Perhaps you dream about riding a horse

– Latent content is the hidden meaning• The horseback ride might signify sexual desire

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Hobson’s Activation-Synthesis Theory

• Dreams are meaningless byproducts of REM sleep1. Hindbrain arousal creates random messages2. These messages activate the cortex3. Cortex tries to impose a coherent structure on

these messages by synthesizing them with memories, feelings, and current concerns

4. This synthesis produces dreams

Back to TOCBack to States of Consciousness

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Hypnosis

Can you be hypnotizedagainst your will?

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Hypnosis

• An altered state of consciousness– Brought on by special

techniques– Produces responsiveness

to suggestions for changes in experience and behavior

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Hypnotic Susceptibility

• Has positive attitudes toward hypnosis• Tends to be suggestible• Is willing to be hypnotized• Can focus attention and ignore distraction• Has an active imagination• Tends to fantasize• Quickly, easily processes information

What kind of person is responsive to hypnosis?

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Main Changes in PeopleDuring Hypnosis

• Reduced planfulness• Redistributed attention• Enhanced ability to fantasize• Increased role takingIncreased role taking• Reduced reality-testing

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Examples of Hypnotic Results

• Hallucinations• Sensory insensitivity • Changes in physical abilities• Age regression• Posthypnotic suggestions• Posthypnotic amnesia

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Explaining Hypnosis

• State theories of hypnosis– Hypnosis creates an altered state of consciousness

• Nonstate theories of hypnosis– Role theory—a person simply plays the role of a

hypnotic subject, cooperating with the hypnotist

• Hilgard’s dissociation theory– Subjects share control with the hypnotist– There is compliance with a social role– There is also a real change in mental processes

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Applications of Hypnosis

• Pain Management– May be used in place of anesthetic

• Hypnotic suggestions:– May reduce nausea and vomiting caused

by chemotherapy– May reduce surgical bleeding– Can cut post-operative recovery times– May help with dieting or breaking bad habits

• Use as a memory aid more controversial– May lead to false or inaccurate memories

Jump to Linkages

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ABC VIDEO: Hypnosis and Surgery Pain

Back to TOCBack to States of Consciousness

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Psychoactive Drugs

How do drugs affect the brain?

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Psychopharmacology: The Study of Psychoactive Drugs

• Drugs can change consciousness• Most drugs alter the interactions between

neurotransmitters and their receptors – Must cross the blood-brain barrier– Affect psychological functions performed by the

brain systems that use these neurotransmitters

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Agonists and Antagonists

• Agonists– Bind to receptors to mimic

neurotransmitters’ effects

• Antagonists– Bind to receptors to block

neurotransmitters’ effects

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Drug Abuse

• User suffers distress from social, legal, or interpersonal problems

• May create psychological dependence• May create addiction (physical dependence)

– Drug tolerance—causes a need for greater doses– Drug withdrawal—symptoms caused by discontinuing

use

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Learned Expectations and Drug Effects

• Some people consuming alcohol-free drinks will act drunk if they believe they’re drinking alcohol

– More aggressive– More interested in violent and sexual material– More easily sexually aroused– More prone to developing false memories

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CNS Depressant Drugs

• Reduce or depress CNS activity– Partly by increasing the activity of GABA, an

inhibitory neurotransmitter

• Effects:– Relaxation– Drowsiness– Depression

• Examples:– Alcohol– Barbiturates– Gamma Hydroxybutyrate (GHB)

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Effects of Alcoholon Neurotransmitters

• Enhances the effect of endorphins• Interacts with dopamine systems• Affects GABA activity• Also interacts with

– Endocannabinoids– Glutamate– Serotonin

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Effects of Alcoholon Specific Brain Regions

• Depresses activity in the locus coeruleus– May permit release of cultural inhibitions

• Impairs the hippocampus– Causes difficulty forming new memories– Effects on the hippocampus may be permanent

• Suppresses the cerebellum– Causes poor motor coordination

• Depresses hindbrain mechanisms– May cause fatal problems with breathing and

heartbeat regulation

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Effects of Barbiturates

• Stimulates GABA receptors• Highly addictive • Effects:

– Relaxation– Feelings of well-being– Loss of muscle coordination– Reduced attention– Sleep– Distorted thought patterns

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Effects of GHB

• Relaxation• Elation• Loss of inhibitions• Suggestibility• Increased sex drive

• Nausea and vomiting• Headaches• Dizziness• Loss of muscle control

or paralysis• Breathing problems• Memory loss• Loss of consciousness• Death

• Naturally occurring substance similar to GABA• Effects include:

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CNS Stimulating Drugs

• Increase behavioral and mental activity• Examples:

– Amphetamines– Cocaine– Caffeine– Nicotine– MDMA (“Ecstasy”)

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CNS Stimulating Drugs: Amphetamines

• Increase release and decrease removal of norepinephrine and dopamine

• Decrease GABA activity• Effects:

• Alertness• Arousal• Appetite

suppression• Increased response

speed• Improved verbal

memory

• Anxiety• Insomnia• Heart problems• Brain damage• Abnormal

movements• Confusion• Paranoia• Nonstop talking

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CNS Stimulating Drugs: Cocaine

• Increases norepinephrine and dopamine activity• Decreases GABA activity• Produces many amphetamine-like effects• Effects:

– Stimulates self-confidence, a sense of well-being, and optimism

– Continued use brings nausea, overactivity, insomnia, paranoia, a sudden depressive “crash,” hallucinations, sexual dysfunction, and seizures

• Using cocaine during pregnancy is associated with lasting cognitive and behavioral problems for the child

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CNS Stimulating Drugs: Caffeine

• Effects:– Reduces drowsiness– Enhances mood– Promotes vigilance– Improves problem solving– Boosts physical work capacity– Increases urine production– Associated with a decreased risk of Alzheimer’s disease– Can cause tremors and anxiety– Temporarily raises blood pressure

Caffeine is the world’s most popular drug. Found in chocolate, soft drinks, tea, and coffee.

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CNS Stimulating Drugs: Caffeine

• Withdrawal symptoms:– Headaches– Fatigue– Anxiety– Shakiness– Craving

May make it harder for women to become pregnantMay increase the risk of miscarriage or stillbirthAppears to have few, if any, negative effects overall

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CNS Stimulating Drugs: Nicotine

• Enhances the action of acetylcholine• Increases the release of glutamate• Activates the brain’s dopamine-related pleasure system• Stimulates endogenous cannabinoid and opioid systems• Physically addictive

– Tendency to become physically dependent appears at least partly inherited

• Major risk factor for cancer, heart disease, and respiratory disorders

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CNS Stimulating Drugs: Nicotine

• Effects:– Autonomic nervous system arousal– Elevated mood– Improved memory and attention

• Withdrawal symptoms:– Cravings,– Irritability– Anxiety– Reduced heart rate– Reduced activity in the brain’s

reward pathways

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CNS Stimulating Drugs: MDMA (Ecstasy)

• Immediate effects:– Sense of well-being– Increased sex drive– Sense of greater closeness

to others– Dry mouth– Hyperactivity– Jaw muscle spasms– Elevated blood pressure– Fever– Abnormal heart rhythms– Visual hallucinations

• Day-after effects:– Muscle aches– Fatigue– Depression– Poor concentration

• Long-term effects:– May produce permanent

behavioral changes in offspring

– Impairs memory, judgment, and other psychological functions, even after its use is discontinued

•Increases the activity of dopamine-releasing neurons•Stimulates serotonin receptors and increases serotonin release

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Opiates

• Can induce sleep and relieve pain• Have complex effects on consciousness• Highly addictive class of drugs• Examples

– Opium– Morphine– Heroin– CodeineCodeine

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Hallucinogenic Drugs

• Also called psychedelics• Create a loss of contact with reality• Alter other aspects of emotion, perception,

and thought• Examples

– LSD– Ketamine– Marijuana

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Hallucinogenic Drugs: LSD

• Stimulates a specific type of serotonin receptors in the forebrain• Stimulates a subtype of dopamine receptors

– Activation leads to hallucinations and delusions• Not addictive, but tolerance does develop• Effects:

– Bizarre hallucinations– Time distortion– Sounds may cause visual sensations– Out-of-body feeling

• Long-term effects for some users:– severe short-term memory loss– paranoia– violent outbursts– nightmares– panic attacks– Distortions in visual sensations– Flashbacks to an LSD-like state of consciousness

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Hallucinogenic Drugs: Ketamine

• Anesthetic– Veterinary uses:

• Ease pain in animals

– Medical uses:• Sedate critically ill patients• Suppressing dangerous seizure activity

• Effects– Dissociative feelings of an “out-of-body” or

“near death” experience– Amnesia and other lasting memory problems

• Damages hippocampus and other memory-related structures

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Hallucinogenic Drugs: Marijuana

• Active ingredient is tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)• Alters blood flow to many brain regions and continues to

affect consciousness for several hours• There are several receptors for THC• Brain’s endocannabinoid system interacts with the

endorphin and dopamine systems• Effects of low doses:

– Restlessness and hilarity– Dreamy, carefree relaxation– Expanded sense of space and time– More vivid sensations– Food cravings– Subtle changes in thinking

Jump to Thinking Critically

Back to States of ConsciousnessBack to TOC

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Linked Exercises• Focus on Research Methods: Subliminal Messages in Rock Music• Linkages: Meditation, Health, and Stress• Thinking Critically: Is Marijuana Dangerous?

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Focus on Research Methods: Subliminal Messages in Rock Music

• What was the researchers’ question?– Can backward messages be perceived and be

understood when music is played forward?– Would such a message affect behavior?

• How did the researchers answer the question?– Tape recordings of the 23rd Psalm and the poem

Jabberwocky were played backwards to groups of college students.

– Did the students hear anything meaningful?

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Focus on Research Methods: Subliminal Messages (cont’d)

• What did the researchers find?– Participants could not understand the backward

messages at a conscious level– Meanings of the backward messages were not Meanings of the backward messages were not

subconsciously understoodsubconsciously understood– The backward messages did not alter the

participants’ behavior

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Focus on Research Methods: Subliminal Messages (cont’d)

• What do the results mean?– Backward messages are not understood consciously or

unconsciously– Backward messages do not influence behavior

• What do we still need to know?– Why do people still believe that backward messages can Why do people still believe that backward messages can

influence behavior?influence behavior?

Back to Priming Back to Linked Exercises

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Linkages: Meditation, Health, and Stress

• Creates an altered state of consciousness– Characterized by inner peace and tranquility

• Meditation claims:– Increases awareness and understanding of self

and environment– Reductions in stress-related problems– Reduces anxiety, improves health, and aids

performance– Increases in overall mental health, self-esteem,

and social openness

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• Techniques commonly used to achieve a meditative state include:– Focusing attention on just one thing until the

meditator stops thinking about anything and experiences nothing but pure awareness

– Being more fully aware only of the present moment– Passive attitude

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• Effects:– Decreases in breathing, heart rate, muscle tension,

blood pressure, and oxygen consumption– Induction of alpha-wave EEG activity– Increases in level of dopamine– Increased activity in brain areas involved in

concentrated attention

• May create lasting changes in the brain– Thickening of certain areas of the cerebral cortex– Denser packing of nerves in certain areas of the

brainstem

Back to Hypnosis Back to Linked Exercises

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Thinking Critically:Is Marijuana Dangerous?

• What am I being asked to believe or accept?– Marijuana is addictive– Marijuana use leads to the use of other drugs– Intoxication endangers user and others– Long-term use leads to undesirable behavioral changes,

disruption of brain functions, and other adverse health effects

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Thinking Critically:Is Marijuana Dangerous? (cont’d)

• What evidence is available to support the assertion?– Can lead to psychological dependence– Associated with:

• Respiratory, cardiovascular, and immune system problems • Problems with muscle coordination• Reduced creativity• Lasting impairments in reasoning, memory, and judgment• Smaller than normal volume in brain areas involved in

emotion and memory, with heavy use• Heavy use may be followed by appearance of anxiety,

depression, schizophrenia, and other mental disorders

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• Are there alternative ways of interpreting the evidence?– Studies provide an inaccurate or incomplete picture

of its effects– The same dopamine receptors activated by

marijuana are also activated by sex and chocolate– Correlations do not show causality. There may be

other causal factors.

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• What additional evidence would help evaluate the alternatives?– Evidence based on well-controlled experiments

• What conclusions are most reasonable?– Marijuana use may be harmful– Conclusions about possible medicinal value must wait for

research outcomes

Back to Hallucinogenic Drugs Back to Linked Exercises

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In Class Writing Exercises

• Place one at the start of your presentation. • Have your students write for a minute or two

about the quote on the slide.• This will help them center themselves on the

topic to be covered in class.• You may wish to use their responses to

generate class discussion.

The following slides may be used as advance organizers for the topics in this unit.

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In Class Writing Exercise::

Cogito ergo sum.Cogito ergo sum.((I think, therefore I am.)I think, therefore I am.)

Rene DescartesRene Descartes

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Bloom County

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Consciousness...does not appear to itself chopped up in bits...A “river” or a “stream” are the metaphors by which it is most naturally described. In talking of it hereafter, let us call it the stream of thought, of consciousness, or of subjective life.

William James

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Man is what he believes.

Anton Chekov

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Consciousness is a disease.

Miguel de Unamuno

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Keep cool but do not freeze.

Directions on a jar of mayonnaise

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Just because everything is different doesn’t mean anything has changed.

Irene Peter

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The future influences the present just as much as the past.

Friedrich Nietzsche

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Why should a man’s mind have been thrown into such close, sad, sensational, inexplicable relations with such a precarious object as his body.

Thomas Hardy

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Enlightenment is any experience of expanding our consciousness beyond its present limits. We could also say that perfect enlightenment is realizing that we have no limits at all, and that the entire universe is alive.

Thaddeus Golas

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If I were asked to make a graph of my mental life it would not be a curve. It would be a mad succession of zigzags, dartings hither and thither, leaps upward and plunges downward, like a fever chart. This stranger that I steer behaves oddly and queerly. I cannot explain the behaviour.

James Douglas

Consciousness

Health & Medicine

Transcript of Consciousness