Confl ict Resolution Education and Positive Behavioral...

Confl ict Resolution Education and Positive Behavioral Support:

A Climate of Safety for All Learners

Pamela Lane-Garon

Jessica Yergat

Charles Kralowec

Mainstream education movements eventually provide resources for forms of education oriented toward life skills. Th is article examines a timely convergence: Positive Behavior Intervention Support (PBIS) and confl ict resolution education (CRE). PBIS is a mainstream edu-cational model for school climate improvement, and CRE is a proven approach to school safety. In addition to exploring the similarities of these two approaches, fi ndings of a school-based research study are reported. Variables examined are perspective taking, empathy, and confl ict strategy. Th e authors conclude that PBIS and CRE are making important contributions and that particular strength may be drawn from their combined implementation.

Positive Behavior Intervention Support (PBIS) is proliferating as a movement in education. Th is systems approach intends to prevent

learner problems from escalating before intervention. Th is is also the goal of the confl ict resolution education (CRE) movement. PBIS recommends intentional social-emotional and behavioral instruction, as does CRE. Th e timely surge of interest in PBIS benefi ts social-emotional learning in our schools—specifi cally CRE. What follows is the emerging story of a California elementary school where both CRE and PBIS are implemented. Students at Polk Elementary were trained in confl ict resolution facilita-tion through a public school–university project and assessed on develop-mental variables—before and after mediation training and service.

Conflict Resolution Quarterly, vol. 30, no. 2, Winter 2012 197© Wiley Periodicals, Inc. and the Association for Confl ict ResolutionPublished online in Wiley Online Library (wileyonlinelibrary.com) • DOI: 10.1002/crq.21059

Positive Behavior Intervention Support or PBIS is an approach to stu-dent discipline that emphasizes (a) proactive instruction of desired behav-ioral expectations, reinforcement of appropriate behavior, and monitoring and correction of problem behavior; (b) data-driven decision-making; and (c) application of more intensive intervention and targeted support for students who do not respond to prevention eff orts (Lewis & Sugai, 1999; Sugai & Horner, 2002).

Understandably, administrators, school psychologists, and teachers are enthusiastic about the emergence of PBIS as a movement and as a support for all learners. Also excited about the PBIS development are those practitioner-scholars working in CRE. Th ese practitioner-scholars are interdisciplinary and work in both K–12 and higher education. Th ey are often involved in public school–university partnerships in which confl ict mediation pro-grams, restorative discipline, and confl ict resolution curriculum are devel-oped. CRE and PBIS present frameworks for student support that are inclusive and respectful of strengths and weaknesses. Both PBIS and CRE view the school setting as one in which all can be safe—to set goals, work toward them, accomplish and, yes, even fall short of objectives, examine data, revise strategies, and attempt again.

One of the most apparent commonalities between CRE and PBIS is the intentional nature of instruction in aff ective as well as cognitive aspects of student development. Th is article describes the strategic sense that PBIS and CRE make, when implemented together, in our schools. Further, it provides an illustrative case study by data generated in the context of a university–public school partnership at James K. Polk Elementary School in central California.

Background

At James K. Polk Elementary School, there was a character education pro-gram based on Character Counts (Josephson’s program brand name; Josephson, 2000) when PBIS and CRE came to the school district. Wise educational leadership felt that although character education was helpful in providing the school community with common aspirations, it was not encouraging student emotional connections to the school and to ideals. Th is same wise leadership recognized that the fi t across programmatic foci could be enhanced with a more purposeful emphasis on the emotional develop-ment of students, in addition to the clear behavioral expectations provided by both character education and PBIS implementation. To this end, Polk

198 LANEGARON, YERGAT, KRALOWEC

Conflict Resolution Quarterly • DOI: 10.1002/crq

incorporated CRE in the form of Mentored Peer Mediation (Cassinerio & Lane-Garon, 2006; Lane-Garon, 2011; Lane-Garon & Richardson, 2003) with existing structures and the new PBIS model to teach what respectful interpersonal problem-solving looks like and feels like. By soliciting students who were caring and service-minded, training them as facilitators of confl ict resolution for their peers, the emotional connection to school ideals and val-ues was concretized. Th e Mentored Peer Mediation program engaged willing students in communication and confl ict resolution skill training, followed by service to the school community. Peer mediators and the disputing students they served soon were demonstrating respect, responsibility, and resourceful-ness on a daily basis—service learning at its best! Of importance is the research-based nature of the university–public school local program, Mediator Mentors, which was implemented at Polk. For example, based on 30 years of CRE and child development accumulated knowledge, the development of empathy is considered a product of the interrelationship between maturing cognitive perspective taking and socialization to care (Lickona, 1992; Sandy & Cochran, 2006; Selman, 1980). Mediator Mentors provides oppor-tunity for guided practice in communication and confl ict resolution as uni-versity students “embrace” the mediator team and provide ongoing training. Peer mediation develops the emotion vocabulary and skills essential to increas-ing cognitive perspective-taking ability and disposition—enabling empathy. Th e mentoring of Polk peer mediators by university students studying to become teachers, counselors, and psychologists strengthened the focus on providing example and support in the PBIS system introduction. Addition-ally, the emotional connection of students to school and service was intensi-fi ed in the mentoring relationship with university students, who were also trained in confl ict resolution skills and strategies and who came to care deeply about the children they were mentoring. Th e Polk community, by members’ anecdotal assessment, was enriched by the implementation of mentored peer mediation; however, because of the PBIS emphasis on data-based decision making, more formal assessments were also completed with respect to the targeted student development variables of interest. Assessment scores evaluat-ing student development of empathy and perspective taking are presented in this article. In addition, the Mediator Mentors project is fully described.

PBIS at Polk

PBIS addresses the intentional, proactive eff ort by schools, districts, and states. In PBIS, systems of support are interrelated and built on one

Confl ict Resolution Education and Positive Behavioral Support 199


another in order to prevent students from failing, either academically or behaviorally. PBIS also evokes positive student behavior with thematic statements, such as James K. Polk Elementary School’s Strive for Five.

Strive for Five (PBIS Guidelines for All Student Behavior)

1. Be Respectful 2. Be Safe 3. Work Peacefully 4. Strive for Excellence 5. Follow Directions

Th e children at Polk repeat this mantra on a daily basis and discuss in classroom meetings and schoolwide settings how they are operationalizing their fi ve behavior expectations. For example, respect is operationalized by the cooperatively contextualized agreements describing desirable behavior that is student-to-student, student-to-teacher, student-to-adult, and student-to–physical environment. Respect for the physical environment means the student treats property well and does not destroy it unnecessar-ily. Classroom meetings are a staple of both PBIS and CRE. CRE is a communication-based approach to teaching, learning, and practicing social-emotional skills needed for life (Jones, 2004). For example, when problems arise in the school year, the classroom meeting provides a venue for group discussion and problem solving in which ground rules for respectful communication and reverence for persons and divergent per-spectives become norms. In the fi eld research reported on in this article, Polk’s Strive for Five message was shared by all members of the community—expectations in PBIS approaches are clear, and language around behavioral norms becomes frequent commerce. Polk’s PBIS team is comprised of school site teachers, janitors, administrators, parents, and crossing guards. Th eirs is a systemwide, team approach in which all mem-bers off er direct instruction of desired behaviors and intervention support. Polk is creating a continuum of positive behavior support for all students. Th e Strive for Five behavioral expectations are clearly defi ned in positive, simple statements. Th ese fi ve behavioral expectations are taught to all students for every setting or circumstance they will encounter. Learners see models of what a desired behavior is and is not. Once



appropriate behaviors have been defi ned and demonstrated, approxima-tions to the goal are acknowledged on a regular basis. Behavioral errors are addressed through invitations to engage in a new, better attempt. When students are not successful in achieving behavioral expectations, it is com-municated to them that their mistake has provided them with a learning opportunity. No shame or blame is associated with the process of con-structing a new attempt at meeting the goal. CRE also holds as an under-lying principle that students may misbehave for a variety of reasons, including that the child is having a bad day, the child has not been taught the appropriate skills, or the child may have an underlying disorder requir-ing another level of intervention. Th is kind of thinking results in profes-sional intervention that is specifi c to learners’ needs and supportive of their continuing eff ort to achieve.

At Polk, the Strive for Five behavior team meets on a monthly basis to monitor the implementation and the eff ectiveness of PBIS at the school site. Two members of the PBIS team are also CRE leaders for the confl ict mediation program on campus. Th ese educators run nomination week for students interested in becoming servant leaders in confl ict resolution facil-itation. Th e teacher leaders select nominees, train candidates in mediation skills along with local university partners, schedule mediator teams for daily duty on the playground, and hold bimonthly meetings to encourage and problem-solve with the team. With CRE and PBIS team membership overlapping at Polk, a more nuanced evaluation of mistaken behavior (Nelsen, 1996) is made possible. Th e opportunity to resolve interpersonal confl ict at school, before it escalates to a punishable off ense, is an essential provision for all students. In PBIS terminology, this is an important tier 1 program support. Just as not all disruptions in the school day are confl icts, not all disruptions require discipline action. Administrators who under-stand this off er confl ict resolution models for children that they can engage in with staff and mentor support. In the year of the data collection reported on in this writing, Polk had two CRE teacher leaders and two university Mediator Mentors working with the peer mediators on a daily basis. Small interpersonal problems were being resolved regularly with the help of the peer mediators on daily duty. And similar to PBIS, program evaluations and adaptations were being addressed by the team. Ongoing evaluation and adaptation is a principle shared by both CRE and PBIS frameworks.

Currently at Polk, individual student support systems are integrated with schoolwide confl ict resolution and discipline systems. According to



Sugai and Horner (2002), the eff ective implementation of schoolwide pos-itive behavioral interventions and supports results in:

• Increased attendance • Student self-reports of a more positive and calm environment • Teacher reports of a more positive and calm environment • Reduction in the number of students who engage in behavioral

disruptions • Reduction in the number of behavioral disruptions overall

Importantly, CRE research has yielded similar fi ndings with respect to positive learning climate and reduction of disruptions (Jones, 2004; Lane-Garon et al., 2005; Uline, Tschannen-Moran, & Perez, 2003). Th ese results include:

• Increased attendance • Student, teacher, and parent reports of a more positive and calm

learning environment • Increase in the number of peacefully resolved disputes • Decrease in the number of serious behavioral disruptions overall

Th e common goals and outcomes of PBIS and CRE are strengthening Polk support of positive student development on campus in a variety of ways.

Being responsive to student needs is a principle of both CRE and PBIS. Sometimes this means listening (as when a student is having a bad day), sometimes it means more teaching (as when a student lacks skills), and sometimes it means assessment and intervention at a higher level (e.g., a psychologist referral for bully behavior).

Who Are Polk Students?

Th e student population at Polk Elementary School (approximately 700 students) is highly multicultural. In grades 4, 5, and 6, where students serve as peer mediators, there are approximately 50 Hispanic, 1 Native American, 16 Asian, 12 African American, 17 White, and 2 stu-dents of mixed race. Half of these students are English learners. Of the





student population, 484 are eligible to receive free or reduced lunch. Th e school territory is large, inside an urbanized area surrounded by vineyards and other agriculture. Table 1 and Figure 1 further describe the Polk Elementary School population.

In Polk’s opening year (2004), the school community members met, developed a mission statement, and established professional learning com-munities (DuFour, DuFour, Eaker, & Karhanek, 2004; Uline & Berkowitz, 2000). Full inclusion for children with special needs was developed. Polk’s core ethical values are clearly articulated and aligned with district values. In the fi rst week of school, each class meets to discuss behavior expectations

Figure 1. School Population Description by Ethnicity

0.7 American Indian or Alaska NativeSchool Enrollment

18.6 Asian0.4 Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander1.1 Filipino51.9 Hispanic or Latino12.1 Black or African American14.1 White0.9 Two or More Races0.1 None Reported

Table 1. School Population Description for Special Groups

Special Programs, James K. Polk Elementary School, 2009–2010

School District

Number of StudentsPercentage of Enrollment

Percentage of Enrollment

English Learners 118 16.9% 15.7%Free/Reduced Price Mealsa 484 69.1% 60.9%Compensatory Education 691 98.7% 79.5%Title I Yes, schoolwide plan N/A N/A



in the positive discipline system. During these assemblies, the student peer mediators also present a role-play demonstrating how to access the peer mediators and making it clear to students that skilled facilitation is available as a positive choice for all in cases of interpersonal confl ict. Behavioral expectations are made clear to students and parents. Th is disci-pline policy, as well as information about the peer mediation program, is published in the parent–student handbook and in the staff handbook. In 2010, 92% of Polk parents responded to a survey indicating that Polk was the best school for students and parents in the district.

At Polk, students have the opportunity for service learning. Th e Children’s Hospital of Central California and military service personnel overseas have benefi ted from Polk student service and fundraising. Peer mediation is one form of student service that Polk Elementary School children may select. Peer mediation, as previously defi ned, is a mode of CRE that has been an important component of school learning climate improvement in our nation for over three decades. Th e Mediator Mentors project is a university–public school partnership in which students self-select to serve their school as confl ict resolution facilitators. Professors, classroom teachers, and university students teach and mentor these peer mediators as they resolve disputes on a daily basis. It is in this context that children practice respectful communication, impulse control, and appreciation of diverse persons and ideas. Mentored peer mediation at Polk serves as a laboratory in which the positive behaviors exhorted by PBIS are practiced and recognized with adult and peer feedback on a daily basis.

Confl ict Resolution Education

CRE curriculum for learners in grades kindergarten through graduate school can be found in school systems nationwide. CRE programs include a variety of strategies that share various emphases on:

• An understanding of confl ict • Social, emotional, and cognitive processes related to constructive

confl ict management • Principles of confl ict resolution • Skills required to enact constructive confl ict management



Some states (e.g., Ohio, Oregon, New Mexico, and Indiana) have wisely integrated this content with language arts, health, and social studies curriculum. Teachers teach and children learn that confl ict is a natural part of life and that learning constructive confl ict-related skills is as important to becoming an educated person as is knowing the order of operations in math. An underlying principle of CRE is that confl ict resolution skills are essential for life and should be embraced at all educational levels (Jones, 2004). Said another way, this aspect of human development, like all eff ec-tive education, requires direct instruction, guidance, and practice, too. To be prepared for life is to develop knowledge about confl ict, confi dence in dealing with it, and values around the importance of considering the wel-fare of all in the confl ict-related processes. CRE programs typically fi t one of three delivery formats: direct skills instruction, peer mediation, and embedded curriculum (Garrard & Lipsey, 2007). Peer mediation (third- party facilitated confl ict resolution) is seen as a form of CRE in that it teaches and off ers learners practice in an approach to confl ict resolution useful for life. With CRE, schoolchildren at varying grade levels can be seen mediating disputes between Th omas Jeff erson and Alexander Hamilton or Jeff erson Davis and Abraham Lincoln as well as in situ dis-putes that arise naturally on the playground (Jones & Sanford, 2003). Along with K–12 curriculum, teacher education programs in states where CRE has been implemented prepare educators to create learning environ-ments where constructive approaches to confl ict represent classroom man-agement competencies that must be mastered in order to earn a credential (Jones, 2003). For example, key elements in the California Standards for the Teaching Profession include promoting social development and estab-lishing and maintaining standards for student behavior (www.btsa.ca.gov/ba/pubs/pdf/cstpreport.pdf ). CRE is directly facilitative of the specifi c goals associated with these key elements:

• Antibias and acceptance of diff erences that are cultural, linguistic, ethnic, intellectual, physical, and social

• Knowledge about and skill development around interpersonal confl ict

• Values expressive of maintaining the self-esteem and human dignity of all

• Authentic opportunities for all students to communicate and collaborate



• Leadership skills and opportunities to use them • Responsive classrooms where teachers facilitate and strengthen

student voice and agency • High expectations for behavior standards, refl ective of student devel-

opmental and personal needs • Eff ective intervention when student behavior does not meet agreed-

on classroom standards

In addition to specifying what teachers need to learn in order to teach and nurture confl ict resolution skills in their learners, the CRETE Curriculum (Confl ict Resolution Education in Teacher Education) is avail-able through a grant from Judges’ Arbitration and Mediation Service via Temple University and 10 partner universities throughout the nation. For example, the teacher candidate mediator mentors at Polk Elementary School attended four days of CRETE training at California State University–Fresno and became well prepared to support the peer media-tors on their school confl ict resolution service team.

Critical concepts and skills listed in the CRETE Facilitator’s Guide (Jones, 2008) are:

• Understanding Confl ict—What Causes It, What to Do About It • Confl ict Styles—How to Manage Confl ict • Emotions and Confl ict—Handling Anger and Understanding

Triggers • De-escalating Angry Students • Positive Discipline and Dealing with Disruptive Students • Using Classroom Meetings to Establish Classroom Management • Bullying Prevention—What Can Teachers Do? • Building Collaborative Negotiation Skills Among Your Students • Using Peer Mediation to Your Advantage • Dialogue and Diversity Confl ict • Restorative Practices in Schools

Many studies have demonstrated that CRE programs create a positive classroom climate, enhance academic learning, and encourage supportive



and nurturing relationships between teachers and students (Aber, Brown, & Jones, 2003). Th ere is now solid data supporting the link between CRE (and social-emotional learning in general) and academic achievement (Durlak, Weisberg, & Pachan, 2010). An important resource entitled Building School Success through Social and Emotional Learning reports that when students become more socially emotionally aware and competent, academic performance improves. In addition, when students are emotionally invested in one another’s welfare, it becomes easier for them to achieve academic success in the resulting supportive environment (Zins, Weissberg, Wang, & Walberg, 2004).

PBIS: The Movement and the Design

PBIS represents a systems change process for an entire school or district. Th e underlying theme is teaching behavioral expectations in the same manner as any core curriculum subject. According to the School-wide Positive Behavior Support Implementers’ Blueprint and Self-Assessment (Lewis, Barrett, Sugai, & Horner, 2010), a PBIS systems approach also yields safer schools. In the PBIS research literature, a 90% reduction in problem behavior in over half of the studies reviewed was reported. Further, in 26% of these studies, behavior problems were completely eradicated. Generally, offi ce discipline referrals were reduced by 20% to 60%. In addition, because of the PBIS emphasis on data collection and analysis, evaluation at a variety of levels is facilitated.

As demonstrated by Polk Elementary, the PBIS framework is designed to unify all school staff , parents, students, and community members by common expectations that are taught and reinforced at school, at home, and in the community. In fact, school PBIS leadership teams are encour-aged to have members from all of the above.

Figures 2 and 3 demonstrate the interconnectedness of the components and the diff erent levels of interventions based on the needs of the school andthe student in diff erent intensity levels.

CRE and Its Place in PBIS

As noted, mentored peer mediation, a form of CRE, was originally selected for implementation at Polk Elementary School because, according to fi nd-ings from the initial stages of the school’s PBIS implementation, the



Supporting Social Competence andAcademic Achievement

SupportingDecisionMaking

SupportingStaff Behavior

Supporting Student Behavior

4 PBIS ElementsOUTCOMES

PRACTICES

DATA

SYST

EMS

Figure 2. The Four PBIS Elements

Primary Prevention:School-/Classroom-

Wide Systems forAll Students,

Staff, and Settings

Secondary Prevention:Specialized Group

Systems for Studentswith At-Risk Behavior

Tertiary Prevention:Specialized

IndividualizedSystems for Students

with High-Risk Behavior

~80% of Students

~15%

~5%

CONTINUUM OFSCHOOLWIDE

INSTRUCTIONAL andPOSITIVE BEHAVIOR

SUPPORT

Figure 3. Continuum of Schoolwide Instructional and Positive Behavior Support



school’s assessed needs were consistent with CRE goals, which include enhancing students’ social and emotional development, creating a safe environment, creating a constructive learning environment, and creating a constructive confl ict community. Mentored peer mediation is eff ective in the bottom tier of Figure 1 as a support for all students and in tier 2 as an intervention for some.

When all students are taught to resolve confl ict respectfully and encour-aged to do so within a prescribed framework, interpersonal disputes are resolved at a lower level—before discipline is necessary. Students make positive choices, and relationships are repaired before physical altercation becomes an issue, often even before adult intervention is necessary.

Mentored peer mediation can also be an eff ective tier 2 intervention in which students with repetitive minor behavioral themes around confl ict and anger management can become trained as mediators and receive the mentoring of the university intern and teacher leader, in addition to pair-ing with a peer mediator of greater communication and self-regulatory ability. Th e data presented in this article indicate that Mediator Mentors has added particular strength to Polk’s PBIS design, especially with respect to the development of students who consider the thoughts and feelings of others. Th is alone prevents destructive confl ict and facilitates psychological and physical safety.

Mediator Mentors

Mentored peer mediation at Polk was implemented with the assistance of the Mediator Mentors Project at California State University (http://www.fresnostate.edu/kremen/special_projects/mediator.html). In this program, students in grades 4 to 6 nominate themselves to become confl ict managers for their peers. Th ey are then endorsed by peers and staff and receive two days of standards-based mediation training at the university. Following this preparation, a university student mentor embraces the team and works together with the peer mediator teacher leader to provide ongoing training and on-site consultation as the children mediate naturally occurring con-fl icts. Although peer mediation is a familiar model of CRE, mentored peer mediation provides interaction with the more capable peer in the context of ongoing relationship (Lane-Garon, 2000; Vygotsky, 1978). Th e mission of the Mediator Mentors Project is to teach and nurture respectful confl ict resolution skills in youth and in future helping professionals through direct instruction, guided practice, and cross-age mentoring relationships. Th e project vision is focused on supporting CRE at all levels for the purpose of



aff ecting peaceful and productive problem-solving in our communities and world. Th e Mediator Mentors Project at Fresno State, begun in 1998 and housed in the Kremen School of Education and Human Development, off ers a stipend-supported opportunity for future helping professionals (teachers, counselors, social workers, school psychologists, etc.) to nurture the development of respectful communication and confl ict resolution skills among schoolchildren in the community. Mediation is voluntary, facilitated problem solving in which two student confl ict managers (peer mediators) help disputing peers come to a mutually satisfactory solution to their prob-lem. Th e university students (mediator mentors) all are headed for the help-ing professions and elect to commit to this additional, focused experience with schoolchildren and teachers. In the process, mentors learn what dis-pute issues children of various ages face. From site teacher modeling, they learn how to navigate public school culture to create eff ective programmatic student supports and interventions. To date, more than 7,000 children, teachers, and administrators in over 60 schools have participated. Th e site-based programs are located in fi ve school districts. Central Unifi ed is among these and is the district home of Polk Elementary School. Th e CRE pro-grams at all schools are developed in accordance with the National Standards for Peer Mediation (Association for Confl ict Resolution, Education Section) and are available at http://www.mediate.com/acreducation/pg18.cfm.

Assessment and Analysis

Th e interrelationships between Mediator Mentors, Polk’s chosen form of CRE, and PBIS are also examined. Fifty-four Polk Elementary students in grades 4, 5, and 6 participated. Twenty-seven of these were mediators. All 27 had received two days of peer mediation in accordance with the national standards for school-based peer mediation programs (Association for Confl ict Resolution, 2007). Th e ratio of mediators to nonmediators at the school is 1 mediator for every 28 students. Th e younger children on cam-pus received no formal mediation training but learned how to access the mediators through presentations made by the mediators at assemblies and in class. Th e work of improving Polk’s school climate was informed by knowledge from existing research such as Jones and Kmitta (2000) and Lane-Garon (1998).

For example, a goal related to both PBIS and CRE was to engage the students emotionally around behavior goals that were respectful of and sensitive to the diversity present in the student enrollment at Polk. Helping others with daily problems on campus is of primary importance to students.



Emotional engagement is promoted by the nature of the peer mediation process. What children care about is revealed in the process of confl ict resolution. An emotion vocabulary develops as children work together to resolve interpersonal problems. Emotion awareness of self and other increases as children articulate divergent perspectives. Th e disposition to consider the thoughts and feelings of others has been found to be critically important to both psychological and physical safety in schools (Lantieri & Patti, 1996). In addition, eff ective interpersonal problem-solving skills contribute to violence prevention and encourage acceptance of diff erence and resiliency (Benard, 2004). Th erefore, cognitive perspective taking and empathy subscales of the Davis Interpersonal Reactivity Index (1983; revised with stories for students) became selected variables for assessment. Th e Davis measures are comprised of 14 simple statements on which stu-dents are asked to refl ect regarding their “typical” or “usual” way of thinking and behaving. Example stories are provided, and students circle a value on a Likert scale to indicate their response to each of the statements.

In order to determine the eff ects of mentored peer mediation on stu-dent development, three assessments in all were conducted. Two were the Davis scales just mentioned, and the third was a confl ict strategy scenario in which students indicated how they would solve a problem of competing for limited resources (Jones, 2003). Th e fi rst assessment compared media-tors before and after mediator training and service; the second compared mediators before training with the general population; and the fi nal assess-ment compared mediators after training and service with the general popu-lation along two subscales: Cognitive Perspective Taking (the dispositional tendency to consider the perspectives of others) and Aff ective Perspective Taking (dispositional empathy). Th ese are subscales of the Interpersonal Reactivity Inventory (Davis, 1983) and have been used repeatedly for assessing the impact of interventions on key measures related to confl ict resolution abilities in multiple school settings (Cassinerio & Lane-Garon, 2006; Lane-Garon, 1998; Lane-Garon & Richardson, 2003). Th e scales have consistently been sensitive to change on perspective-taking and empa-thy dimensions with respect to training and service in mediation. Questions on the survey include: “Before criticizing someone, I try to imagine how I would feel if I were in their place” and “I try to look at everybody’s side of a disagreement before I make a decision.” With mediators and nonmedia-tors, the reliability of the subscales, when combined, was good (α = 0.89), meaning that not only did the students understand the questions in relation to the constructs, but responses to the scales have high internal reliability.



In the third assessment, students were asked how they would handle the problem created when two students wished to use the only computer available for an assignment. Th ese short-answer essays were scored with a 1, 2, or 3, with a score of 3 indicating interest-based thinking (When is your assignment due and how long is it?) and a score of 1 indicating positional thinking (I got here fi rst). A score of 2 was generated when the student response was I’ll get a teacher.

Findings

Analysis was completed with the open source statistical package PSPP version 0.7.6 for Macintosh. Diff erences between students were found in each relevant category. It was found that students after training on the Cognitive Perspective Taking subscale and service as mediators were signifi cantly more likely to consider the thoughts and feelings of others (M = 6.49, standard deviation [SD] = 0.41) than they were before (M = 5.24, SD = 0.88), t(26) = 9.71, p < 0.01, d = 1.87. It is impor-tant to note that no signifi cant diff erence was found on the Cognitive Perspective Taking subscale before mediation training and service. Th is result means that mediators were taken from the same statistical popula-tion as nonmediators, and no preexisting diff erences were evident that might explain diff erences and/or confound results of before and after comparisons.

After training, signifi cant diff erences were found using a 1-tailed paired t-test, with mediators being more inclined to take the perspective of others (M = 6.49, SD = 0.41) than they were beforehand (M = 5.15, SD = 0.66), t(52) = 8.92, p < 0.01, d = 1.23, 95% confi dence interval [CI] [−1.51, −0.98]. As for empathy or aff ective perspective, mediators signifi cantly improved their empathetic dispositional tendencies after train-ing and service (M = 6.50, SD = 0.33) compared to before (M = 5.27, SD = 0.77), t(29) = 10.34, p < 0.01, d = 1.99, 95% CI [−1.47, −0.98].

Two independent 2-tailed t-tests showed that there were no signifi -cant diff erences between mediators and nonmediators on the two sub-scales before mediator training and service. Between mediators after training and the general population, however, signifi cant diff erences were found on both scales, with mediators being dispositionally more likely to take the perspective of others (M = 6.49, SD = 0.41) than the general population (M = 5.15, SD = 0.66), t(52) = 8.92, p < 0.01, d = 1.23, 95% CI [−1.03, 1.63]. Mediators were also more likely to consider and feel with the circumstance of another (M = 6.50, SD = 0.33) than



nonmediators (M = 5.63, SD = 0.79), t(34.83) = 5.24, p < 0.01, d = 0.88, 95% CI [−1.03, 1.63].

With respect to the computer scenario, Chi-square analysis indicated that the most consequential diff erences in confl ict resolution strategy were found between nonmediator before and after assessments. Students who were designated as peer mediators who had a positional strategy at pretest (I got here fi rst) generally moved to asking a teacher for help (score of 2) by posttest. However, nonmediators in this sample actually scored less well at posttest than at pretest (score of 2 to score of 1). After training, the media-tors moved completely from positional to a teacher-based strategy choice. It appears that when CRE training is implemented, confl ict strategy choice is more likely to move in productive directions. Without training, the out-come is indeed less favorable. It is anticipated that with continued partici-pation in mediation, mediators with a score of 2 will increase to a 3, indicating more student self-reliance and skill development. Nonetheless, the movement of the mediators in confl ict strategy choice on this measure is encouraging.

Limitations

As is the case with all educational research, there are study limitations. First, this investigation lacks the ability to draw causal conclusions due to the voluntary nature of mediation participation. Th ose students who became mediators were certainly not selected randomly. Th ey wanted the job and wrote essays to describe their aptitude for the work. Still, there were no preexisting diff erences between mediators and nonmediators, which gave us confi dence that the mediators were not diff erent in some way from nonmediators before training and service began.

Second, while there was a pre- and posttest for the mediators, there was only a pretest for the nonmediator group, making it impossible to say that diff erences found between the groups were not due to mere passage of time. Nonetheless, the pre- to postassessment interval was only one aca-demic year. In this short period, diff erences between groups are more likely attributable to training and service than to maturation.

Th ird, the sample was comprised of students from a single school, lim-iting the generalizability of fi ndings. However, it must be noted that the model of implementation and assessment has been replicated in several similar inquiries yielding similar results.



Conclusion

Despite limitations, the signifi cant diff erences found on perspective-taking and empathy scores of the student mediators versus nonmediators are sup-portive of character development, CRE, and positive behavior support at Polk Elementary School. Th e CRE program is barely 2 years old, and the school is doing a fi ne job of raising the visibility of respectful confl ict reso-lution program expectations with posted duty schedules and Strive for Five posters (CRE and PBIS) in all classrooms and common areas. Th e peer mediators are keeping data on number and type of problems peacefully resolved and making referrals to staff for chronic bullying (operationally defi ned as 3 times or more). Th e tier 1 PBIS goal of early identifi cation of students at risk in the whole school population is being addressed, as is the tier 2 goal of teaching and supporting communication and skill develop-ment for specifi c students who demonstrate patterns of diffi culty with con-fl ict and impulsive behavior. When teachers cull the nomination essays of the students wanting to become mediators, they try to create a representa-tive sample of the larger student community, and children who need to learn the skills are included along with those who already have them.

Th e mentored peer mediation form of CRE serves PBIS goals of direct instruction, guided practice, and naturally occurring opportunities to learn while serving. A good place to begin measuring program eff ects is cognitive and aff ective perspective taking, which demonstrated positive growth among mediators in this sample. Th e Mediator Mentors university–public school partnership provides mentoring and modeling for mediators and disputants alike. Polk teachers work with teacher candidates building eff ec-tive response systems to student needs and creating programs that are engaging and encourage student sense of belonging and signifi cance. Mediator Mentors is emerging as a meaningful component of Polk Elementary’s thoughtfully constructed schoolwide PBIS program. With the prevalent emphasis on academic performance and zero tolerance for behavioral disruption, it is possible that some schools might omit CRE. However, as this examination of CRE eff ects at Polk Elementary School demonstrates, this omission may constitute a lost opportunity to enhance both social-emotional and academic development.

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Pamela Lane-Garon is a professor at California State University–Fresno. She directs the Mediator Mentors Project, which partners public school and uni-versity students in confl ict resolution education.

Jessica Yergat is an administrator in the Central Unifi ed School District in California. She designed her district’s PBIS protocol and continues to be a confl ict resolution education champion at Polk Elementary.

Charles Kralowec is a graduate student in experimental psychology at Cali-fornia State University–Fresno. Among his interests is the interconnectedness of social-emotional and academic learning.

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