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C H A P T E R 1Biology: The Science of Life 1 1.1 The Characteristics of Life 2

Life Is Organized 2Life Requires Materials and Energy 4Living Organisms Maintain an Internal Environment 4Living Organisms Respond 5Living Organisms Reproduce and Develop 5Living Organisms Have Adaptations 6

1.2 Evolution: The Core Concept of Biology 6Natural Selection and Evolutionary Processes 7Organizing the Diversity of Life 9

1.3 Science: A Way of Knowing 11Start with an Observation 12Develop a Hypothesis 12Make a Prediction and Perform Experiments 12Develop a Conclusion 14Scientific Theory 14An Example of a Controlled Study 14Publish Your Results 15

1.4 Challenges Facing Science 16Bioethics 16Human Influence on Ecosystems 17Emerging Diseases 18Climate Change 18

PARTI TheCell

C H A P T E R 2The Chemical Basis of Life 21 2.1 Atoms and Atomic Bonds 22

Atomic Structure 23The Periodic Table 23Arrangement of Electrons in an Atom 25

Types of Chemical Bonds 26Chemical Formulas and Reactions 28

2.2 Water’s Importance to Life 29The Structure of Water 29Properties of Water 29

2.3 Acids and Bases 33Acidic Solutions (High H+ Concentration) 33Basic Solutions (Low H+ Concentration) 34pH and the pH Scale 34Buffers and pH 35

C H A P T E R 3The Organic Molecules of Life 38 3.1 Organic Molecules 36

The Carbon Atom 36The Carbon Skeleton and Functional Groups 37

3.2 The Biological Molecules of Cells 38Carbohydrates 39Lipids 41Proteins 45Nucleic Acids 48

C H A P T E R 4Inside the Cell 56 4.1 Cells Under the Microscope 57

4.2 The Plasma Membrane 59

4.3 The Two Main Types of Cells 62Prokaryotic Cells 62

4.4 Eukaryotic Cells 64Nucleus and Ribosomes 66Endomembrane System 68Vacuoles 69Energy-Related Organelles 69The Cytoskeleton and Motor Proteins 71

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Centrioles 72Cilia and Flagella 73

4.5 Outside the Eukaryotic Cell 74Plant Cell Walls 74Exterior Cell Surfaces in Animals 74

C H A P T E R 5The Dynamic Cell 79 5.1 What Is Energy? 80

Measuring Energy 80Energy Laws 80

5.2 ATP: Energy for Cells 82Structure of ATP 82Use and Production of ATP 82The Flow of Energy 84

5.3 Metabolic Pathways and Enzymes 85An Enzyme’s Active Site 86Energy of Activation 87

5.4 Cell Transport 88 Passive Transport: No Energy Required 88Active Transport: Energy Required 90Bulk Transport 91

C H A P T E R 6Energy for Life 95 6.1 Overview of Photosynthesis 96

Plants as Photosynthesizers 97The Photosynthetic Process 98

6.2 The Light Reactions—Harvesting Energy 99Photosynthetic Pigments 100The Electron Pathway of the Light Reactions 100Organization of the Thylakoid Membrane 102

6.3 The Calvin Cycle Reactions—Making Sugars 103Fixation of Carbon Dioxide 103Reduction of Carbon Dioxide 104Regeneration of RuBP 104The Fate of G3P 104

6.4 Other Types of Photosynthesis 105C4 Photosynthesis 105CAM Photosynthesis 106Evolutionary Trends 106

C H A P T E R 7Energy for Cells 110 7.1 Cellular Respiration 111

Phases of Complete Glucose Breakdown 112

7.2 Outside the Mitochondria: Glycolysis 113Energy-Investment Step 113Energy-Harvesting Steps 114

7.3 Outside the Mitochondria: Fermentation 115Microorganisms and Fermentation 116

7.4 Inside the Mitochondria 117Preparatory Reaction 117The Citric Acid Cycle 118The Electron Transport Chain 119

7.5 Metabolic Fate of Food 121Energy Yield from Glucose Metabolism 121Alternative Metabolic Pathways 122

PARTII Genetics

C H A P T E R 8Cellular Reproduction 125 8.1 The Basics of Cellular Reproduction 126

Chromosomes 126Chromatin to Chromosomes 127

8.2 The Cell Cycle: Interphase, Mitosis, and Cytokinesis 128Interphase 128M (Mitotic) Phase 129

8.3 The Cell Cycle Control System 133Cell Cycle Checkpoints 133Internal and External Signals 134Apoptosis 135

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10.3 Beyond Mendel’s Laws 173Incomplete Dominance 173Polygenic Inheritance 174Pleiotropy 176Linkage 177

10.4 Sex-Linked Inheritance 178Sex-Linked Alleles 178Pedigrees for Sex-Linked Disorders 179X-Linked Recessive Disorders 180

C H A P T E R 11DNA Biology 184 11.1 DNA and RNA Structure and Function 185

Structure of DNA 186Replication of DNA 189RNA Structure and Function 190

11.2 Gene Expression 191From DNA to RNA to Protein 192Review of Gene Expression 196

11.3 Gene Regulation 197Levels of Gene Expression Control 197

C H A P T E R 12Biotechnology and Genomics 207 12.1 Biotechnology 208

Recombinant DNA Technology 208Polymerase Chain Reaction 209DNA Fingerprinting 210

12.2 Stem Cells and Cloning 211Reproductive and Therapeutic Cloning 211

12.3 Biotechnology Products 213Transgenic Bacteria 213Transgenic Plants 214Transgenic Animals 215

12.4 Genomics and Proteomics 215Sequencing the Bases of the Human

Genome 216Proteomics and Bioinformatics 217

8.4 The Cell Cycle and Cancer 136Proto-Oncogenes and Tumor Suppressor

Genes 136Other Genetic Changes and Cancer 138

8.5 Characteristics of Cancer 139Characteristics of Cancer Cells 140Cancer Treatment 140Prevention of Cancer 141

C H A P T E R 9Meiosis and the Genetic Basis of Sexual Reproduction 146 9.1 The Basics of Meiosis 147

Homologous Chromosomes 147The Human Life Cycle 148Overview of Meiosis 149

9.2 The Phases of Meiosis 152The First Division—Meiosis I 152The Second Division—Meiosis II 153

9.3 Meiosis Compared with Mitosis 154Meiosis I Compared with Mitosis 154Meiosis II Compared with Mitosis 154Mitosis and Meiosis Occur at Different Times 154

9.4 Changes in Chromosome Number 156Down Syndrome 156Abnormal Sex Chromosome Number 157

C H A P T E R 10Patterns of Inheritance 161 10.1 Mendel’s Laws 162

Mendel’s Experimental Procedure 162One-Trait Inheritance 164Two-Trait Inheritance 166Mendel’s Laws and Probability 167Mendel’s Laws and Meiosis 168

10.2 Mendel’s Laws Apply to Humans 169Family Pedigrees 169Genetic Disorders of Interest 170

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Sexual Selection 258Adaptations Are Not Perfect 258Maintenance of Variations 258

15.2 Microevolution 260Evolution in a Genetic Context 260Causes of Microevolution 263

C H A P T E R 16Evolution on a Large Scale 268 16.1 Speciation and Macroevolution 269

Defining Species 269Models of Speciation 272

16.2 The Fossil Record 275The Geological Timescale 275The Pace of Speciation 277Mass Extinctions of Species 278

16.3 Systematics 280Linnaean Classification 280Phylogenetic Trees 281Cladistics and Cladograms 283The Three-Domain System 284

PARTIV DiversityofLife

C H A P T E R 17The Microorganisms: Viruses, Bacteria, and Protists 289 17.1 The Viruses 290

Viral Reproduction 290Plant Viruses 292Animal Viruses 292

17.2 Viroids and Prions 294

17.3 The Prokaryotes 295The Origin of Cells 295Bacteria 296Archaea 301

17.4 The Protists 303Evolution of Protists 303Classification of Protists 303

C H A P T E R 13Genetic Counseling 220 13.1 Genes and Gene Mutations 221

Causes of Gene Mutations 221Types and Effects of Mutations 222

13.2 Chromosomal Mutations 223Deletions and Duplications 223Translocation 224Inversion 225

13.3 Testing for Genetic Disorders 225Karyotyping 226Testing for a Protein 227Testing the DNA 227Testing the Fetus 228Testing the Embryo and Egg 229

13.4 Gene Therapy 231Ex Vivo Gene Therapy 231In Vivo Gene Therapy 231

PARTIII Evolution

C H A P T E R 14Darwin and Evolution 236 14.1 Darwin’s Theory of Evolution 237

Before Darwin 238Darwin’s Conclusions 239Natural Selection and Adaptation 242Darwin and Wallace 244

14.2 Evidence of Evolutionary Change 245Fossil Evidence 246Biogeographical Evidence 247Anatomical Evidence 248Molecular Evidence 250

C H A P T E R 15Evolution on a Small Scale 253 15.1 Natural Selection 254

Types of Selection 254

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Fishes: First Jaws and Lungs 356Amphibians: Jointed Vertebrate Limbs 358Reptiles: Amniotic Egg 358Mammals: Hair and Mammary Glands 360

19.6 Human Evolution 363Evolution of Humanlike Hominins 365Evolution of Modern Humans 367

PARTV PlantStructureandFunction

C H A P T E R 20Plant Anatomy and Growth 372 20.1 Plant Cells and Tissues 373

Epidermal Tissue 373Ground Tissue 374Vascular Tissue 374

20.2 Plant Organs 375Monocot Versus Eudicot Plants 376

20.3 Organization of Leaves, Stems, and Roots 377Leaves 377Stems 378Roots 382

20.4 Plant Nutrition 385Adaptations of Roots for Mineral Uptake 386

20.5 Transport of Nutrients 387Water Transport in Xylem 387Sugar Transport in Phloem 388

C H A P T E R 21Plant Responses and Reproduction 392 21.1 Plant Hormones 393

Auxins 393Gibberellins 394Cytokinins 395Abscisic Acid 395Ethylene 396

21.2 Plant Responses 397Tropisms 397Photoperiodism 398

C H A P T E R 18Land Environment: Plants and Fungi 312 18.1 Overview of the Land Plants 313

Alternation of Generations 315

18.2 Diversity of Plants 316Nonvascular Plants 316Vascular Plants 317Gymnosperms 321Angiosperms 322Economic Benefits of Plants 325Ecological Benefits of Plants 325

18.3 The Fungi 326General Biology of a Fungus 327Ecological Benefits of Fungi 329Economic Benefits of Fungi 331Fungi as Disease-Causing Organisms 332

C H A P T E R 19Both Water and Land: Animals 337 19.1 Evolution of Animals 338

Ancestry of Animals 339The Evolutionary Tree of Animals 340Evolutionary Trends 340

19.2 Sponges and Cnidarians: The Early Animals 342Sponges: Multicellularity 342Cnidarians: True Tissues 343

19.3 Flatworms, Molluscs, and Annelids: The Lophotrochozoans 344Flatworms: Bilateral Symmetry 344Molluscs 345Annelids: Segmented Worms 346

19.4 Roundworms and Arthropods: The Ecdysozoans 348Roundworms: Pseudocoelomates 348Arthropods: Jointed Appendages 349

19.5 Echinoderms and Chordates: The Deuterostomes 353Echinoderms 353Chordates 354

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23.2 Transport in Humans 436The Human Heart 436Blood Vessels 438Lymphatic System 440Capillary Exchange in the Tissues 442

23.3 Blood: A Transport Medium 443Plasma 443Formed Elements 443Cardiovascular Disorders 446

C H A P T E R 24The Maintenance Systems 450 24.1 Respiratory System 451

The Human Respiratory Tract 452Breathing 454Lungs and External Exchange of Gases 454Transport and Internal Exchange of Gases 456

24.2 Urinary System and Excretion 457Human Kidney 458Problems with Kidney Function 460

24.3 Digestive System 462Complete and Incomplete Digestive Systems 463 The Digestive Tract 463Accessory Organs 468Digestive Enzymes 469

C H A P T E R 25Human Nutrition 475 25.1 Nutrition 476

Introducing the Nutrients 477

25.2 The Classes of Nutrients 478Carbohydrates 478Lipids 480Proteins 480Minerals 482Vitamins 483Water 484

25.3 Nutrition and Health 484Body Mass Index 485

Disorders Associated with Obesity 488Eating Disorders 489

21.3 Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants 400Overview of the Plant Life Cycle 400Flowers 401From Spores to Fertilization 403Development of the Seed in a Eudicot 403Monocots Versus Eudicots 404Fruit Types and Seed Dispersal 404Germination of Seeds 406

21.4 Asexual Reproduction and Genetic Engineering in Plants 407Propagation of Plants in a Garden 407Propagation of Plants in Tissue Culture 407Genetic Engineering of Plants 409

PARTVI AnimalStructureandFunction

C H A P T E R 22Being Organized and Steady 414 22.1 The Body’s Organization 415

Epithelial Tissue Protects 417Connective Tissue Connects and Supports 419Muscular Tissue Moves the Body 421Nervous Tissue Communicates 422

22.2 Organs and Organ Systems 423Transport 424Maintenance of the Body 424Control 424Sensory Input and Motor Output 425Reproduction 425

22.3 Homeostasis 426Organ Systems and Homeostasis 426Negative Feedback 427

C H A P T E R 23The Transport Systems 432 23.1 Open and Closed Circulatory Systems 433

Open Circulatory Systems 434Closed Circulatory Systems 435Comparison of Circulatory Pathways 435

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27.2 Endocrine System 526The Action of Hormones 526Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland 527Thyroid and Parathyroid Glands 529Adrenal Glands 530Pancreas 531

C H A P T E R 28Sensory Input and Motor Output 536 28.1 The Senses 537

Chemical Senses 537Hearing and Balance 538Vision 542Cutaneous Receptors and Proprioceptors 544

28.2 The Motor Systems 546Types of Skeletons 546The Human Skeleton 547Skeletal Muscle Structure and

Physiology 548

C H A P T E R 29Reproduction and Embryonic Development 556 29.1 How Animals Reproduce 557

Asexual Versus Sexual Reproduction 557Reproduction on Land Versus in Water 558

29.2 Human Reproduction 559Male Reproductive System 560Female Reproductive System 562Control of Reproduction 565Infertility 567Sexually Transmitted Diseases 568

29.3 Human Embryonic Development 571Fertilization 572Early Embryonic Development 572Later Embryonic Development 574Placenta 576Fetal Development and Birth 576

25.4 How to Plan Nutritious Meals 490Dietary Guidelines: ChooseMyPlate.gov 490Dietary Supplements 492The Bottom Line 492

C H A P T E R 26Defenses Against Disease 496 26.1 Overview of the Immune System 497

Lymphatic Organs 497Cells of the Immune System 499

26.2 Nonspecific Defenses and Innate Immunity 499Barriers to Entry 499The Inflammatory Response 500The Complement System 501Natural Killer Cells 501

26.3 Specific Defenses and Adaptive Immunity 502B Cells and the Antibody

Response 502T Cells and the Cellular

Response 503

26.4 Immunizations 506

26.5 Immune System Problems 508Allergies 508Autoimmune Diseases 509AIDS 509

C H A P T E R 27The Control Systems 513 27.1 Nervous Systems 514

Examples of Nervous Systems 515The Human Nervous System 515Neurons 516The Nerve Impulse 516The Synapse 518Drug Abuse 518The Central Nervous System 520The Peripheral Nervous System 523

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Energy Flow and Chemical Cycling 611Chemical Cycling 614

31.3 Ecology of Major Ecosystems 619Primary Productivity 620

C H A P T E R 32Human Impact on the Biosphere 625 32.1 Conservation Biology 626

32.2 Biodiversity 627Direct Values of Biodiversity 628Indirect Values of Biodiversity 630

32.3Resources and Environmental Impact 632Land 632Water 634Food 636Energy 638Minerals 641Other Sources of Pollution 641

32.4 Sustainable Societies 643Today’s Society 643Characteristics of a Sustainable Society 643

Appendix A Answer Key A-1

Appendix B Periodic Table of the Elements & The Metric System B-1

Glossary G-1

Credits C-1

Index I-1

PARTVII Ecology

C H A P T E R 30Ecology and Populations 580 30.1 The Scope of Ecology 581

Ecology: A Biological Science 582

30.2 The Human Population 583Present Population Growth 583Future Population Growth 584More-Developed Versus Less-Developed Countries 585Comparing Age Structures 586Population Growth and Environmental Impact 587

30.3 Characteristics of Populations 588Distribution and Density 588Population Growth 588Patterns of Population Growth 590Factors That Regulate Population Growth 592

30.4 Life History Patterns and Extinction 595Extinction 595

C H A P T E R 31Communities and Ecosystems 600 31.1 Ecology of Communities 601

Community Composition and Diversity 602Ecological Succession 603Interactions in Communities 605Community Stability 608

31.2 Ecology of Ecosystems 610Autotrophs 610Heterotrophs 610

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