CONFIGURATION OF HORIZONTAL VOIDS AND LIGHTWELL...
Transcript of CONFIGURATION OF HORIZONTAL VOIDS AND LIGHTWELL...
CONFIGURATION OF HORIZONTAL VOIDS AND LIGHTWELL TO
IMPROVE NATURAL VENTILATION IN HIGH-RISE RESIDENTIAL
BUILDINGS IN HOT HUMID CLIMATE
TAREQ GABER FAREA
A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the
requirements for the award of the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy (Architecture)
Faculty of Built Environment
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
DECEMBER 2014
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
After thanks and gratitude are expressed to “Allah”, my deepest gratitude
goes to my main supervisor Assoc. Prof. Dr. Dilshan Remaz Ossen for his valuable
supervision, motivation and friendship throughout the study. I am also grateful to my
co-supervisor Prof. Saqaff Alkaff for his assistance and time spent in consultation,
particularly in mechanical topics. Without their support and guidance, this thesis
would not have been the same as presented here.
I wish to acknowledge the Ministry of Higher Education in Yemen for the
scholarship. I would like to thank the stuff in the building science laboratory in the
Department of Architecture, Faculty of Built Environment, Universiti Teknologi
Malaysia (UTM) for providing the resources, facilities and instruments required for
the research. I would also like to thank the Center of Information and
Communication Technology (CICT) in the UTM for providing the ANSYS
workshop and access to the high-performance computer (HPC).
I would also like to thank Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ismail Bin Said (the chairman of
Greenovation Research Group) for his support, encouragement and friendship during
the study. Many thanks also go to Dr. Agung Murti Nugroho for his valuable
comments and invitation to the Architecture Department, University of Brawijaya,
Indonesia. My sincere appreciation goes to all who have provided assistance directly
or indirectly in this study.
I am very grateful to my beloved mother and dearest wife for love, care,
patience, understanding and prayers during my study. I would like to thank my
beloved father and eldest brother for their encouragement and support during my
study. Finally, many thanks also go to all my friends for their assistance and
consultations.
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ABSTRACT
Cross-flow ventilation is the most effective strategy for providing thermal
comfort and ensuring air quality in buildings, while minimizing the required energy
cost. In hot and humid climate, the high-rise building plan configuration incorporates
different types of lightwell, either in the core or perimeter of the building, that allow
for opening the windows in different directions and thus enables better cross-
ventilation. The lightwell space is subjected to produce a suction effect along its
space and thus adjoining indoor spaces. Lightwell at the core with opening at top
trapped unwanted gases and thus reduce the fresh air flow in its space and reduce the
cross flow ventilation in adjoining units. Nevertheless, having a lightwell may not be
enough to provide adequate natural ventilation in high rise buildings. This study
examines the internal lightwell connection to the outside through different horizontal
voids as inlets. A Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) technique employing
ANSYS Fluent code is used to predict airflow characteristics for eighteen (18)
alternative ventilation configurations of a full-scale building model. The full-scale
model was developed according to common configurations of high-rise residential
(HRR) buildings in Kuala Lumpur, as well as referring to the minimum requirements
of the Malaysian Uniform Building By-Law (1984). The results show that the
existence of a direct connection of the internal lightwell through a horizontal void
affects the air change per hour (ACH) and the thermal comfort in the lightwell space
and adjoining units, respectively. Although the existence of double-level voids
increases ACH by up to 67 % along the lightwell, it reduces the air velocity by 70 %
in adjoining units compared to the lightwell without direct connection. In order to
reduce such contrast and to optimize the cross-flow ventilation in the lightwell and
its adjoining units, the study recommends giving more attention to the lightwell inlet
design. This study provides proper guidelines to predict ventilation performance and
to improve the design of naturally ventilated HRR buildings.
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ABSTRAK
Pengudaraan aliran silang adalah strategi yang paling berkesan untuk
memberikan keselesaan terma dan memastikan kualiti udara di dalam bangunan serta
meminimumkan kos penggunaan tenaga yang diperlukan. Di negara beriklim panas
dan lembap, konfigurasi pelan bangunan bertingkat tinggi menggabungkan pelbagai
jenis telaga cahaya, sama ada pada teras atau sempadan bangunan, yang
membolehkan bukaan tingkap dari arah yang berbeza dan seterusnya membolehkan
pengudaraan silang yang lebih baik. Ruang telaga cahaya tersebut berfungsi
menghasilkan kesan sedutan udara di sepanjang ruang tersebut dan seterusnya
bersambung dengan ruang dalam bangunan. Telaga cahaya pada teras bangunan
dengan bukaan di bahagian atas memerangkap gas yang tidak dikehendaki, oleh itu
mengurangkan aliran udara segar ke dalam ruang telaga cahaya tersebut dan
mengurangkan pengudaraan aliran silang di dalam unit-unit yang bersambung.
Bagaimanapun, satu telaga cahaya mungkin tidak memadai untuk memberikan
pengudaraan semula jadi yang mencukupi bagi bangunan bertingkat tinggi. Kajian
ini menguji sambungan ruang dalaman dan luaran telaga cahaya melalui lowong
mendatar yang berbeza sebagai salur masuknya. Satu teknik Perkomputeran
Dinamik Bendalir (CFD) menggunakan kod aliran ANSYS telah digunakan untuk
meramalkan ciri-ciri aliran udara untuk lapan belas (18) konfigurasi pengudaraan
alternatif bagi sebuah model bangunan berskala penuh. Model berskala penuh
tersebut telah dibangunkan mengikut konfigurasi umum bangunan-bangunan
kediaman bertingkat tinggi di Kuala Lumpur dan juga merujuk kepada keperluan
minimum Undang-undang Kecil Bangunan Seragam (1984). Keputusan
menunjukkan bahawa kewujudan sambungan langsung antara ruang dalaman telaga
cahaya dengan lowong mendatar memberi kesan kepada perubahan udara per jam
dan keselesaan terma dalam ruang telaga cahaya dan unit-unit yang bersambung.
Walaupun kewujudan lowong berganda meningkatkan perubahan udara per jam
sehingga 67% di sepanjang ruang telaga cahaya, tetapi ia mengurangkan halaju udara
sebanyak 70% dalam unit-unit yang bersambung, berbanding dengan ruang telaga
cahaya tanpa sambungan langsung. Untuk mengurangkan perbezaan tersebut dan
mengoptimumkan pengudaraan aliran silang di dalam ruang telaga cahaya dan unit-
unit yang bersambung, kajian ini mencadangkan perhatian yang lebih perlu diberikan
kepada rekabentuk salur masuk ruang telaga cahaya. Kajian ini menyediakan garis
panduan yang tepat untuk meramal prestasi pengudaraan dan menambah baik
rekabentuk pengudaraan semula jadi bagi bangunan-bangunan kediaman bertingkat
tinggi.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER TITLE PAGE
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iv
ABSTRACT v
ABSTRAK vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS vii
LIST OF TABLES xv
LIST OF FIGURES xvii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xxvii
LIST OF APPENDICES xxviii
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Overview 1
1.2 Problem Background 3
1.3 Problem Statement 12
1.4 Research Hypothesis 13
1.5 Research Questions 14
1.6 Research Aim and Objectives 15
1.7 Research Scope 16
1.8 Research Limitations 17
1.9 Research Significance 20
1.10 Thesis Outline 20
2 THE CONCEPT OF NATURAL VENTILATION IN
THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT 23
2.0 Introduction 23
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2.1 Natural Ventilation in Buildings: Understanding of
the Concept 23
2.1.1 Principles of Natural Ventilation 24
2.1.1.1 Natural Ventilation due to Wind Alone 24
2.1.1.2 Natural Ventilation due to Buoyancy
Alone 25
2.1.1.3 Natural Ventilation due to Wind and
Buoyancy 25
2.1.2 Natural Ventilation Strategies 26
2.1.2.1 Single-sided Ventilation 27
2.1.2.2 Cross-Ventilation Strategy 27
2.1.2.3 Upward Ventilation Strategy 28
2.1.2.4 Top-down Ventilation Strategy 29
2.1.3 Ventilation Systems in Buildings and Energy 29
2.1.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Natural
Ventilation 30
2.2 Factors Affecting Outdoor Wind Flow and Indoor
Airflow 31
2.2.1 Outdoor Wind Flow Environment (Kuala
Lumpur Boundary Conditions) 31
2.2.2 Built Environment Affecting Outdoor Wind
Flow and Indoor Airflow 33
2.2.3 Architectural and Aerodynamic Elements 34
2.3 Ventilation Functions and Benefits 36
2.3.1 Ventilation for Air Quality 37
2.3.2 Ventilation for Thermal Comfort 39
2.3.2.1 Air Temperature and Air Velocity for
Thermal Comfort 40
2.3.2.2 Thermal Comfort in Hot-Humid
Regions by Field Studies 42
2.3.2.3 Neutral Temperature by Adaptive
Approach 45
2.3.3 Natural Ventilation and Safety Aspects 48
2.4 Wind Engineering in the Built Environment 50
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2.4.1 The Atmospheric Boundary Layer (ABL) 51
2.4.2 Turbulent Flow 54
2.4.3 Fundamental vs. Applied Studies 54
2.5 Overview of Ventilation Prediction Models 55
2.6 Summary 58
3 NATURALLY VENTILATED HIGH-RISE
BUILDINGS AND SEMI-OPEN SPACES 60
3.0 Introduction 60
3.1 Naturally Ventilated High-Rise Buildings: Important
Principles 60
3.1.1 Physical Aspects of High-Rise Building 61
3.1.2 Bioclimatic Aspects for High-Rise Buildings 61
3.1.3 Learning From Vernacular Houses 62
3.1.4 Outdoor Wind Flow around High-Rise
Building 65
3.1.5 Building Codes and Design Guidelines for
Naturally Ventilated HRR Buildings 66
3.2 Aerodynamic Elements and Transitional Spaces 68
3.2.1 Semi-open Spaces in High-Rise Buildings:
Physical Aspects 70
3.2.1.1 Types of Lightwell 71
3.2.1.2 The Existence of the Horizontal Void 73
3.2.1.3 Combinations between Vertical and
Horizontal Semi-open Spaces 74
3.2.2 Semi-open Spaces in High-Rise Buildings:
Airflow Characteristics 76
3.2.2.1 Connected Spaces Vs. Isolated Spaces 76
3.2.2.2 Conventional Openings Vs. Long
Openings 78
3.2.2.3 Airflow in the Horizontal Void 79
3.2.2.4 Airflow in the Internal Lightwell 80
3.2.2.5 Advantages and Disadvantages the
Airflow in the Lightwell 81
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3.3 Internal Lightwell Connection to Outside 82
3.3.1 Airflow in the Lightwell and Alternative
Connections to Outside 82
3.3.1.1 The Lightwell Inlet 83
3.3.1.2 The Lightwell Outlet 85
3.3.2 Previous Studies on Ventilation
Configurations of the Lightwell and Void 87
3.3.3 Research Gap 94
3.4 Alternative Ventilation Configurations and
Connection to Outdoor 96
3.4.1 Cross-flow Ventilation in Rooms Adjoining
the Lightwell 97
3.4.2 Ventilation Configuration of the Lightwell
and Voids 98
3.4.3 Alternative Ventilation Configurations of
Lightwell-Void Connection 99
3.5 Summary 103
4 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 105
4.0 Introduction 105
4.1 Ventilation Prediction Models 106
4.1.1 Full-Scale Experimental Model and Pilot
Study 106
4.1.2 Small-Scale Experimental Model 107
4.1.3 Computational Fluid Dynamics Model 108
4.1.4 CFD Advantages Compared with
Experimental Models 109
4.2 Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) 110
4.2.1 Governing Equations 110
4.2.2 CFD Modelling Approaches 111
4.2.2.1 Coupled approach 111
4.2.2.2 Decoupled approach 112
4.2.3 CFD Code Selection and Modelling Process 114
4.2.3.1 CFD Code Selection 114
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4.2.3.2 CFD Modelling Process 115
4.2.4 Methods Used in CFD Model and Turbulence
Modelling 121
4.2.4.1 Large Eddy Simulation (LES) 122
4.2.4.2 RANS Models 123
4.2.4.3 RANS Turbulence Models in Semi-
open Spaces 124
4.2.4.4 Direct Numerical Simulation (DNS) 126
4.2.5 Important Issues in the CFD Model 126
4.2.5.1 CFD Errors and Uncertainly 126
4.2.5.2 CFD Validation 127
4.2.5.3 Requirements for Similarity between
Small-scale and Full-scale Models 128
4.3 CFD Validation and Sensitivity Analysis of Small-
scale Model 130
4.3.1 Wind Tunnel Experiment (WTE) 131
4.3.2 CFD Simulation: Sensitivity Analysis for the
Small-scale Model 131
4.3.2.1 Computational Geometry and Grid 132
4.3.2.2 Boundary Conditions 135
4.3.2.3 Convergence Criteria 139
4.3.2.4 Turbulence Modelling 139
4.4 Developing the Hypothetical Lightwell Building
Model 140
4.4.1 Common HRR Buildings 141
4.4.2 Developing the Hypothetical Model of Units
in HRR Buildings 142
4.5 Developing a Full-scale Building Model Applicable
to Kuala Lumpur 143
4.5.1 HRR Buildings Survey in Kuala Lumpur 143
4.5.2 Categorizing the Hypothetical Ventilation
Configurations of the Lightwell 146
4.5.3 Deriving the Basic Model with Hypothetical
Units 147
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4.5.4 Alternative Ventilation Configurations 150
4.6 Parametric Study in Small and Full-Scale Building
Models 153
4.7 Performance Measures 155
4.8 Thermal Comfort and Mean Wind Speed for Kuala
Lumpur 156
4.8.1 Determining Thermal Comfort in Kuala
Lumpur 156
4.8.2 Determining the Main Wind Speed (Uref) for
Kuala Lumpur 157
4.9 CFD Simulation Settings for Full-scale Model 158
4.9.1 Simplified Boundary Conditions for Kuala
Lumpur 158
4.9.2 Computational Settings 160
4.10 Summary 162
5 RESULTS, DISCUSSION AND FINDINGS 164
5.0 Introduction 164
5.1 Required Outputs and the Process of the Results,
Discussion and Findings 165
5.2 Vertical Void-Position Groups and Its Existence:
Impact on Cross-flow Ventilation and Temperature 167
5.2.1 No-connection Through Void (Nco) 168
5.2.2 Single-Bottom Void Group (G1) 170
5.2.2.1 Alternative Ventilation Configurations
of G1: Results 171
5.2.2.2 Impact of Ventilation Configurations
of G1 on the Airflow in the Lightwell
and Units: Comparison and Discussion 179
5.2.3 Single-Middle Void Group (G2) 182
5.2.3.1 Alternative Ventilation Configurations
of G2: Results 183
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5.2.3.2 Impact of Ventilation Configurations
of G2 on the Airflow in the Lightwell
and Units: Comparison and Discussion 191
5.2.4 Double Same-Direction Void Group (G3) 194
5.2.4.1 Alternative Ventilation Configurations
of G3: Results 195
5.2.4.2 Impact of Ventilation Configurations
of G3 on the Airflow in the Lightwell
and Units: Comparison and Discussion 203
5.2.5 Double Different-Direction Void Group (G4) 206
5.2.5.1 Alternative Ventilation Configurations
of G4: Results 206
5.2.5.2 Impact of Ventilation Configurations
of G4 on the Airflow in the Lightwell
and Units: Comparison and Discussion 218
5.2.6 Impact of the Vertical Void-Position Groups
and its Existence on Cross-flow Ventilation 221
5.3 Horizontal Void-Direction Groups: Impact on Cross-
flow Ventilation 222
5.3.1 Windward-Void sub-Group (s-G1) 223
5.3.2 Leeward-Void sub-Group (s-G2) 227
5.3.3 Cross-Void Sub-Group (s-G3) 229
5.3.4 Whole-Void sub-Group (s-G4) 231
5.3.5 Impact of Horizontal Void-Direction Groups
on Cross-flow Ventilation 234
5.4 Comparing the Impact of Vertical Void-Positions and
Horizontal Void-Directions Groups on Cross-flow
Ventilation 235
5.5 Impact of Ventilation Configurations on Thermal
Comfort 236
5.6 Impact of Ventilation Configurations on the ACH 239
5.7 Findings and Interpretations 241
5.8 Summary 244
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6 SUMMARY, RECOMMENDATIONS AND FURTHER
RESEARCH 246
6.0 Introduction 246
6.1 Thesis Summary and Achievements 246
6.2 Research Contributions 251
6.3 Suggestions for Further Research 254
REFERENCES 257
Appendices A-H 276-314
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LIST OF TABLES
TABLE NO. TITLE PAGE
1.1 High-rise non-residential buildings in different climatic regions
that used natural ventilation (after Wood and Salib (2013)) 4
1.2 Vertical and horizontal architectural elements and aerodynamics
elements in some pioneering naturally ventilated high-rise
residential and non-residential buildings and highlighted
elements of the present study 8
2.1 Relationship between different architectural and aerodynamic
elements and ventilation strategies, (after Kleiven, (2003)) 36
2.2 Recommended ACH and ventilation rate (ls-1
m-2) for indoor
spaces (Source: Wills et al. (1995) as cited in Li (2008)) 39
2.3 Thermal sensation indexes applicable to tropical regions show
human reactions to different air velocities and temperature 42
2.4 Temperature and corresponding air velocity appropriate for
thermal comfort in naturally ventilated buildings in tropical
countries from previous studies 45
2.5 Usage of room windows for different residential building
types in tropics 48
2.6 Beaufort scale showing some varied wind velocities and its
effect on the environment (Source: after Ismail (1996) ) 50
2.7 Empirical values of y and (Davenport, 1965 as cited
in Givoni, 1998) 53
2.8 Differences between fundamental and applied studies 55
2.9 Advantages and disadvantages of theoretical and experimental
models (Source: Gan, (1999) as cited in Yang, (2004)) 58
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3.1 Previous studies related to internal lightwells and outdoor
connections 96
4.1 Selected different EFM studies show the CFD code and its
validation methods 115
4.2 Conditions of computational flow parameters for sensitivity
analysis with indication of the reference case conditions 132
4.3 Illustration of the streamlines of the airflow pattern indicating
the airflow rate (Q) and temperature profile in the center of the
lightwell using various turbulence models compared with the
experimental model data 141
4.4 Common configuration plans of HRR buildings in relation to
lightwell type in Kuala Lumpur 144
4.5 Common hypothetical possible configurations of different
lightwell types with semi-open spaces and windows in HRR
buildings (plans and sections) 147
4.6 Alternative ventilation configurations of the parametric study 152
4.7 The differences of CFD parameters for small-scale and
full-scale models 153
4.8 Conditions of computational parameters for full-scale building
model 162
5.1 The groups of vertical void- positions 167
5.2 The groups of horizontal void-direction 223
6.1 Comparing the ventilation configurations effects on ACH
through the lightwell and comfortable air velocity in the units 250
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LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE
1.1 Plan configurations of low-income HRR buildings built by
DBKL- Malaysia (Source: Sapian, 2004) 6
1.2 Commerzbank - Frankfurt, 1997, shows aerodynamic
configuration, open-able segmented atrium and sky gardens
(Source: Lambot (1997), 1997 and PC. Liu, 2012) 9
1.3 Torre Cube, Mexico, 2005, 100 % naturally ventilated
throughout the year (Source: Wood and Salib, 2013) 9
1.4 The Residence - Kuala Lumpur by T. R. Hamzah & Yeang
(2006), attached lightwell, wind corridor and wing-wind wall
(Source: http://www.propwall.my) 10
1.5 The Idaman Residence - Kuala Lumpur by T. R. Hamzah &
Yeang (2008), using semi-enclosed lightwells as funnels to
capture wind, wind corridor and attached lightwells (Source:
http://www.skyscrapercity.com) 10
1.6 The Plaza - Kuala Lumpur by T. R. Hamzah & Yeang (2006),
using attached lightwells for upward flow, wind corridor and
wing-wind wall (Source: EAG website http://eag.my/) 11
1.7 D’Leedon – Singapore by Zaha Hadid, semi-enclosed
lightwell as funnel to capture wind (Source: Feng (2012)) 11
1.8 The Met – Bangkok by WOHA (2013), view looking down
through the semi-enclosed lightwell between the towers,
(Source: Feng (2012)) 11
1.9 Ventilation configuration of the internal lightwell connected
indirectly to the outdoor through its adjoining units 13
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1.10 Ventilation configuration of the lightwell connected to the
outdoor through horizontal voids, which may affect upward
flow and indoor air velocity 14
1.11 The flow of the research process and thesis chapters 22
2.1 Effect of opposing and assisting wind ( Etheridge (2012)) 26
2.2 Single-sided ventilation in isolated space (Source: Brown and
Mark DeKay, 2001) 27
2.3 Cross ventilation in isolated space (Source: Brown and Mark
DeKay (2001)) 28
2.4 Upward cross-flow in lightwell/ non-segmented (left) and
segmented (right) lightwells ( Etheridge and Ford, 2008) 28
2.5 The balance between the IAQ based on airflow rate and
energy required (Source: Hal Levin - building ecology
research group, a PowerPoint presentation) 30
2.6 The prevailing wind (2003 – 2012) in Kuala Lumpur, Subang
weather station 32
2.7 Hypothetical model to examine the fire safety in a lightwell
high-rise building (Source: Chow and Hung (2003)) 49
2.8 The difference between the log law and power law compared
with uniform velocity distribution, the reference wind velocity
10 m/s at a height of 10 m (Blocken and Carmeliet (2004b)) 53
2.9 Wind speed at the meteorological station (Upot), the reference
wind at the building site (Uref) and the airflow velocity inside
the building (U) (Source: after Blocken and Persoon (2009)) 53
2.10 Ventilation prediction models 57
3.1 Chinese shop-houses with integrated courtyard ( Sanusi (2012)) 64
3.2 Ventilation strategies in a traditional Malay House ( Lim (1987)) 64
3.3 High-rise building configuration and wind direction effect of
the wind flow pattern on the building façades, roof and edges
( ASHRAE Handbook-HVAC Applications 44.3, 2005) 66
3.4 Wind flow pattern around high-rise building ( ASHRAE
Handbook-HVAC Applications 44.3, 2005) 66
3.5 Plans of the three types of transitional spaces, from left to right,
Type 1, Type 2 and Type 3 (Source: Chun et al. (2004)) 70
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3.6 Types of lightwell in high-rise buildings based on lightwell type 72
3.7 Combination between vertical (wind core) and horizontal
(wind floor) in Liberty Tower, Japan (Source: CTBUH (2012),
as cited in Liu (2012)) 75
3.8 Plan of Bedok Court Condominium, Singapore (Source: after
plan of the Architect) 76
3.9 Sectional diagram of a high-rise building illustrates the
difference between connected spaces and isolated spaces
(Source: after Etheridge (2012)) 77
3.10 Cross-sections illustrating types of opening classification based
on aspect ratio L/dh; the window is a very small aspect ratio,
while the void and lightwell are a very large value (right) 78
3.11 The airflow pass through the horizontal void in high-rise
building ( after ASHRAE Handbook Fundamental (2005)) 79
3.12 Lightwell connection to outdoors through bottom void and top
opening (sky opening) 80
3.13 Cross section of a multi-storey building illustrates the lightwell
connection to the outdoor 85
3.14 Cross section of GSW building in Germany shows the
Venturi-shaped roof above the outlet of the vertical chimney
(Source: Wood and Salib (2013)) 86
3.15 Venturi-shaped roof (Source: van Hooff et al. (2011)) 87
3.16 The ventilation configuration between the lightwell and different
sizes of the void (Source: Mohsen et al. (1987)) 88
3.17 The airflow pattern around high-rise office building (plan and
section) combined with an internal lightwell connected to a
bottom void (Source: Ismail (1996)) 89
3.18 The ventilation configurations between the lightwell and voids
examined by Kotani et al. 1997 91
3.19 Different ventilation configurations of lightwell and voids
(Source: Chiang and Anh (2012)) 92
3.20 The ventilation configurations examined by Liu (2012) 94
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3.21 Sectional diagram shows cross-ventilation by producing a
suction effect along the lightwell through the void, adjoining
rooms and sky opening 98
3.22 Vertical and direct connection of the lightwell through voids 101
3.23 Possible horizontal direction of the voids that directly connect
the lightwell to outside 103
4.1 Research methodology flow chart 105
4.2 (a) coupled and (b) decoupled (outdoor wind flow and indoor
airflow) approaches for a generic and simple room (Source:
(Ramponi and Blocken, 2012a)) 112
4.3 CFD and ANSYS software modelling processes (Source: after
ANSYS Inc, 2009) 116
4.4 Perspective view of the computational domain size used in
the numerical study shows the building model location and
possible wind direction inlet and building model dimensions
used by Kotani et al. (2003) 133
4.5 Temperature distribution (T) and airflow rate (Q) along the
height (H) of the lightwell in small and recommended
simulation domain sizes compared with experimental data 133
4.6 Grid discretization of the whole domain (a) with more
elaboration in the building (b) and the lightwell with void (c) 134
4.7 Air temperature distribution (T) and airflow rate (Q) along the
height (H) of the lightwell for three types of meshes 3.89x105
(Grid A), 5.51x105 (Grid B) and 9.32x10
5 (Grid C) compared
with experimental data (Exp.) 135
4.8 Generating inlet profile numerically by one-fourth power law
and comparing with experimental inlet 136
4.9 Temperature distribution (T) and airflow rate (Q) along the
height (H) of the lightwell for near-wall treatment adopting the
standard wall function (WF), the enhanced wall treatment (WT)
and standard wall function with inflation mesh (WF+infla) 137
4.10 Temperature (T) and airflow rate (Q) using different methods
for heat generating by wall flux from the internal surfaces of the
lightwell, lightwell volume with and without calculating heat loss
xxi
as suggested by the authors of the experimental study,
compared with experimental data (Exp.) 138
4.11 External facades and detailed snapshots for light-wells for
surveyed buildings in Kuala Lumpur 144
4.12 Possible parameters in the physical configuration of the HRR
building including internal lightwell and voids 146
4.13 The 3D building model for hypothetical units’ positions in
relation to the void and lightwell as well as the direction of
the wind 149
4.14 Plans for possible ventilation configurations between the
lightwell and voids configurations (a-d) and units position in
relation to the lightwell (c) with detailed plan and section
design for a selected living room (e) 150
4.15 Configurations of the lightwell connection to outside through
different-void positions (left) and wind directions (right) for
small-scaled model 154
4.16 Mean wind velocity profile generated at the inlet of the
computational domain by log law (Uref is 0.92 at 10m height
in Kuala Lumpur) 159
4.17 Computational domain boundaries and size for the full-scale
model 160
5.1 Flow chart of the results, discussion and findings 166
5.2 Upward air velocity visualized by streamlines vectors (a) and
vertical temperature gradient and its pattern (b) in mid-section
of the lightwell of Nco 169
5.3 Predicted indoor air velocity and temperature (a), temperature
pattern (b) and air velocity pattern with vectors (c) in
mid-section of both units of Nco 170
5.4 Upward air velocity visualized by streamlines and vectors
(a) and vertical temperature gradient and pattern (b) in
mid-section of the lightwell of Bww 172
5.5 Predicted indoor air velocity and temperature (a),
temperature pattern (b) and air velocity pattern with vectors
(c) in mid-section of both units in Bww 173
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5.6 Upward air velocity visualized by streamlines and vectors
(a) and vertical temperature gradient and pattern (b) in
mid-section of the Blw 174
5.7 Predicted indoor air velocity and temperature (a),
temperature pattern (b) and air velocity pattern with vectors
(c) in mid-section of both units in Blw 175
5.8 Upward air velocity visualized by streamlines and vectors
(a) and vertical temperature gradient and pattern (b) in
mid-section of the lightwell in Bcs 176
5.9 Predicted indoor air velocity and temperature (a),
temperature pattern (b) and air velocity pattern with vectors
(c) in mid-section of both units in Bcs 177
5.10 Upward air velocity visualized by streamlines and vectors
(a) and vertical temperature gradient and pattern (b) in
mid-section of the lightwell in Bwh 178
5.11 Predicted indoor air velocity and temperature (a),
temperature pattern (b) and air velocity pattern with vectors
(c) in mid-section of both units in Bwh 179
5.12 Predicted upward air velocity in the vertical centerline of
the lightwell in all configurations of G1 181
5.13 Average indoor air velocity along the x-axis at the middle level
of the lower and upper units for the configurations of G1 182
5.14 Upward air velocity visualized by streamlines and vectors (a)
and vertical temperature gradient and pattern (b) in
mid-section of the lightwell in Mww 184
5.15 Predicted indoor air velocity and temperature (a),
temperature pattern (b) and air velocity pattern with vectors
(c) in the mid-section of both units in Mww 185
5.16 Upward air velocity visualized by streamlines and vectors
(a) and vertical temperature gradient and pattern (b) in
mid-section of the lightwell in Mlw 186
5.17 Predicted indoor air velocity and temperature (a),
temperature pattern (b) and air velocity pattern with vectors
(c) in mid-section of both units of Mlw 187
xxiii
5.18 Upward air velocity visualized by streamlines and vectors
(a) and vertical temperature gradient and pattern (b) in
mid-section of the lightwell of Mcs 188
5.19 Predicted indoor air velocity and temperature (a),
temperature pattern (b) and air velocity pattern with vectors
(c) in mid-section of both units of Mcs 189
5.20 Upward air velocity visualized by streamlines and vectors
(a) and vertical temperature gradient and pattern (b) in
mid-section of the lightwell of Mwh 190
5.21 Predicted indoor air velocity and temperature (a),
temperature pattern (b) and air velocity pattern with vectors
(c) in mid-section of both units of Mwh 191
5.22 Predicted upward air velocity in vertical centerline of the
lightwell in all configurations of G2 193
5.23 Average indoor air velocity along the x-axis at the middle level
of the lower and upper units for the configurations of G2 194
5.24 Upward air velocity visualized by streamlines and vectors
(a) and vertical temperature gradient and pattern (b) in
mid-section of the lightwell of Dww 196
5.25 Predicted indoor air velocity and temperature (a),
temperature pattern (b) and air velocity pattern with vectors
(c) in mid-section of both units of Dww 197
5.26 Upward air velocity visualized by streamlines and vectors
(a) and vertical temperature gradient and pattern (b) in
mid-section of the lightwell of Dlw 198
5.27 Predicted indoor air velocity and temperature (a),
temperature pattern (b) and air velocity pattern with vectors
(c) in mid-section of both units of Dlw 199
5.28 Upward air velocity visualized by streamlines and vectors
(a) and vertical temperature gradient and pattern (b) in
mid-section of the lightwell of Dcs 200
5.29 Predicted indoor air velocity and temperature (a),
temperature pattern (b) and air velocity pattern with vectors
(c) in mid-section of both units of Dcs 201
xxiv
5.30 Upward air velocity visualized by streamlines and vectors
(a) and vertical temperature gradient and pattern (b) in
mid-section of the lightwell of Dwh 202
5.31 Predicted indoor air velocity and temperature (a),
temperature pattern (b) and air velocity pattern with vectors
(c) in mid-section of both units of Dwh 203
5.32 Predicted upward air velocity in vertical centerline of the
lightwell in all configurations of G3 204
5.33 Average indoor air velocity along the x-axis at the middle level
of the lower and upper units for the configurations of G3 206
5.34 Upward air velocity visualized by streamlines and vectors
(a) and vertical temperature gradient and pattern (b) in
mid-section of the lightwell in Ddf-ww 207
5.35 Predicted indoor air velocity and temperature (a),
temperature pattern (b) and air velocity pattern with vectors
(c) in mid-section of both units in Ddf-ww 208
5.36 Upward air velocity visualized by streamlines and vectors
(a) and vertical temperature gradient and pattern (b) in
mid-section of the lightwell in Ddf-lw 209
5.37 Predicted indoor air velocity and temperature (a),
temperature pattern (b) and air velocity pattern with vectors
(c) in mid-section of both units in Ddf-lw 210
5.38 Upward air velocity visualized by streamlines and vectors
(a) and vertical temperature gradient and pattern (b) in
mid-section of the lightwell in Bcs-ww 211
5.39 Predicted indoor air velocity and temperature (a),
temperature pattern (b) and air velocity pattern with vectors
(c) in mid-section of both units in Bcs-ww 212
5.40 Upward air velocity visualized by streamlines and vectors
(a) and vertical temperature gradient and pattern (b) in
mid-section of the lightwell in Bcs-lw 213
5.41 Predicted indoor air velocity and temperature (a),
temperature pattern (b) and air velocity pattern with vectors
(c) in mid-section of both units in Bcs-lw 214
xxv
5.42 Upward air velocity visualized by streamlines and vectors
(a) and vertical temperature gradient and pattern (b) in
mid-section of the lightwell in Mcs-ww 215
5.43 Predicted indoor air velocity and temperature (a),
temperature pattern (b) and air velocity pattern with vectors
(c) in mid-section of both units in Mcs-ww 216
5.44 Upward air velocity visualized by streamlines and vectors
(a) and vertical temperature gradient and pattern (b) in
mid-section of the lightwell in Mcs-lw 217
5.45 Predicted indoor air velocity and temperature (a),
temperature pattern (b) and air velocity pattern with vectors
(c) in mid-section of both units in Mcs-lw 218
5.46 Predicted upward air velocity in vertical centerline of the
lightwell in all configurations of G4 219
5.47 Average indoor air velocity along the x-axis at the middle level
of the lower and upper units for the configurations of G4 220
5.48 Predicted upward air velocity in the vertical centerline of the
lightwell in all configurations of s-G1 225
5.49 Average indoor air velocity along the x-axis at the middle level
of the lower and upper units for the configurations of s-G1 226
5.50 Predicted upward air velocity in vertical centerline of the
lightwell in all configurations of s-G2 227
5.51 Average indoor air velocity along the x-axis at the middle level
of the lower and upper units for the configurations of s-G2 229
5.52 Predicted upward air velocity in the vertical centerline of
the lightwell in all configurations of s-G3 230
5.53 Average indoor air velocity along the x-axis at the middle level
of the lower and upper units for all s-G3 configurations 231
5.54 Predicted upward air velocity in the vertical centerline of
the lightwell in all configurations of s-G4 232
5.55 Average indoor air velocity along the x-axis at the middle level
of the lower and upper units for the configurations of s-G4 234
5.56 The average air velocity and temperature along the lower
and upper hypothitical units for all ventilation configurations 239
xxvii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
Q - flow rate (m3/h)
T - temperature (oC)
k - turbulent kinetic energy (m2/s
2)
g - acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)
Pr - Prandtl number
Re - Reynolds number
u - mean air velocity magnitude (m/s)
u - velocity fluctuation component (m/s)
t - temperature fluctuation component (oC)
ijS - strain rate tensor (1/s)
- time average
Γ - diffusion coefficient
- magnitude of rotation tensor
- von Karman constant (= 0.4187)
- temperature fluctuation (oC)
- dissipation of k (m2/s
3)
- coefficient of thermal expansion (K-1
)
- dynamic viscosity (Pa.s)
v - kinematic viscosity (m2/s)
- intermittency
- turbulent viscosity damping factor
- mass density (kg/m
3)
- specific dissipation rate (s_1
)
- turbulent Pr for k or
- Kronecker delta
U - local wind speed (m/s)
Uref - reference wind speed (m/s)
Upot - potential wind speed (at 10m height with y0 = 0.03 m) (m/s)
NVB
HRR
WTE
UBBL
CFD
DSF
KBES
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Naturally ventilated building
High-rise residential
Wind-tunnel experiment
Malaysian Uniform Building By-Law
Computational Fluid Dynamics
Double skin facade
Knowledge-based expert systems
xxviii
LIST OF APPENDICES
APPENDIX TITLE PAGE
A List of Related Publications 277
B HRR Buildings Survey in Kuala Lumpur for
Developing the Model Configuration
278
C Meteorological Data in Kuala Lumpur (Subang weather
station, 2003 – 2012)
282
D Review Survey 285
E Result of the Pilot Study to Monitor the Effect of the
Lightwell Existence in Apartment
287
F Results of the Initial Parametric Study for Small-scale
Building Model
289
G Equations and Script used in Full-scale Model
Simulations
292
H CFD Simulation Results for all Configurations of Full-
scale Model
295
CHAPTER 1
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Overview
Tropical cities in Southeast Asia are encountering the rapid growth of urban
population, which has increased the demand for residential units. The increasing
income level of people in most of these cities has led to an increasing demand level
in both quantity and quality aspects of housing (Yuen and Yeh, 2011). In order to
meet this growing demand, many countries in the region of Southeast Asia have
adjusted their housing policies to include the construction of high-rise residential
(HRR) buildings. This is particularly prevalent in capital cities such as Kuala
Lumpur, Bangkok and densely populated cities with insufficient area of land such as
Singapore and Hong Kong. For instance, in the last decade the number of high-rise
buildings in Singapore has increased by three times and the number has doubled
within the same period in Kuala Lumpur and Bangkok (Rimmer and Dick, 2009)
according to updates by www.emporis.com. Most of these buildings are utilized for
housing, particularly in Singapore due to the high population density (Yuen and Yeh,
2011). In Malaysia, for instance, census statistics for 2010 recorded a significant
increase in the apartment housing numbers, which has increased by about 7.3% in the
last decade. During this same period, only a rise of 3.8 % was recorded for terraced
houses, whereas there was no increase in the number of detached and semi-attached
houses (Population and Housing Census of Malaysia 2010).
The significant rise of housing projects, particularly apartment housing,
demands more energy for lighting or cooling and running other utilities in houses.
According to statistics reports in Malaysia (2011), the energy consumption in the
2
building sector (residential and commercial) has doubled. About 67% of the total
energy consumed in residential building is used only for cooling and refrigeration
(CETDEM, 2006). The General Report of the Population and Housing Census in
Malaysia, 1970, 1990 and 2000 shows that the number of households using air-
conditioners dramatically increased from 13,000 in 1970 to 229,000 in 1990 and
775,000 in 2000. Kubota et al. (2009) found that the increase in using air-
conditioners was mainly due to the increase in household income.
In order to cut down the energy consumption in the building sector, some
Southeast Asian countries have established guidelines and codes, particularly those
countries with high rates of energy consumption. In addition, these countries have
developed criteria that adapt to the local environment when assessing energy
consumption. In Malaysia, for instance, standards and checklists have been
formulated to evaluate buildings’ performances. The Green Building Index (GBI),
Overall Thermal Transfer Value (OTTV) and Building Energy Indicator (BEI) are
commonly used in Malaysia today (Rahman, 2010). In order to meet the criteria of
these standards and checklists, minimizing energy consumption by applying
bioclimatic principles and energy efficiency techniques in buildings is required.
Natural ventilation is considered one of the most fundamental low-cost
passive cooling strategies in buildings (Jiang and Chen, 2002; Zhai, 2006). Thus, it
could contribute to the reduction of energy consumption without compromising
thermal comfort (Kubota et al., 2009) and air quality inside the buildings. Many
previous researchers recommended naturally ventilated buildings as being the
preferred strategy in hot and humid climates (Aynsley, 1980; de Dear et al., 1991;
Feriadi and Wong, 2004; Givoni, 1994; Kubota et al., 2009; Rahman et al., 2011;
Rajapaksha et al., 2003). Therefore, the present research is directed towards naturally
ventilated buildings, giving attention to high-rise residential (HRR) buildings in
Malaysia. The result of the study will contribute to the knowledge related to this
area, and is aimed at saving energy and thus reduction of household expenses as well
as considering the environmental dimension.
3
1.2 Problem Background
Bioclimatic principles were first applied to large-scale buildings, e.g. high-
rise buildings, in the last decade of the last century. These principles have been noted
in some works of pioneering architects e.g., Yeang and Foster. Bioclimatic high-rise
buildings could play an important role in reducing energy consumption, particularly
the energy required for running air-conditioning. Based on a mixed mode of
ventilation (hybrid ventilation), it can cut down 63% of the energy required for fully
running air-conditioning in high-rise non-residential buildings in tropical climatic
conditions (Wood and Salib, 2013). In Malaysia, the UMNO high-rise non-
residential building is designed to be fully naturally ventilated (Wood and Salib,
2013). However, it cuts down on about 25% of the energy that is required for running
air-conditioning as measured in post-occupancy evaluations of the building. The
most famous international example is the high-rise building of Commerzbank,
which relies on mixed mode ventilation and can be naturally ventilated 80% of the
year, thus saving about 63% of energy compared to a fully air-conditioned building
in Germany (Lambot, 1997; Wood and Salib, 2013). Table 1.1 clearly illustrates the
dramatic increase of the number of naturally ventilated high-rise non-residential
buildings during the last three decades.
In fact, the naturally ventilated high-rise non-residential building is not a new
concept, but one that was introduced in the 19th
century. Although the first high-rise
air conditioned office building was built in 1928 (Milam in USA), many office
buildings are still depend on natural ventilation, and thus the plans of such buildings
are very limited in depth to induce cross-ventilation. The required energy to run such
air conditioning systems was initially expensive and this also limits the depth of most
high-rise office buildings’ plans (Wood and Salib, 2013). The lightwell was
integrated into the building in different configurations, e.g. internal and semi-
enclosed (u-shaped). However, these configurations changed in the middle of the 20th
century when the plan of the building became deeper. This is because these buildings
started to rely on air-conditioned systems in office buildings once the energy became
more affordable than before (Wood and Salib, 2013). In addition, operable windows
disappeared and curtain walls were used in order to mechanically control the indoor
4
environment i.e. totally using air-conditioned systems. As a result, bioclimatic
design strategies found in old high-rise buildings gradually disappeared.
Table 1.1: High-rise non-residential buildings in different climatic regions that used
natural ventilation (Source: after Wood and Salib (2013))
Building
name
Plan depth
/ floors
number
Climate Ventilation
type / (%) of
year natural
vent. used
Natural
ventilation
Strategy
Design
strategies
Commerzbank
Germany, 1997
11.5m
(from the
central
atrium) /
56
Temp. Mixed-mode
/ 80%
Cross &
stack
(connected
spaces)
DSF, full-
height
central atrium,
void
UMNO,
Malaysia, 1998
14m /
21
Trop. Mixed-mode
/ 0-100 %
depends on
users
Wind-driven
cross
(isolated
spaces)
Vertical wing-
wall wind,
aerodynamic
form
Liberty Tower,
Japan,
1998
20 m /
23
Temp. Mixed-mode
/ 29 %
Cross &
stack
(connected
spaces)
18-floors height
atrium, void
GSW
Headquarters
Germany, 1999
11 m /
22
Temp. Mixed-mode
/ 70%
Cross &
stack
(connected
spaces)
20-floors height
DSF, Venturi,
aerodynamic
form
Post Tower,
Germany, 2002
12m (from
central
atrium) /
41
Temp. Mixed-mode /
unpublished
Cross &
stack
(connected
spaces)
DSF, atrium,
void, wing-
wall,
aerodynamic
Torre Cube,
Mexico,
2005
9-12m
(from
central
atrium) /
16
Temp.
&
Trop.
Full natural
ventilation (no
mechanical)
Cross &
stack
(connected
spaces)
Lightwell, void,
wing-wall,
aerodynamic
form
Manitoba
Hydro Place,
Canada,
2008
11.5 (from
central
core) /
21
Cold Mixed-mode
/ 35%
Cross &
stack
(connected
spaces)
DSF, atrium,
void, solar
chimney
1 Bligh Streets,
Australia, 2011
23.5(from
atrium) /
30
Mild Mixed- mode:
zoned/lobby
full natural
vent.
Cross &
stack
(connected
spaces)
DSF, full-
height atrium,
void,
aerodynamic
Mixed-mode: switches between mechanical and natural ventilation daily or seasonally; DSF:
double skin façade; Temp.: temperate climate; Trop.: tropical climate
Since the interest of the present study is the configuration of high-rise
residential buildings, it is possible to rely on some developments trends in high-rise
non-residential buildings, particularly the high-rise non-residential buildings that
5
existed before HRR buildings. As a result, bioclimatic high-rise non-residential
buildings have been the area of interest to many researchers (e.g. (Busch, 1992;
Chang et al., 2004; Daghigh et al., 2009; Ismail, 1996; Ismail, 2007; Liu, 2012; Liu
et al., 2012; Wood and Salib, 2013)).
In Malaysia, house types were divided into four groups based on cost, these
being low-cost, low-medium cost, medium-cost and high-cost (Ministry of Housing
and Local Government, MHLG). Although most previous Malaysian Government
plans have encouraged increasing the number of units for the first two groups to
provide low-income household, the achievement is relatively low compared to the
medium-cost and high-cost housing types (Shuid, 2004). Most of the low-cost HRR
buildings were built by government e.g., Kuala Lumpur City Hall (DBKL). Since the
housing policy in the present plans are directed towards achieving adequate, quality
and affordable houses to all Malaysians, many passive design strategies are
incorporated into this type of housing to provide quality. Sapian (2004) defined five
configurations in low-cost HRR buildings of DBKL. These configurations are
rectangular, rectangular with courtyard, compact rectangular, L-shape and U-shape
plans. All of these configurations were built to promote daylight and cross-
ventilation flow either using a single-loaded corridor, or providing lightwells. Figure
1.1 shows the plan configurations of non-lightwell HRR buildings utilizing a single-
loaded corridor in a rectangular plan (a), internal-lightwell in rectangular plan with
courtyard (b), semi-enclosed lightwell in double-loaded corridor, U-shape and L-
shape, (c, d,& e, respectively). Therefore, the low-cost HRR buildings in Malaysia
rely on different lightwell configurations as they are totally based on natural
ventilation or low cost mechanical means such as fans.
6
Figure 1.1 Plan configurations of low-income HRR buildings built by DBKL-
Malaysia (Source: Sapian, 2004)
On the other hand, most of the medium-cost HRR buildings in Malaysia were
built by the private sector (Shuid, 2004). This type of housing is more preferred by
households and thus this encourages the private sector to build numerous units. For
example, based on the Ninth Malaysian Plan (2006-2010), the achieved percentage
of medium-cost units is 227.8 % of the targeted units in this plan.
The high-cost housing type considered the highest percentage in terms of
implementation in Malaysia for the last three plans (MHLG). This type of housing is
not affordable for Malaysian households as it is high-cost and thus it is only used by
a limited section of the population. Although naturally ventilated high-rise buildings
are implemented for low-income households as stated above, there are good
examples of high-cost HRR buildings built in Kuala Lumpur. They are incorporated
with architectural and aerodynamic elements to provide natural ventilation. For
example, Hamzah and Yeang, who began to design naturally ventilated high-rise
non-residential buildings (e.g. the UMNO building) at the end of the last century,
introduced naturally ventilated HRR buildings at the beginning of this century. Well-
known HRR building projects in Kuala Lumpur are the Idman Residence (2008), The
Plaza (2006) and The Residences (2006) (Figs., 1.4 -1.6). These buildings
incorporated architectural and aerodynamic elements such as wing-wall wings, and
internal, attached and semi-enclosed lightwells (Richards, 2007). Some of these
design strategies played an important role in avoiding deep plan and thus encourage
cross-ventilation flow for most units (Hart and Littlefield, 2011; Richards, 2007).
a) b) c)
d) e)
7
These architectural and aerodynamic elements implemented in pioneering
high-rise buildings (residential and non-residential) in hot and humid region are
presented in Table 1.2. It is noted from the table that the high-rise non-residential
buildings are integrated with several aerodynamic elements more than those in high-
cost HRR buildings. In addition, the table shows that these architectural and
aerodynamic elements of HRR buildings were started to be implemented in the last
decade (at least in tropical cities) and was limited to luxury or high-cost housing as
extra cost was required. However, some of these architectural elements could be used
to improve airflow characteristics due to their multi-functions.
Those multi-function elements could be found in other types of HRR
buildings i.e. low-cost and medium-cost HRR buildings. Some of these design
elements such as corridors, balcony, void, lightwell and staircase could be feasible in
terms of adaptation to provide indoor natural ventilation (Ismail, 1996). For example,
the void can be used as car parks, entrance to the lifts hall and at the same time
provide shadow and so it can be employed to induce the airflow into the units of the
building (Sapian, 2004). In addition, lightwell can be used to induce ventilation and
admit daylight into the units or rooms, which are far from the perimeter of the
building and at the same time it can be used for some vertical installations. These
architectural elements usually have a large space that could be adapted as thermal
buffer zones to control the indoor thermal performance of HRR buildings (Ismail,
1996).
8
Table 1.2 : Vertical and horizontal architectural elements and aerodynamics
elements in some pioneering naturally ventilated high-rise residential and non-
residential buildings and highlighted elements of the present study
Vertical
elements
Horizontal
elements
Aerodynamic elements and
forms
Lig
htw
ell
Atr
ium
S.
ch
imn
ey
DS
F
Vo
id
Co
rrid
or
Bal
con
y
Win
g-w
all
Nar
row
pla
n
3D
Bu
ild
ing
form
Ven
turi
-eff
ect
Inn
ov
ativ
e
win
do
ws
Hig
h-r
ise
No
n-R
esid
en
tia
l B
uil
din
g
Commerzbank
Germany, 1997
UMNO,
Malaysia, 1998
Liberty Tower
Japan, 1998
GSW
Germany, 1999
Post Tower
Germany 2002
Torre Cube
Mexico 2005
Manitoba Hydro
Canada, 2008
1 Bligh Streets,
Australia, 2011
Hig
h-r
ise
Res
iden
tia
l B
uil
din
gs
Idman Residence
Malaysia, 2008
The Plaza
Malaysia, 2006
The Residences
Malaysia, 2006
The Troika,
Malaysia, 2012
D’Leedon,
Singapore, 2014
Moulmein,
Singapore, 2003
The Met,
Thailand, 2013
9
Figure 1.2 Commerzbank - Frankfurt, 1997, shows aerodynamic configuration,
open-able segmented atrium and sky gardens (Source: Lambot (1997), 1997 and PC.
Liu, 2012)
Figure 1.3 Torre Cube, Mexico, 2005, 100 % naturally ventilated throughout the
year (Source: Wood and Salib, 2013)
10
Figure 1.4 The Residence - Kuala Lumpur by T. R. Hamzah & Yeang (2006),
attached lightwell, wind corridor and wing-wind wall (Source:
http://www.propwall.my)
Figure 1.5 The Idaman Residence - Kuala Lumpur by T. R. Hamzah & Yeang
(2008), using semi-enclosed lightwells as funnels to capture wind, wind corridor and
attached lightwells (Source: http://www.skyscrapercity.com)
11
Figure 1.6 The Plaza - Kuala Lumpur by T. R. Hamzah & Yeang (2006), using
attached lightwells for upward flow, wind corridor and wing-wind wall (Source:
EAG website http://eag.my/)
Figure 1.7 D’Leedon – Singapore by Zaha Hadid, (under construction), semi-
enclosed lightwell as funnel to capture wind (Source: Feng (2012))
Figure 1.8 The Met – Bangkok by WOHA (2013), view looking down through the
semi-enclosed lightwell between the towers, (Source: Feng (2012))
12
1.3 Problem Statement
From the environmental design point of view, the building configuration in
hot and humid climate incorporating different types of lightwell either in the core or
perimeter of the building (Givoni, 1998; Nutalaya, 1999) affords large external
facades and thus allows the opening of windows in different orientations, which
provides cross-ventilation for most indoor spaces. The internal lightwell is
commonly implemented in the core of high-rise building to maintain daylight and
natural ventilation. Physically, the position of the internal lightwell means that it is
totally separated from the surrounding outdoor environment. However, it connects
directly to outside through sky openings at the top which act as outlets and horizontal
spaces such as corridors and voids acts as inlets. It also connects indirectly to the
outdoor through its adjoining spaces, i.e. rooms have external and adjoining window
(Fig. 1.9).
The internal lightwell is subjected under the Malaysian building code
(UBBL) to improve its performance in terms of providing natural ventilation and
daylight. However, the code determines the minimum area for the outlet (sky
opening) of the lightwell space and links with its height. In order to guarantee better
performance of the lightwell in terms of providing natural ventilation to adjoining
rooms, the code also stipulates the minimum area of the adjoining windows, as later
presented in Section 3.1.5. Based on the results of a survey conducted in Kuala
Lumpur (Farea et al., 2012), the stipulated minimum area of the lightwell outlet by
UBBL is achieved in most surveyed HRR buildings (see Table B.1 in Appendix B).
However, the survey results found that the lightwell connected to outdoors through
several methods, which are categorized into four groups (see Table B. 2 in Appendix
B). This indicates that the inlet of the lightwell space was left for the designer to
select the method of the connection. Thus, the provision of the regulations may not
be enough to guarantee indoor natural ventilation into adjoining units through only
stipulating criteria for the outlet and adjoining windows areas.
A literature survey demonstrates that the lightwell space is subjected to
produce a suction effect along the lightwell by either upward or downward cross-
flow (Chiang and Anh, 2012; Etheridge, 2012; Ghiaus and Roulet, 2005; Ismail,
13
1996). Thus, the method used to connect the lightwell to outside through different
locations of the inlet certainly affects the suction force along the lightwell. If the
lightwell does not connect to the outdoor appropriately, unwanted gases may become
trapped in the lightwell and thus reduce the fresh air flow in its space and reduce the
cross flow ventilation in adjoining units. In other words, lightwell outlet and
windows size (as stated above) may not be adequate to achieve the target of
providing natural ventilation. This leads to use of mechanical ventilation to extract
the unwanted gases from the lightwell space (e.g. exhaust fans) and to provide
thermal comfort to the adjoining room. Although the direct inlet of the internal
lightwell space is an important parameter that affects the airflow pattern along its
space and adjoining indoor spaces, there is lack of exploration on the ventilation
configuration between lightwell and horizontal void and its performance.
Consequently, it is important to understand the aerodynamics characteristics in the
internal lightwell connected, whether directly or indirectly, to the outdoor in HRR
buildings for improving natural ventilation.
Figure 1.9 Ventilation configuration of the internal lightwell connected indirectly to
the outdoor through its adjoining units
1.4 Research Hypothesis
This research hypothesises that connecting the internal lightwell to the
outdoor through horizontal voids (Fig. 1.10) in an appropriate ventilation
configuration will achieve the following;
14
a) Improve air quality through increased air changes per hour (ACH) and thus
supply fresh air which is important to discharge the CO2 and other
contaminants from the lightwell space,
b) Improve the cross- flow ventilation in the adjoining units and thus provide the
required indoor thermal comfort without total dependence on mechanical
means.
This is applicable to climatic conditions of Kuala Lumpur, and to satisfy the
minimum dimensions of the lightwell ratio and adjoining windows as subjected by
UBBL. It should be noted that the term “ventilation configuration” refers to the
configuration of the connection between the lightwell and the outdoor through the
void or no-connection i.e. no void.
Figure 1.10 Ventilation configuration of the lightwell connected to the outdoor
through horizontal voids, which may affect upward flow and indoor air velocity
1.5 Research Questions
This thesis addresses the following questions:
1) Does the connection of the lightwell to the outdoor environment through
horizontal void affect the cross-flow ventilation in the lightwell space and
thus the adjoining units?
15
2) What is the most effective ventilation configuration of the lightwell and void
to increase air velocity and reduce temperature in order to obtain adequate
indoor thermal comfort?
3) What is the optimum ventilation configuration for providing adequate fresh
air in the lightwell, while at the same time providing adequate thermal
comfort to the adjoining units?
4) Are the level and position of the adjoining unit significant parameters in
increasing air velocity and thus reducing indoor air temperature?
5) Is the CFD model acceptable and reliable as a tool to predict the air velocity
and temperature in high-rise buildings with an internal integrated lightwell?
1.6 Research Aim and Objectives
The primary goal of this research is to investigate the effect of the horizontal
void existence and its position on the cross-flow ventilation in the lightwell and thus
adjoining units in HRR buildings. The investigation includes a wide range of
alternative ventilation configurations of the lightwell connected to the outdoor
environment through different void positions and directions. The objectives are as
follows:
a) To identify alternative physical configurations of the lightwell connection to
the outdoor with special reference of the HRR buildings in Kuala Lumpur.
b) To validate the performance of CFD in terms of predicting the temperature
gradient and the upward airflow velocity driven by combined wind and
buoyancy forces in the lightwell.
c) To evaluate the ventilation configurations of the lightwell in terms of
providing adequate indoor thermal comfort of adjoining units and adequate
fresh air in the lightwell space. This is achieved by following the sub
objectives:
To examine the effect of proposed ventilation configurations on the
air velocity and temperature in the lightwell space and adjoining units.
To examine and compare the adjoining unit position (lower and
upper) effect on the indoor air velocity and airflow pattern.
16
1.7 Research Scope
The study focuses on common configurations of the lightwell high-rise
residential building with special reference to the hot and humid climate of Kuala
Lumpur in Malaysia. The lightwell in HRR buildings can be divided into three types
based on its location in the plan and the configuration of the building, namely
internal, semi-enclosed and attached (Farea et al., 2012; Ismail, 1996). The present
study only focuses on the internal lightwell as representative of the worst case in
terms of driving external wind flow into the building. The internal lightwell is also
totally separated from the outdoor surrounding environment.
The connection of the lightwell to the outdoor environment through the void
does not only affect the air quality in the lightwell and thermal comfort in the units
but it also plays an important role in cooling the building fabric and outdoor
environment (Givoni, 1998). However, the effect of cooling down the building
construction and outdoor flow are not included in the output of the present study.
Since the study focuses on air quality in lightwell and thermal comfort in
adjoining units, the air change per hour (ACH) and air temperature in the lightwell
and the air velocity and air temperature in the units are the output of this study.
Thermal comfort data applicable to tropical cities in general, and specifically to
Kuala Lumpur, were used in order to evaluate the acceptable thermal comfort for
different ventilation configurations of the lightwell. Thermal comfort is determined
based on neutral temperature, which was derived by two approaches, namely field
studies and the adaptive approach. The neutral temperature method is based on the
previous field work in several tropical cities, while the adaptive approach is based on
the outdoor average air temperature of Kuala Lumpur. Since neutral temperature
estimations considered only those studies based on operative temperature (the
combination between average air temperature and mean radiant temperature), the
humidity variables are not considered in the output of the thermal comfort estimation
(see Section 2.3.2.).
17
1.8 Research Limitations
The limitations of the research are discussed in three main categories as
follows:
a) Building model configuration:
From the perspective of building design, it is difficult to involve all possible
configurations in one study. Therefore, a systematic method is used in order to
develop the building model, which is based on a survey for selected HRR buildings
in Kuala Lumpur in addition to the data obtained from the literature. In the process of
developing the building model and the parameters of the ventilation configurations
(combination between the lightwell and void), the functional approach rather than
aesthetic is employed. For example, the horizontal void is usually used on the ground
floor as a car park or used on the middle level for building services or a refuge floor.
In order to reduce the number of variables in the numerical proposed building
model that represents the common configurations of the lightwell high-rise
residential building, an isolated and generic building model is used in this study. This
is because the nature of the wind is varied with time (wind direction and magnitude
variable per second) and thus it is difficult to predict its characteristics with complex
configurations and more architectural details of the building model.
b) Methods:
There are many methods available to predict the airflow characteristics based
on theoretical, experimental and numerical models. The numerical model is the
primary method used in this study, which is based on CFD simulations. However, the
small-scale building model in wind tunnel experiments available in the literature is
used to validate the CFD. Similarly, the validation study was used in order to
examine the performance of the CFD code for predicting the non-isothermal airflow
18
(combination between wind and stack forces) in high-rise buildings. The results of
CFD simulation of the small-scale model are compared with wind tunnel
experimental data for validation. In addition, the small-scale model simulation is
used to examine different wind direction, and further discussion on this issue is
provided below.
Full-scale building model simulations are conducted in an atmospheric
boundary layer (ABL), closer to the realistic environment than possible in small-
scale model simulations. However, simulation results of the full-scale building model
still need further realistic conditions because the effects of the existing surrounding
buildings are neglected. Since HRR buildings are usually surrounded by lower
buildings rather than high-rise buildings (Ismail, 1997), the absence of the
surrounding environment in simulation could not have a significant effect on the
results of CFD simulations, particularly at upper stories where the wind is free flow
(Burnett et al., 2005). The present study examines the natural ventilation in the
lightwell and higher floor units so the effect of surrounding buildings will be less
significant. Therefore, the study concentrates only on isolated and generic buildings,
which helps to reduce the time of calculations.
The objective of the parametric study is to examine and compare the
performance of different ventilation configurations in terms of providing thermal
comfort and air quality in the units and lightwell. Therefore, reproducing the actual
transient conditions (i.e. for specific days) is out of the scope of this study. This is
because reproducing the actual transient of the thermal behavior of the building
under realistic transient conditions (i.e. Kuala Lumpur boundary condition) is
difficult in CFD (van Hooff and Blocken, 2010). However, the realistic building and
climatic conditions complexity can be reproduced either by using transient
simulation which is very costly and time consuming or by coupling the CFD with
building energy simulation software e.g., (Wang and Wong, 2009).
Based on CFD applications, modelling airflow in the built environment can
be distinguished under two categories; coupled and de-coupled simulation
(Etheridge, 2012; Ramponi and Blocken, 2012a). Coupled simulations are between
external wind flow and internal airflow and have a single computational domain,
19
while the de-coupled simulation involves either outdoor wind flow or indoor airflow
and thus includes two computational domains. Since the cross-flow ventilation is the
main objective of this study, the interaction between the external wind flow and
internal airflow in units and the lightwell are considered a coupled simulation, as is
selected in this study.
As is commonly known in CFD simulation studies, there is a lack of high
computational performance for modelling large-scale environments. Therefore, the
performance of computer sources available in the market is considerably the greatest
limitation of the present study. For example, in order to decrease the computational
time, all simulations are isolated and the building model is simplified with only two
units representing lower and upper levels.
The wind direction is an important parameter to determine the airflow
characteristics in the lightwell and its adjoining units. However, different wind
directions require large sizes of computational domain and thus increase the
computational time. This problem increases with full-scale model simulation when it
exceeded the maximum length of the CFD pre-processing software. As a result, three
different wind directions of 0o, 45
o and 90
o are examined in small-scale models.
c) The output of the study (Ventilation Functions)
The acceptable air velocity range for providing indoor thermal comfort is
based on previous field studies in Kuala Lumpur. The estimations of the most
appropriate air velocity in naturally ventilated HRR buildings applicable to Kuala
Lumpur still lack real field studies. In general, the output of the study is applicable to
hot and humid climate conditions.
20
1.9 Research Significance
Assessing airflow in the lightwell as a semi-open space, which is common in
HRR buildings, is important in order to improve the upward flow in the core of the
building and thus:
a) Removing the heat from the core of the building and providing better air
quality and thermal comfort which are important for human health and
occupants’ activities;
b) Providing cross-flow ventilation for the adjoining units may contribute to
reducing indoor thermal discomfort time, which leads to saving the household
extra expenditure on electrical appliances, cost of running, maintenance and
electricity bills.
c) Contributing towards the development of design guidelines for naturally
ventilated HRR buildings. This guideline could be also used by policy makers
to improve the building code in Malaysia (UBBL).
1.10 Thesis Outline
This thesis contains seven chapters, including the present chapter which
covers the introduction, background, problems and the objective of the study while
the rest is organized as follows (Fig. 1.11):
Chapter 2 covers the natural ventilation principles in buildings and wind
environment in hot and humid region. Benefits of natural ventilation and models
which are used to predict both air quality and acceptable thermal comfort are also
presented in this chapter. The overview of methods used to predict ventilation
performances in buildings are also outlined.
Chapter 3 reviews transitional spaces in buildings with further detail on semi-
open spaces in high-rise buildings. Most of the studies conducted for natural
ventilation through the lightwell and horizontal void in high-rise buildings are
presented here. This chapter concludes by presenting the research gap in the study.
21
The most appropriate models that are used to achieve the objective of the
present study are discussed in detail in Chapter 4. The settings and sensitivity
analysis results of the CFD validation for small-scale model are presented in this
chapter. The procedures used to collect data for several HRR buildings in Kuala
Lumpur are also presented here. The important aspects relating to Kuala Lumpur
boundary conditions e.g. acceptable thermal comfort and main wind reference speed
are determined. The chapter concludes with the presentation of the full scale model
CFD simulation settings.
Chapter 5 presents the results of the air temperature, airflow velocity and
airflow pattern in the lightwell and hypothetical units in each configuration. The
averages of temperature and air velocity in the units and ACH for all configurations
are compared in terms of air quality in the lightwell and thermal comfort levels in
hypothetical units according to Kuala Lumpur boundary conditions. This chapter is
concluded with the important findings of the study.
The summary of the study and conclusions are presented in Chapter 6.
Further research and recommendations in design of naturally ventilated high-rise
buildings are outlined in this chapter.
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