Concept File 2 Section I: Reading 1,2,3,4& 5 Section II: Reading 6,7,8 &9 T551: Primer Reading 5, 6,...

Concept File 2 Section I: Reading 1,2,3,4& 5

Section II: Reading 6,7,8 &9T551: Primer Reading 5, 6, 7, 8T552: Appendix A1.2, and A.2.1

Concept File 2The individual:

Workplace and self-development

Section I People at WorkThese five readings are intended to give personal

views of different kinds of work.

Readings 1–3 (Babe Secoli, Phil Stallings, Larry Ross) are from a classic collection of mini-biographies of ordinary working people .

In the excerpts, three people describe their jobs (in a supermarket, on a production line, and as a senior manager) in a revealing and personal style.

The interviews mostly describe ‘big industry’ conditions in the USA in the late 1960s and early 1970s – a rather different world from the modern computer-driven, down-sized, de-centralized, team-based culture.

But in spite of the huge changes in culture and technology over the thirty years, these stories were recorded, their human power still has an immense freshness. These changes and continuities raise many questions about the nature both of people and of work.

Reading 4

(People are different) explores the notion of cognitive style or type.

We are all very different from one another, but it can be difficult to really appreciate what that means without some way of making the nature of these differences more explicit.

Many conflicts in organizational life are not due to any substantive difference of interest, but simply due to failure to understand quite simple differences of cognitive style.

Reading 5(Case-study: Engineers and the work that

people do) raises an important ethical and philosophical issue about the proper relationship between people and technology – an issue that becomes ever more crucial as the power of information technology grows ever greater.

Concept File 2Section II: The individual:

Workplace and self-development

Section II MotivationReading 6 How it might be?

Work is love made visible.

If you are called to be a street sweeper, sweep streets even as Michelangelo painted, or Beethoven composed music, or Shakespeare wrote poetry. Sweep streets so well that all the hosts of heaven and earth will pause to say, ‘Here lived a great street sweeper who did his job well.’ (Martin Luther King, Jr.)

The experience (often reported by artists and writers) of ‘being in the flow’ when the demands on you mesh perfectly with your skills and needs and you find yourself able to work with extreme focus and intensity

Reading 7 What motivates us?

7.1 People as rational-economic beings

According to the rational-economic theory of human nature, people know where their self-interests lie, and act in such a way as to maximize this self-interest.

The value to someone of any option is therefore its usefulness to them.

This theory of human nature is used as a basis for management it leads to a strong emphasis on the role of money.

For the self-employed, or short-term contracts, there is, indeed, a very obvious, crude, link between work and money . For them no job means no money

In a more traditional organizational context, the rational-economic viewpoint tends to see employees as primarily motivated by economic incentives but otherwise passive– ‘carrots and sticks’.

The other side of the ‘rational-economic’ theory is the assumption that people are rational – i.e. that they can work out what is best for them.

Feelings are at best a basis for recognizing ‘best interests’ and at worst a source of irrational interference in a person’s calculation of self-interest assumes the responsibility.

.

On these principles there is a primary emphasis on the efficient performance of tasks.

Management is only concerned with the feelings and morale of employees .

Organizational performance is seen as entirely the responsibility of management; employees are expected to do no more than the control and incentive schemes encourage and allow.

Theory X assumptions

People are inherently lazy and must be motivated to work by extrinsic incentives, that is, incentives outside their work.

Because of this dislike of work, people must be coerced, controlled, directed or threatened with punishment to persuade them to work for organizational goals.

The average human being prefers to be directed, wishes to avoid responsibility, has relatively little ambition, and above all wants security.

7.2. People as social beingsMayo proposed an alternative to the rational economic view of

human nature, which emphasized the social needs of people.

This view can be summarized by the following assumptions:

1.Social needs are the prime motivator of human behavior, and interpersonal relationships the prime shaper of a sense of identity.

2.As a result of mechanization, work has lost much of its intrinsic meaning, which now must be sought in social relationships on the job.

3.Employees are more responsive to the social forces of their peer group than to the incentives and control of management.

4.Employees are responsive to a manager to the extent that he or she can meet their needs for belonging, acceptance and a sense of identity.

These assumptions have a dramatically different set of implications for management from those of the ‘rational-economic’ theory.

1.They imply that a manager should pay attention not only to the production task, but also to the social and psychological needs of subordinates.

2.The manager needs to acknowledge that employees have substantive non-economic needs and goals.

3.The manager needs to accept the local culture which he or she is dealing with.

4.Most significantly, the role of the manager changes. The role is no longer one limited to planning and controlling but more of mediating between the work group and the higher management.

7.3 The self-actualizing personMaslow: Human needs could be assembled into a hierarchy

with five broad categories in the form of a pyramid.

The most basic needs (shown at the bottom of the pyramid) had to be met before each succeeding category could become a priority.

Self-actualization: the need to fulfill your self-potential, to become the kind of person you ideally envisage yourself to be. This need, by definition, could never be totally satisfied.

Maslow’s theory had intuitive appeal and because its message for managers was simple. Unfortunately, research failed to support the theory.

Drawbacks: There is some overlap between the concepts of self-esteem and self-actualization; and ‘adequate satisfaction’ of a particular need is difficult to define, varying from person to person.

Removing the causes of dissatisfaction did not necessarily lead to an increase in satisfaction.

Satisfaction was associated with things such as achievement, challenge, recognition and responsibility. These are called Herzberg motivating factors.

Dissatisfaction was associated with things such as working conditions, salary, and relationships with other workers and supervisors.

These Herzberg called hygiene factors (by analogy with the routine measures needed to prevent disease), which he suggested must be in place before the motivators can come into play.

Theory Y assumptions

People are not by nature passive or resistant to organizational needs. They have become so as a result of experience in organizations.

The motivation, the potential for development, the capacity to assume responsibility, the readiness to direct behavior towards organizational goals, are all present in people. It is a responsibility of management to make it possible for people to reorganize and develop the human characteristics for themselves.

Management is responsible for organizing the elements of productive enterprise in the interest of economic ends, but their essential task is to arrange the conditions and methods of operation so that people can achieve their own goals best by directing their own efforts towards organizational objectives.

Whereas Theory X is cynical about human nature, Theory Y is idealistic

With this theory the manager’s role changed from one of control to one of helping employees to find meaning in their work and to make the best possible use of their abilities.

Authority no longer resided only in the person or role, but in the task itself, and it was the manager’s job to communicate the nature of the task and provide the necessary support (facilities, etc.) to enable it to be accomplished.

Employees wanted to be involved in decisions that affected their work directly, and it was only by permitting such involvement that their full capacities could be harnessed in the service of organizational goals.

7.4 People as complex, multi-faceted beingsSchein theory of the complex person has the following set of

assumptions.1.Human needs can be arranged in a hierarchy but the content

and ordering of this hierarchy depends upon culture, situation, experience and a person’s circumstances in life.

2.Because needs, motives and contexts interact to produce a complex pattern of values and goals, one must make a conscious decision about the level at which one wishes to understand human motivation.

3.Employees’ motives change as they develop and learn through organizational experiences.

4. A given person may display different needs and motivations in different organizations and groups.

5.People can become productively involved in an organization for a wide range of motives.

6.There is no one correct managerial strategy for all people in all situations.

7.5 The modern transition to autonomy

In the old hierarchical structures, each level had managers part of whose job was to motivate the people in the level below to do whatever the organization needed to have done.

But in the last 10–20 years many organizations have decentralized themselves in fairly radical ways, and one of the consequences of this is that to a much larger extent than before, responsibility now belongs with the person doing the job.

Teams operate autonomously. One has to motivate oneself.

Reading 8 The Tavistock Institute Coal-mining studies8.1 The traditional coal-mining system

Small groups, ranging in size from 2-8 men, who worked as a highly interdependent team.

The team generally consisted of one skilled worker, his mate, and several laborers. Teams were highly autonomous.

Members were picked by the team leader.

Long-term relationships were established among members.

Strong emotional bonds formed among team members.

Conflict and competition between teams was common. Fights were common, they apparently served as a useful outlet for the aggressions which resulted from the highly frustrating aspects of the work itself.

Competition did not disturb the basic social system of the community and the mine.

8.2 The longwall methodThe organization had to shift from small teams to large

groups resembling small factory departments.

The changed group structure

Groups consisted of 40-50 men under a single supervisor.

This intermediate-size system created great social difficulties because the men were generally spread out over a distance and they were divided into three shifts.

The task required such a high degree of co-ordination, an inefficiently done job anywhere along the line reduced the output of the entire group.

Impact

The new small groups which emerged around common tasks were differentiated in terms of the kind of work and the kind of prestige they enjoyed in the total community.

The workers were so spread out, no effective supervision was possible.

Because o f dangers inherent in the work situation and without opportunities to release tension in close emotional relationships, the productivity of the men tended to suffer.

A loss of ‘meaning’, an increasing sense of anomie (of being unrelated to others and to society), and a sense of passivity and indifference.

8.3 Drawing lessons

The disrupted social organization of the workers that the new mechanical system could not work efficiently.

The formal organization actually impeded the formation of meaningful informal groups

A group-based pay system, more opportunity for the group to allocate members to shifts and to work roles, permitting of job trading, and generally encouraging self-regulation made it possible for the miners to meet their social needs without losing the productivity gains made possible by higher mechanization.

Reading 9 How does motivation Theories work?

9.1 Psychological energyTiredness and vitality are usually much more dependent

on an individual’s mental and emotional state than on sources of physical energy.

Psychological energy is clearly an important part of motivation and effectiveness.

1 .Psychological energy exists in all individuals.

2. Its amount varies with the state of mind of the individual. The amount of psychological energy is not fixed, nor is it limited.

3. It is very difficult to block all expression of psychological energy by an individual. If a barrier is placed on its expression, you will usually find that either a way is found around the barrier or some alternative form of expression is adopted.

9.2 The SelfThe central values, needs, abilities, beliefs and feelings are

those which are integrated into a pattern which is meaningful to that individual that constitutes the self.

What is meaningful depends on the perception of the individual.

We acquire our self-concept (our values, our interpretation of what is going on around us, and our perception of ourselves) largely through language and social exchanges, particularly in childhood.

But this self-concept is only a part of the total picture – the conscious part of the self and an unconscious part.

Information can move between the conscious and unconscious parts.

Figure 9.1 The self-concept is only part of the self and is compared to a self-ideal which is quite separate from the self

Self Concept(Conscious Self)

Self Ideal

The Self

Unconscious Self

Individuals striving to enlarge and enrich their self-concept, in particular to make it more like their self-ideal.

Whether or not an activity leads to an enlargement of self-concept usually depends upon two broad criteria:

1.The activity should somehow ‘feel right’ or ‘fit’ for the individual. There must be something in the activity that corresponds to an unconscious part of the self; when this is lacking, then even though the task may be well done, it does not enhance the self-concept.

2.The individual should be able to gain a sense of success from the task. The success need not be the same as that defined by someone else; it needs to be successful to the individual in his or her own terms.

Figure 9.2 Characteristic responses to activities with different personal relevance's and different levels of success

9.3 Self- esteem Personal growth enlarges an individual’s awareness of

the self-concept.

When individuals value themselves, they display, and act from a sense of high esteem.

Self-esteem can be enhanced either by personal growth, or by dealing with the world competently and being able

to recognize one’s contributions.

Psychological success is achieved when an individual succeeds in enhancing his or her self-esteem.

The conditions for psychological success are:(a) That individuals set challenging and realistic goals for

themselves.(b) That individuals determine their own methods of achieving

the goals.(c) That the goals are relevant to an individual’s self-concept or

self-ideal.

This way of thinking provides another perspective on ways of managing so as to motivate employees to

meet organizational goals.

It states that individuals will contribute much of their psychological energy to an activity, only when they

see in it a reasonable chance of achieving psychological success for themselves.

T551- Linear programming: Reading 5Types of complexities5.1 Two sorts of complexitiesComplexity arises from the different perspective

within which it can be interpreted and the degree of emotional involvement of the people in the situation.

Hard complexity: Generating difficult computational problems

Soft complexity: when the emotions are involved and the situation is ambiguous.

Characteristics of hard and soft complexities

COMPUTATIONAL DIFFICULTY

EM

OT

ION

AL

IN

VO

LV

EM

EN

T

HIGH

LOW HIGH

SOFTCOMPLEXITY

HARDCOMPLEXITY

Smaller-ScaleProblems

e.g. divorce, Career choice

Simple Mathematical

tasks e.g. Puzzles

Large-ScaleOrganizational

Problemse.g. Bankruptcy,

Planning and Building

ComplicatedMathematical

tasks e.g. Chess

5.2 Difficulties and Messes revisitedDifficulties mainly involve hard complexities.

Messes involve both hard and soft complexities. They may not apparent in the beginning.

The more soft complexities the messier the situation.

Relating approaches to different aspects complexities

Technical complexity

EM

OT

ION

AL

IN

VO

LV

EM

EN

T

HIGH

LOW HIGH

Unbounded Situation

RelationshipAnd TeamBuilding

ProblemSolving Project

Management

Managing Change

DO ACTIVITY 3 & 4 READING 5

38

T551: Linear ProgrammingT551. Systems thinking and practice: a Primer6. Types of systems

6.1. Definition of a system6.2. The language of systems

7. Systems concepts7.1. Boundary and environment7.2. Hierarchies, levels and emergent properties7.3. Information, feedback and control

Activities, Boxes and SAQ Activity 5, 6, 8, page 39, 44, 51 Read Box 3, page 42 SAQ 10, 11-16, pages 45, 62-65

39

6. Types of systemsSystems are everywhere we speak of the

education system, the financial system, the economic system, and the computer system etc.

Each one of us is involved with one or more types of systems whether in the workplace or in our personal life.

Work based systems: Budgeting system, departmental planning system, and internal telephone system.

Personal systems: personal computer system, personal transport system, personal budgeting and expense allocation system.

40

6.1. Definition of a system (1)

Earlier we defined a system as some entity that is made up of a set of internal components interconnected for a purpose and surrounded by a boundary.

Those components might be ideas, objects, or activities.

Based on this definition we can identify the first type of systems as a system of interest.

The interconnected set of components has been identified by someone as being of particular interest.

41


Accordingly we can elaborate on our definition of a system of interest to include other aspects:

1. A system is an assembly of components connected together in an organized way.

2. The components are affected by being in the system and the behavior of the system is changed if they leave it.

3. This organized assembly of components does something (purpose).

4. This assembly as a whole has been identified by someone who is interested in it (the observer or system practitioner).

5. Putting a boundary around this organized assembly of components distinguishes it from its context or environment.

42


When dealing with a problem or a situation we often find that the area of interest extends in numerous directions, which raises the issue of boundary determination.

When using systems thinking we try to establish a workable provisional boundary for the system containing the problem or at the least a significant part of the problem.

In distinguishing between system and environment we need to accept that the problem is not self-contained and that it can only be partially disentangled from its broader context.

43


Example To look at the complex blindness system in the

UK for example we see that it includes:1. The set of persons with severe visual impairments;2. The set of agencies, groups, and institutions that serve

and support them;3. The research and training that affects the provision of

services;4. The laws, policies and programs under which services

are provided.

Obviously the blindness system contains very diverse components and to call it a “system” does not imply that they all have well-defined consensual goals and they act in an organized coordinated manner.

44


Example Nonetheless, they are all relevant to the

experience of people with severe visual impairment in the UK.

However this example illustrates three important points about systems:1. The system described is not only made up of

tangible elements (departments, people, and workshops), it also includes the assumptions and norms that are the basis for many of the persistent relationships and behavior patterns that occur.

2. The complex described is not contained within any recognized institutional boundary.

3. Systems are nested within other, wider systems.

45

6.2. The language of systems (1)

This leads to an important distinction between two ways in which the term system is used (thus two types of systems).

1. Recognized systems: This type includes systems that are widely

acknowledged and thought of as “existing out there” such as:

Systems that are deliberately created (a stock control system, a computer system)

Systems that represent fairly discrete or naturally occurring phenomena that have long been recognized and analyzed by scientist (the nervous system and the solar system).

Systems that have been referred to as such in a useful way based on widely shared perceptions (the legal system, the economic system).

46


2. Explanatory systems: this type of systems exists in the mind of the

individual who conceives it. It is a particular way of thinking about selected

aspects of the world and their interrelationships, which is useful to the individual’s concern. Systems of this sort embody particular points of view and are useful to the extent that they offer some insight into what is puzzling or troublesome.

47


Thinking in systems When thinking in terms of systems there

are few things that we need to keep in mind1. The intangible elements such as norms and

assumptions, that might underlie some systems, are essential factors in understanding how a system works.

2. The boundary of a system need not correspond with recognized departmental, institutional or other “physical” boundaries. Explanatory systems are identified in relation to the observer’s interests.

48


Thinking in systems3. Often we might have to extend the

boundary (take a helicopter view) in order to achieve a coherent understanding of a complex situation.

4. A system at one level of analysis can be viewed instead as a sub-system in its environment at a higher level of analysis.

5. Models and analogies of systems are powerful tools in helping to identify patterns and regularities.

49

7. Systems concepts (1)A notional system can be taken to have the following

elements/concepts: A purpose (it does or can be perceived to do something) An environment that affects it A namer, someone who is interested in it (observer) A boundary distinguishing it from the environment and

identified by the system namer Inputs and outputs through which a system communicates

with its environment Transformational processes that convert inputs to outputs Parts (subsystems) that interact, a pattern of relationships Hierarchy - each part is itself a system and can be treated

as such

50

7. Systems concepts (2)

A notional system can be taken to have the following elements/concepts:

Dependency – addition, alteration or removal of a part changes both the part and the system

Communication and feedback amongst the systems

Control, both within the system and through the hierarchy

Emergence – the whole system exhibits properties and outcomes, sometimes unpredictable, which derive from its parts and structure but cannot be reduced to them

Dynamism – it is subject to change including growth, adaptation and decay

51

7.1. Boundary and environment (1)

Boundaries are a common way of simplifying, they separate what is of direct interest and concern from what can be considered a wider and external influences (the system’s environment).

In many cases boundaries are conventionally drawn and accepted as uncontroversial (as those set in organizations between different departments).

In other cases however, boundaries seem less tangible and hard to spot, (machines operated by people with special skills or expertise), in such cases redrawing a boundary helps to solve a given problem or to open up new opportunities.

Sometimes we limit our abilities to solve a problem (being trapped by our thinking), when we try to operate within an inappropriate or unhelpful boundary, in these situations redrawing the boundary will generate other views of the issue.

52

7.1. Boundary and environment (2) Criteria’s for drawing boundaries: In general

boundaries are drawn instinctively, however there are some helpful guidelines

1. Interest and concern: boundaries can be drawn to separate important

and vital aspects from other aspects that are of less concern but which still exert an influence.

2. Time: Boundaries can group aspects of the issue,

which raise short-term problems and those, which have longer and more pervasive effects.

53

7.1. Boundary and environment (3) 3. Influence and control: This criterion can be used in one of two ways:Sometimes some aspects of a problem have

strong mutual influence while others don’t. Separating these aspects helps us take this

mutual influence in consideration.Boundaries can separate aspects of the

issue, which are under the control of, or are strongly influenced by, separate people or groups.

Separating them helps us determine the aspects that are under our control (become clear on where we can make a change), and those that aren’t (we need to accept them as they are).

55

7.2. Hierarchies, levels and emergent properties (1)

Every issue that is looked at systemically can be understood as having many levels of activities, that is a multi level hierarchy (supra system, system, subsystem).

When the focus of attention shifts from one level of description to another different meanings and insights emerge.

56

7.2. Hierarchies, levels and emergent properties (2) Systems are regarded as having different

sets of layered, nested or interdependent structures with many levels of complexity.

Thinking about problems at only one or two of the levels of complexity limits our ability to solve the problem.

Very often problems can be reframed by going up a couple of levels, rethinking at the higher levels, and then following through the implications at the lower levels.

57

7.2. Hierarchies, levels and emergent properties (3) The ability to consider the levels of hierarchy

in our mind at the same time while considering an issue and appreciating the way in which changes at one level affect changes at the other levels is at the essence of systems thinking.

Hierarchies may be natural, for example, birth order in a family, or arbitrary, as is the case in a designed system.

Whether the hierarchies really exist out there or whether they are our interpretations, they make it easier to understand, think about and work with complex situations.

59

7.3. Information, feedback and control (1) Very often our attempt at solving a

particular problem or taking advantage of a given opportunity results in some unintended consequences.

System’s thinking involves paying attention to the existence and the nature of the connections, interactions and relationships that are present between different parts of a system.

Ignoring such interactions when attempting to solve problems often results in unexpected and undesirable consequences.

60

7.3. Information, feedback and control (2)

Three particular interactions can distort the intended solutions or cause them to go off-course, the misrepresentation of information, feedback, and feed forward.

Misrepresentation of information results from the failure to understand the intended meaning of the message or communication from the sender and whether the “recipients” makes sense of it.

61

Notion of FeedbackMany orgs. Do things that result in

unintended consequences (or side-effects).

These side-effects are very important because of the existence of many connections among the parts, as well as the nature of those connections.

62

Feedback Idea

Sales department Launches campaign

Customers, aggravatedBy delays in delivery,

Publicly complain

Org. ends up withFewer customers

Attracts more orders Than production can satisfy

63

ConnectionsIgnoring

interconnections

=wrong

64

“Mistakes” are going to be made if interactions are ignored

Mistake 1: in interpreting the information present in the connections

Mistake 2: in ignoring the effects of feedback

wrong

65

FeedbackA common mistake is to ignore the effects

of feedback. Control is normally exercised within a

system through some form of feedback. Outputs from the process of a system are

fed back to the control mechanism. Based on that data the control mechanism

adjusts the process of the system. Feedback may be negative, that is it may

counteract or counter balance an effect, or it may be positive, serving to reinforce an effect.

66

Positive and negative feedback

Negative feedback is not necessarily harmful, though it sounds as if it might.

Positive feedback is not necessarily beneficial, though it can be. It all depends on the circumstances and the extent of the events.

68

Negative feedback (1)

Simply put information about the outcome of the process is being fed back to the beginning of the process in order to control/balance it. This is called negative feedback. (because it leads to a dampening down of the effect caused by the input).

The two variables are moving in opposite directions: when one (A) increases the other (B) decreases.

69

Negative Feedback (2)

Council increases Car park charges

Fewer people wantingTo park in center

Council reduces carPark charges

More people wantingTo park in city

center

70

Negative feedback (3)

Negative or balancing feedback means a response that counteracts a change.

It tends to have a stabilizing effect, keeping any change within limits and under control.

Information about the outcome of the process is basically fed back to the beginning of the process in order to control it.

Negative feedback attempts at dampening down or keeping the effects caused by the inputs under control.

Examples include lowering interest rates to stimulate the economy during recessions, and increasing interest rates when the economy recovers to dampen inflationary pressures.

71

Positive feedback (1)

Positive or reinforcing feedback means a response that pushes a change further in the same direction, stimulating more of the same change.

Positive feedback is like a roundabout going faster and faster.

It acts to reinforce the effects either in the form of a vicious circle or a virtuous one.

For example increased sales lead to an increase in the number of satisfied customers, which leads to an increase in the number of people told how good the product is by word of mouth.

Usually some limiting factors prevent positive feedback from continuing unchecked indefinitely.

For instance, if this virtuous circle continues it might have a destabilizing effect resulting in a loss of control.

72


The production line may be unable to keep up with the demand, or the company may run out of vital components.

Customer satisfaction may then plummet, bringing the virtuous circle to a halt, or even sending it into reverse resulting in a vicious circle.

Decreased sales (inability to keep up with market demand) lead to a decrease in the number of satisfied customers, which leads to a decrease in the number of people told how good the product is.

When there are a number of different kinds of feedback at work it is hard to look at each one separately to see what will happen.

73


Environment

System

Process

Control

Inputs Outputs

+

Figure 4: Positive Feedback

74

Positive Feedback (Virtuous circle) (4)

Increasing numbersof satisfied customers

Increasing number ofpeople told how good the product is

by word-of-mouth

Increasing salesof a goodproduct

75

Positive Feedback vicious (5)

Decrease in market share for newspaper B

Decrease in marketshare of newspaper

A

Decrease in priceof A

Decrease in priceof B

76

ControlControl requires a two-way flow of

information. The controller requires information on the performance of that which is controlled. For control to be possible the controlled part must receive (and be governed by) information from the controller.

78

T552: A.1.3.: Rich Pictures

1. Purpose: Particularly developed for gathering info about

a complex situation

The idea of using drawings or pictures is common because:

Our intuitive consciousness communicates more easily in impressions & symbols than in words!!

79

A1.3. Rich Pictures (2)

1. Purpose (cont.): They are drawn at the pre-analysis stage,

before you know clearly which parts of the situation should best be regarded as process and which as structure.

IMPORTANT: Rich pictures should depict subjective elements such as character & characteristics, points of view & prejudices, spirit & human nature (of course in addition to the ‘objective’ elements)

80


title

symbols

sketches

Cartoons

Keywords

Pictorialsymbols

Elements

81

A1.3. Rich Pictures (4)3. Conventions:

1/ To help interpret a situation, choose symbols, scenes or images that represent the situation. Use as many colors as necessary.2/ Put in whatever connections you see between your pictorial symbols.

3/ Avoid too much writing:a) Either as commentary or asb) ‘word bubbles’ coming from people’s mouths

(however a brief summary can help explain the diagram to other people)

4/ Don’t include systems boundaries or specific references to “systems” in any way!

82


4. Guidelines:1/ It is an attempt to assemble everything that might be relevant to a complex situation2/ Fall back on words only where ideas fail you3/ You should not seek to impose any style or structure on your picture

4/ If you don’t know where to begin:a) First look for the elements of structure in situation

(people, command hierarchy, etc.)b) Next look for the elements of process within

situation (the activities going on)c) Then look for the ways in which the structure &

the processes interact

83

A1.3. Rich Pictures (6)5. Guidelines (cont.):

5/ Avoid thinking in systems terms6/ Make sure that your picture also includes subjective info about the situation [not only the factual data]

7/ Look at the social roles that are regarded as meaningful by those involved; identify the kinds of behavior expected from people in those roles.8/ Finally, include yourself in the picture. Make sure that your roles & relationships in the situation are clear.

84


NOTEWhen “including yourself in the picture”

You are not an objective observer

85


86

T552: Diagramming

Appendix A.2.: diagram types

A.2. Diagrams for exploring bounded complex situations (or systems diagrams)

A2.1. Systems mapsA2.2. Influence diagramsA2.3. Multiple cause diagramsA2.4. Sign graph diagrams

(Purpose, Elements, Conventions, Guidelines)

87

A2.1. Systems maps (1)

1. Purpose: It is essentially a snapshot It shows components at a point

in time It carries much more impact

than a list of components, and is easier to grasp

88


1. Purpose (cont.):They are mainly used to:

Clarify thoughts at an early stage of analysisDecide upon structural elements for a more

detailed diagramExperiment with trial boundariesDecide upon the level of your system of

interest: “focusing”;Communicate to other the basic structure

89


5

bbb

ccc

ccc

ddd

ddd

eee

fff ggg

eee

aaa

1

2

3

3

4

4

6

5

Figure A

90


2. Elements:Blobs of varying sizesWords ;Title

Note: linking lines, arrows etc. are not permitted elements!!!

91


3. Conventions:1/ The blob lines (1-6 in Figure A) represent boundaries of system components2/ Words (e.g. aaa, bbb, etc.) are used to name each system or component

3/ Blobs (5 & 6) outside the main system boundary (1) represent

components of the environment

92


3. Conventions (cont.):4/ Blobs (2, 3 & 4) inside the system boundary represent components of the system. Components (e.g. 3) can be shown as grouped into sub-systems (2).5/ Blobs may overlap only if some components are seen as common to both6/ A title defining the system of interest is essential

93


4. Guidelines:1/ Be clear which is “the” system boundary. It can be emphasized by color, or by a thicker line.2/ Irregular blobs are preferable to regular boxes.3/ Use overlaps sparingly. They reduce the impact and clarity of the map (when trying to establish a system of interest. Multiple overlaps should be avoided at all costs!

94


4. Guidelines (cont.):4/ Avoid representing system properties as elements.5/ It makes sense to show important sub-systems at a reasonable size and less important ones somewhat smaller (as this is the way relative size is likely to be interpreted by a reader).6/ It also makes sense to put important components in a fairly central position, and to place related components close together.

95


4. Guidelines (cont.):7/ Leave some space within your map.

8/ Avoid partitioning within a blob (6 in fig A). Normally blobs within blobs are preferable to partitions!

• it Allows components to stand out clearly• it Leaves room for additional components you may wish to add later

96

A2.2. Influence diagrams (1)

97


1. Purpose: It represents the main structural features of

a situation and the important relationships that exist among them.

It presents an overview of areas of activity or organizational & other groupings and their main interrelationships.

Can be developed from a systems map by adding arrows; and

Can be used as the starting point for a multiple cause diagram.

98


2. Elements:

Blobs of varying sizes Assorted arrows Words Key for arrows Title.

99


3. Conventions:1/ Blob lines2/ An arrow

3/ A double-headed arrow should never be used to denote a two-way influence unless the influence is identical (2 separate arrows are preferred).

Component boundaries

Capacity to influence

100


3. Conventions (cont.):4/ Words label components & system; may also label arrows if nature of influence is not obvious from the context. 5/ Arrows show6/ Is a snapshot (like a systems map). 7/ Arrows denote capacity to influence not a sequence in time. 8/ A title is essential.

material flows

101


4. Guidelines: 1/ Avoid using arrows from features in the environment to the system boundary [by definition factors in the environment affect the system, so such arrows are superfluous].

2/ Lines: different thickness can indicate different strengths of influence.

3/ Distinguish between types of influence by using different lines (color, dashing); use a key to explain them.

102


4. Guidelines (cont.):

4/ Avoid overloading the diagram with information.5/ Avoid using double-headed arrows. Use them only when the influence is truly reciprocal and of the same type.6/ Space & relative distance can be used to suggest things about the nature of the relationships.

Concept File 2 Section I: Reading 1,2,3,4& 5 Section II: Reading 6,7,8 &9 T551: Primer Reading 5, 6,...

Documents

Transcript of Concept File 2 Section I: Reading 1,2,3,4& 5 Section II: Reading 6,7,8 &9 T551: Primer Reading 5, 6,...