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Society for omparative Studies in Society and History
Conceit of the Globe in Mughal Visual PracticeAuthor(s): Sumathi RamaswamySource: Comparative Studies in Society and History, Vol. 49, No. 4 (Oct., 2007), pp. 751-782Published by: Cambridge University PressStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4497706 .
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Comparative
tudies n
Society
nd
History
007;49(4):751
782.
0010-4175/07
15.00
U'-
007
ociety
or
omparative
tudy
f
ociety
nd
History
DOI:
10.1017/S0010417507000758
Conceit ftheGlobe nMughalVisual
Practice
SUMATHI
RAMASWAMY
History,
niversity
f
Michigan
When
became
king,
t
occurredo me
to
changemy
name
..
An
nspiration
rom
he
hidden
orld
rought
t nto
my
mind
hat,
nasmuch
s the
usinessf
kings
s
the
on-
trolling
f
he
world,
should
ivemyself
he ame
f
Jahangir
world-seizer]
nd
make
my
itlef
honor
ur d-Din
light
f
he
aith],
ince
my
itting
n
he
hrone
oincided
with
he
ising
nd
hining
n
the arth
f he
reatight.I
The
ncreasing
reoccupation
f
the
cholarly
ommunity
n
recent
ears
with
globalization
ppears
o
have
eft ts
mpact
n
postmodern
eographers
nd
historiansfcartographys well, everal f whomhaveturnedheirttention
recently
o the
history
nd
politics
f
the
mage
hat
s at
the
enter f
this ew
problematic,
amely,
he
terrestrial
lobe.2
As Denis
Cosgrove
notes
n
his
provocative
nalysis
f
cartographic
epresentations
f
Earth n
the
Western
imagination,
Whether
ictured
s a
networked
phere
f
accelerating
ircula-
tion
r as an
abused nd
overexploited
ody,
t
s from
mages
fthe
pherical
earth hat
deas of
globalization
raw
their
xpressive
nd
political
orce
(2001:
ix).
Its
very
biquity
s a
symbol
f
the imes n
whichwe
live
under-
scores he
reoccupation
ith
he
mage
f he
lobe
n
the ate
modem
magin-
ation.However,s Jerryrottonbserves,tspervasiveness ay lsopoint o
an
increasing
edundancy
f ts
ppearance
n
our
imes,
nd
the
mage
f
the
Acknowledgments:
arlier
ersions f this
ssay
were
presented
t
seminarst the
University
f
Delhi,
he
University
f
Chicago,
nd the
University
f
Michigan.
am
grateful
o
the
udiences
at all
three enues
for heir
omments.
hanks
specially
o Muzaffar
lam,
Susann
Babaie,
Monica
Juneja,
zfar
Moin,
Parul
Dave
Mukherjee,
arty
owers,
nd
Tom
Trautmann,
nd to
Ebba Koch
for er
ommentsn an
earlier raft.
am
grateful
o the
tafft the
American
nstitute
of
ndian
tudies
ibrary
Art
nd
Archeology)
n
Gurgaon
or
elp
with
ources ited
here. his
essay
s
dedicated o
Asok
Das,
gentle
mentor
nd
generousriend,
or
haring
is
knowledge
f
Mughal, specially
ahangari,
ainting.
otethat olorversions fthe
mages
nthis
paper
an
be viewed
nline t:
http://www.joumals.cambridge.org/jid_css.
Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri,
,2-3,
entry
or 4
October
605,
uoted
n
Okada 1992:
47.
2
Even
n
Western
urope,
eemed o
be the ite
of ts
invention,
he errestrial
lobe
as a
material
rtifact as
arguably novelty
rior
o the
ixteenth
entury,
ncient lassical
nstances
having
een
argely
orgotten
efore
Martin
ehaim's earth
pple
from
492,
he
arliesturviv-
ing xample
f theform
Stevenson
921).
751
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752
SUMATHI RAMASWAMY
globe
has
suffered
hat
might
e called a
waning
f affect
1999: 73).
This
argument
eads
him
o a
study
f the
arly
modem
eriod
n
Europe
when he
terrestrial
lobe
first
merged
n
his
assessments
a
socially
ffective
bject
(ibid.:72).
In
his
Trading
erritories
1997),
Brottononsiders owthe erres-
trial
lobe
came to
not
ust
reflectn
increasinglyglobal
world ut lso to
constitute
t
over he
ourse fthe ixteenth
entury.
ts
power
ay
in
the deo-
logical epresentation
f heworld t
purported
o describe.ts ackof
cognitive
specificity
as not
tsweakness ut
ltimately
ts
greatesttrength,
ecause he
very
erceptions
f distance nd
space upon
which he
errestrial
lobe
rested
stressed
peculation
nd
conjecture
verthe xtent nd
possession
f distant
territories
1999:
87-88).
From the
earlyyears
of the sixteenth
entury,
even s theCopemican evolution asslowly ndoingmedieval hristianos-
mological onceptions
f the
universe,
errestrial
lobes
became
ncreasingly
crucial o the exercise f
state
power
n
Europe,
s well as to
the
surging
search for new
markets nd tradable
oods.
As
importantly,
s
prestige
objects,
lobes
and
maps
became
part
f a new
gift
conomy
f
circulation
and
exchange,
ndwere
ought
fterike the
pices,
epper,
ilk
nd
precious
metals o which
they] ppeared
o
give
directional
ccess
Brotton
997:
25;
see also Jardine 996:
295-309, 425-36).
In
the
process, hey
elped
ashion
new
bourgeois
modalitiesf he
elf,
mostly
utnot
xclusively
ale.Not ur-
prisingly,s Brottonotes, It supon he iguref theglobe, s both visual
image
nd a material
bject,
hat
many
f
the social and cultural
opes
and
anxieties
f the
period
ameto be
focused
1997:
21).
Accordingly,
evisionist
cholarshave
begun
to
critically
crutinize he
social and
symbolic ignificance
f the
erraqueouslobe.
As Brotton
oints
out,
historiansf
science nd
cartography
ave
hitherto
argely
ended to
reify
orld
maps
nd
globes
s
proto-scientific
bjects
ivested f
any
wider
social
significance,
nd have
imited he
ways
n
which
hese
bjects
ame
to
be
utilized oth
practically
nd
imaginatively
ithin
range
f
social situ-
ations
ibid.: 19).
Theserevisionisttudies
learly
nd
visibly
xtend he on-
ceptual
ieldwithin
hichwe
may
hink
he
globe,
ndwrite
bout t.Andthe
small but
growing
cholarship
n
cartographic
raditionsnd
practices
f
societies nd
cultures utside
urope, rior
o and nto
hemodem
enturies,
offers
antalizing
limpses
f nterest
n,
nd eventhe
manufacture
f,
erres-
trial
lobes,
owever
pisodically,
n
regions
ar
way
fromts
putative
ome-
land
n
the
West,
uch s theArab
world, ndia,
China,
nd
Japan. hey
lso
alert
us to the
mportant-but
requentlyorgotten
r
erased-roles
played
byastronomicalndgeographicalnowledgesrom ther arts f theworld
in
thenew cience f
cartographymerging
n
early
modem
urope
Karamus-
tafa
1992:
221-22;
Needham 971:
586-87;
Raj
2006;
Schwartzberg
992:
397-99;
Unno 1994:
390-92,
466-71).
Building
n
this
cholarship,
his
ssay
s located n
early
modem
ndia,
when theterrestrial
lobe
became visiblefor
he first ime
n
the
Mughal
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CONCEIT
OF
THE GLOBE
IN
MUGHAL
VISUAL PRACTICE
753
court,
specially
ictorially.3
s Denis
Cosgrove
writes,
To
imagine
he
arth
as
a
globe
s
essentially
visual act
... Such
a
gaze
is
implicitly
mperial,
encompassing geometricurface o be explored nd mapped, nscribed
with
ontent,
nowledge,
nd
uthority
2001:
15-16).
To
masterfully
isual-
ize Earth
s an
integrated
otality,
spherical
ntityuspended
n the osmos
and
gridded
y
a mathematical
etwork
f latitudes
nd
longitudes,
s also
an
actthat
equires
n
enormous
eap
of
magination
hat oes
not ome
natu-
rally.
t has to be
learned
nd
n
a
disciplined
anner;
t s
hard-won
nowl-
edge,
map
knowledge
Wood
and Fels
1992:
5).
But once such
knowledge
seizes
thehuman
magination,
he
mage
f
Earth s
a
sphere
omes
o even-
tually eign
albeit
not
without
esistance),
or
t is a
figure
f enormous
imaginativeower Cosgrove 001: 3). InCosgrove's eading,To achieve
the
global
view s
to loose the
bondsof
the
earth,
o
escape
theshackles
f
time,
nd
to dissolve
he
contingencies
f
daily
ife
for universal
moment
of
reverie
nd
harmony
ibid.:
5).
He also
suggests
hat desires
f
ordering
and
controlling
he
object
of vision
propel
the visualization
f Earth
s
globe,
nd
that uchdesires
re
connected
s
closely
o ust or
material
os-
session,
ower
nd
authority
s to
metaphysical
peculation,
eligious spira-
tion,
r
poetic
entiment
ibid.).
Whilewe
may
never e
able to
grasp
he
full
xtent f
the
Mughal
nterest
n the terrestrial
lobe
brought
nto heir
court ysundryuropeans, e can charttscomplex isualtrajectoriess it
came
to
be
deployed
y
artists
n
the
mperial
telier
rom he
arlyyears
f
the eventeenth
entury.
Inspired
hough
y
thework
f Walter
Mignolo
1995:
219-23)
and
Laura
Hostetler
2001),
this
ssay
ets
ut
onot
ust
rack he
isual
usesof he
globe
in the
Mughal
ourt,
ut
o ask more
undamentally
hatdoes
a
postcolonial
history
f the
terraqueous
lobe
achieve?
I
suggest
hat such
a
history
compels
us
to
pluralize
nd
complicate
he
social and
political
ives
of this
icon
of
modemWestern
artographicractice
utside ts
putativeriginary
home
nthe
metropole
heremost cholars avedocumentedt.4As
important,
however,
s
that
postcolonial
erspective
eminds
s that he
history
nd
3
Although
he errestrial
lobe
was
introduced
nto he ubcontinent
y Europeans,
orthern
India as
ne f
he
ey
ites
or
he
roduction
f elestial
lobes,
nderhe
nfluencef
Arab
and slamic
cience,
romt east
he nd
f he ixteenth
entury
ntohe olonial
eriod.
ork-
shops
n
Lahore
anufactured
uch
lobes
abeled
n
Arabic,
ersian,
nd
anskrit
Sarma
994;
Savage
mith
992:
5-49).
or discussion
f metal
earth
all
bhugola)
hat
epresented
the
egions
f he arth
ccording
o
Hindu
osmological
onceptions,
eeGole
1989: 6.
Dated
to
1571
c.E.,
he
hugolaredates
he arliest
resentation
f
Europeanartographic
rtifacts
n
1580
by
Jesuit isitorso the
Mughal
ourt.While stronomersn
(Hindu)
ndiafrom t least
the
middle
f he
irst illennium
.E.
ssumed
spherical
arth,
he rthodox
eligious
nderstand-
ing
ollowed
he anskritic
uranas
n heir
onception
f
arths
being
ither
flatisk
r
n he
shape
f lotus
Pingree
990).
4
Kristen
ippincott
rites,
The
globe
s one of themost
requentlyepresented
bjects
n
the
history
f art
n the
modemrn
est,
et urprisingly,
here
s
very
ittle
cholarship
n
this
ubject
(1999:
76).
Her
essay
learly uggests
hat he
ppearance
fthe
globe
even
n modern
uropean
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754
SUMATHI RAMASWAMY
politics
f he
lobe
as
concept,
pparatus,
epresentation,ign,
nd
ymbol)
s
it
travels
way
from ts
putatively
atural abitats
not
necessarily
mere
rehearsal
r
repetition
f the
paths
aken
n
the
West.
A
relocationo
regions
outside heWest
facilitates,
nd
a
postcolonial erspectivencourages
s
to
pursue,
he
challenge
f
understanding
ow
the
globe-this
much-touted
symbol
f
unity
nd
universality-might
lso
reflect
nd
constituteifference.
In
considering
he ifferent
rajectories
hat his
utatively
esternnvention
might
ake utside
urope,
am
not
ttempting
o exoticize
lterity
or ts wn
sake,
thereby
eproducing
Manichean
nd
Orientalist
ichotomy
etween
theWest nd the
Rest. s
Nordo wish ominimizehe
mportance
funder-
standingntersecting
connected
istories
f
earlymodem artographic
rac-
tice and scientificknowledge-productionhat recent scholarshiphas
underscored
Raj
2006).
Instead,
y demonstrating
ow
the encounter ith
the
globe-form
nables
t
east ne
part
f
the
non-European
orld o destabi-
lize a
Europe-centeredapping
f
Earth,
s well as
pluralize
ays
ofvisualiz-
ing
the
terrestrial
ealm,
his
ssay
positions
tself
within he
recent
ein
of
post-colonial
cholarship
hat
nsists
hat he
tudy
f
alterity
nd difference
contributes
o the
theoretically
ertile
roject
f
provincializingurope
(Chakrabarty
000).
The
principal,rovisionalmplication
f
myreading
or
a
revisionist,
ost-colonial
istory
f
cartography
s
that he
globe
itself-a
keymaterialignof a secularizing,lobalizing,ndimperializingurope-
provides
n
opportunity
or
onfronting
nd
opposing
singular eading
f
the
global
ivesand times
f this
universal
bject
nd
symbol.
AN EMPEROR'S GLOBAL DREAM
My entry
oint
nto his
ther
istory-and
he
nchor
mage
or his
ssay-is
a
much-reprinted
nd
much-discussed
ainting
y
Abu'l
Hasan
a.k.a.
Nadir
al-Zaman
The
wonder f the
epoch ]), rguably
hemostfavored
mperial
artist n the atelier of the Mughal emperorJahangirr. 1605-1627)
(Figure
).6
Around
618,
responding
o what he
painter
imself
eferso as
art annot e reduced
o a
singular eaning.
ee also Welu
1975
for
marvelous iscussion fthe
appearance
f
globes
nd
maps
n
Vermeer's
aintings
rom round 657.
I
followNatasha atonhere
n
my nderstanding
hat
Alterity
s
best
nderstoodot
hrough
the
narrative
isjuncture
etween wo
pre-existing
ssences .. but
hrough
he
ntanglement
f
unequal
imes-of
contingent,hifting
nd table
rderings
2004: 819).
In an
elegant
iscussion
that harts he
unpredictable
ffect f
ntroducinguropean
rt o ndian
ourts
n
the
ighteenth
century,heconcludeshat as theWestgets verywhere,hroughoodsandimages,.. stable
identity-formations
uto-destructo
produce
xcesses
f
meaning
nrecoverable
hrough
he
pro-
blematic
f
recognition'
ibid.:843-44).
6
There s much
published
n Abu'l
Hasan,
but ee
especially osty
1991,
nd
Okada 1992:
170-75.
Many
cholars,
ollowing
he
ead of
Milo
Beach
1981: 29-31), point
o the
growing
influencef
English llegorical aintings
n the
Mughal
ourt rom round 615 that
might
ave
inspired
hiswork.
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CONCEIT OF THE GLOBE IN MUGHAL VISUAL PRACTICE
755
a
dream
fhis
mperial
atron
nwhich
ahangir's
afavid
ival hah Abbas
appeared
o
the
Mughal
uler,
bu'I
Hasan
painted
whathas beendeclared o
be one
of he
reatest
f
political ictures
rom
ny
ulture
Losty
1991:
81).7
In
Jahangir's
ream,
s
captured ictorially y
Abu'l
Hasan,
the two
rival
emperors
re shown
embracing
ach other
gainst
he
background
f
an
immense alo
composed
f a radiant un
and a
beautiful
rescentmoon
up-
ported y
two celestial
utti.
Numerous ommentators
ave noted hatnot
only
is
Jahangir ainted
ighter
nd
brighter
han his
dark-complexioned
rival
alerting
s to
the
prevalence
f a
non-European/pre-colonial
acial
economy
t
work),
uthe is also
bigger
han
he
Shah,
who
appears
rail nd
meek,
his armsunableto
grasp
the
majesty
f the
great
man he seeks to
embrace. n theother and, the ttitudef theMughal mperors that f a
great
monarch
enerously
atronizing
n
inferior
ival
Das
1978:
217).
This
impression
s further
trengthened
y
the
fact
hat
Jahangir
s made to
stand n
a
large
ionwhile
his Persian ival's eet
est
n a smalleramb.
Whatmakes his
articular
ainting
oundationalor
nyhistory
f modem
cartography
n
ndia s
that he
nimals
n which he wo
mperors
re
tanding
in turn est n a
partially
isible
globe
on which re
clearly
elineated nd
named he erritoriesverwhich heir
mastery
s
imagined
o
prevail.
hat
n
this
ainting
he
globe,
till n utter
arity
n
ndia round
618,
s not
entered
on Europebeginsto undermineheapparent uropean-nessf thisobject,
opening
up
possibilities
oran
oppositional
iography
o
emerge
orthis
Western
mport.8
s
telling
for this
oppositional iography
s
that this
much-touted
roduct-and sign-of
the
newly-emergenturopean
cience
(itself
nder
adical
reconfiguration
t this
ime)
was
drawn,
n the
eve of
that ontinent's
mperializing
nd
globalizing
ission,
nto
complex
ssertion
of
power
n another
art
f the
world,
s the
Mughal
mperor
dvanced
ege-
monic
laims,
lbeit
nsuccessfully,
verhis rival
Safavid's
erritory,eaving
Europe
hugging
he
margins
f the
picture
both
iterally
nd
figuratively).
Being
Jahangir's
ream hat s
pictorialized
ere
by
a
painter
n his
atelier,
the
Mughal's
erritorial
each s
represented
n
Abu'l
Hasan's
globe
s much
vaster.
he lion on whichhe stands
prawls
cross
a
good part
of Persia
(which
s labeled s such
under ts
paw)
as well as much fwhatwe
recognize
as central
sia,
part
f
theworld hat adbeen
under
he
way
fhis ncestor
Timur.n
turn,
heSafavid's ast
empire
s reduced
o
some
paltry
erritories
around
he
Mediterranean.
7
The
historical
ackdrop
was the
growing
ension etween he
ndian
nd Persian
ourts,
especially
ver hevaluablefrontierown f
Qandahar
hatwas
finallyaptured y
theSafavids
in
1622,
oon
after
his
ainting
as
completed
Okada
1992:
54-55,
170-75).
8
Lippincottevealingly
otes hat n
large
umberf ixteenthnd
eventeenth-century
utch
paintings,
artists
end
o
position
he
globe
n their
ompositions
o that henorthern
emisphere
faces heviewer
1999: 83).
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756
SUMATHI
RAMASWAMY
In
Joseph
chwartzberg's
uthoritative
nalysis
f SouthAsian
artography,
one of thefew hat
onsiders
he erritorial
onfigurations
f the
globe
n
this
painting,ewrites:
There anbe no
question
hat
he
eneral
hapes
f
he
ortions
f
Asia,
Africa,
nd
Europe
ndicatedn
the
globe
..
derive rom
uropean
aps
... Butwithin
he
areaof
ndia,
he
delineationf
riversooks
ntriguingly
istinctive.hese
ppear
to be
notably
ore
ccuratelyligned
han n
roughly
ontemporaneous
uropean
maps-certainly
uch
more
o,
for
xample,
han
he
map
of the
Mughal
mpire
in
the 1625
edition f Purchas
is
Pilgrimes,
hichwas
copied
rom he
1619
map
rawn
y
William
affinn
the asis f
nformation
rovidedy
Roe ..
(1992:
409).9
Schwartzberg
herefore
oncludes hat
Abu'l
Hasan
musthave had
access to
all manner f
Mughalmaps
of the
empire
hat
ppear
o havenot survived
into he
present,
nd thatwe
know
virtually
othing
bout.
This much
s also
clear from rfan
Habib's
brief
nalysis
of
cartography
n
Mughal
India,
where
he
analyzes
seriesof
thirty-three
aps
of
the
Inhabited
uarter
(the
northern
alf f he
astern
emisphere)
hat
were ncluded
n
an
encyclo-
pedic
Persianwork
alled the
Shahid-i-Sadiq
inishedn
1647
by
one
Sadiq
Isfahani
f
Jaunpur.
abib, oo,
nfershat
sfahani's
mid-seventeenth-century
maps
are
much more detailed
nd accurate han
either
arlierArabic
and
Persianrepresentationsf Indianterritoryr contemporaryuropean nes
(Habib
1979).'1
Whilewe
know
ittle
bout
ther
Mughal
maps
uch s
Isfahani's o
which
Abu'l
Hasan
might
avehad
access,
we can
turn
o an
important
artographic
encounter
n
the
Mughal
ourt o
speculate
n
the onditions
nderwhich he
emperor's
aintermight
ave
gained
knowledge
f
contemporary
uropean
representations
ftheknown
world. refero a
fortuitous
eeting
t the em-
porary ughal
amp
n
Mandu n
9
September
617between
ahangir
nd
Sir
Thomas
Roe,
the
English
mbassador
etweenate 1615 and
early
619 from
the ourt fJames toMughal ndia.Having een nformedefore e setout
on his
mission hat the
greatMogull
made more
stimation fworld
maps
than
of all other
resents, '
oe
gifted
he
emperor
a
fairebook well
bounded,
illeted
nd
gilt,
Mercators
sic]
last edition f
the
maps
of the
9
Schwartzberg
entionshat
mong
heSouth
Asian
place-names
nscribed
n
Abu'l
Hasan's
globe
re
Multan, ahore, elhi,
Agra,
Kuch,
Purb, alcutta,
ac
Kingdom,
urat,
ijapur,
oa,
Golkonda,
nd Karnataka.All
are
reasonably
ell
placed
nd
easily
dentified,
ith he
possible
exception
f
Kuch,
Mac
Kingdom,
nd
Purb. uch
may ignify
he
arge
Koch ribe f
northeastern
India
or the
tymologically
elated tate f Cooch
Behar.Mac
Kingdomresumably
elates o the
then
eigning
ac
dynasty
fVietnam.urb,which
ignifies
ast,
as noobvious
oponymic
efer-
ent.
Judging
rom he
osition
f
Bijapur
nd
Golkonda,
he
ong
iver
xtending
cross
eninsular
India s
theKrishna
1992: 410).
o10
On
Sadiq
Isfahani,
ee also Gole
1989:
28-29, 82-87,
and
Schwartzberg
992:
390-91,
400-5.
Quoted
n
Beach and Koch 1997: 139. For
othernstancesn which
maps
were
gifted
o the
Emperor,
ee Foster 990:
44-45,
84.
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CONCEIT
OF THE GLOBE IN MUGHAL VISUAL PRACTICE
757
world;
which
presented
ith n
excuse
that
had
nothing
orthy,
utto a
greatking offered
he
world,
n whichhe had
so
great
nd rich a
part
(Foster 990:380,my mphasis).12
n
being
offeredheworld
n this arto-
graphic
manner,
the
King
ooke n
great
ourtesie,
ften
aying
ishand n his
breast,
nd
answering: verything
hat ame from
mee was welcome
ibid.).
However,
t is clear
that,
wo weeks
ater,
n 25
September,
his
particular
English
gift
was not all thatwelcome.
turn o Roe's
Journal,
where he
entry
or his
ay
reads,
The
King,
hearing
hat had been sicke nd
wished
for
wine,
gave
me five
bottles,
nd
commanded,
hen
had ended
hose,
o
send
forfive
more,
nd so
as I wanted: nd a
fat
hogge,
he fattest ever
saw
... I tooke his s a
signe
of
favour,
nd I am sure
n that ourt t s
a
great ne. Then he sentfor hemap-booke,nd toldmehad had shewed t
his
mulaies,
nd no mancouldreade
norunderstand
t; therefore,
f
would,
I shouldhave
t
againe.
answered:
t his
pleasure;
nd so
it was returned
(Ibid.:
392).13
Roe himself as
nothing
ore
o
say
on eitherhe
presentation
fMercator's
Atlas
o
Jahangir,
he
mperor's
ssessment
fthe
ift,
r
the
ubsequent
eturn
ofthe
map
booke. But
his
chaplain
dward
erry
rites
bout
twith sense
of
displeasure
ut lso
barely-hidden
atisfaction:
TheMogol eedsnd easts imselfithhisonceit,hat e sConquerorf heWorld;
and
hereforeconceive
hat ewas roubled
pon
time,
hen
my
ord
Ambassador,
having
usiness
ith im
and
upon
hose
erms
heres no
coming
nto
hat
ing
empty
anded,
ithoutome
resent
r
other)
.. and
having
tthat ime
othing
eft
12
Roe
might
ave been
referring
o the
1613 edition f theAtlas
n this ontext
Gascoigne
1971:
149).
f
o,
this s the irstdition
hat lso ncluded double
ortrait
eaturing
othMercator
andJodocus
Hondius
thepublisher
ho
cquired
he
lates
or heAtlas n
1604) itting
t
a
table,
their
ands
holding
ividers
oised
vermountederrestrial
lobes
Crane
002:
facing
15).
For
recent iscussions f
Roe's mission o the
Mughal
ourt,
ee
especially
Mitchell
2000)
and
Sub-
rahmanyam2002). Significantly.eitherftheseworks ttendso the artographicncounterea-
turing
ercator's
tlas.
1
Titled
tlas ive
Cosmographicae
editationes
e Fabrica
Mundi
tFabricati
igura
Atlas,
or
cosmographic
editationsn the abric f
heworld nd the
igure
f he
fabrick'd),
ercator's
influentialork
was first
ublished
n ts
ntirety
n 1595
n
Duisburg
ndwent nto everal ditions
over
he ourse fthenext
entury.
here re everal
ine tudies
fMercatorndthe
mpact
f
his
Atlas
n
European eographical
hought
nd
cartographic
ractice,
ut
ee
especially
rane 002
and
Taylor
004.
Dennis
Cosgrove
as
commented
n the ision
f
European lobal
erritoriality
inauguratedy
tlases ike
Mercator's,adically
e-centereds
thesewere n
Europe
2001:
131-
33).
Jerry
rotton as
complicated
hewell-established
rgument
hatMercator's
rojection
akes
Europe ppear arger
han
t
ctually
s,
especially
nrelationo the
quatorial
egions
1997:
153-
69).
The 1569
world
map
n which
heMercator
rojection
irst
ppeared ignifieseographically
and
politically
he
triumph
f theWest t the xpense f the est,speciallyheOrientBrotton
1997:
169).
n
addition
o the
maps
ftheworld nd
ofthevarious
ontinents,
he
itle
age
ofthe
Atlasfeatures seated
Atlas
holding globe
with nothererrestrial
loberesting
eside
him.The
frontispiece
or heAtlas s a
strikingngraving
1574)
by
Frans
Hogenberg
f Mercator
ith is
hand
n a terrestrial
lobe
half
overing
land dentifiable
s the
Americas,
hile he ther olds
pair
of dividers
Figure
).
While
we know
nothing
bout he
mpact
f these
ictures
n either
Jahangir
r
his
telier,
t s worth
oting
heir
isible
resence
nthe
gifted-and-then-returned
tlas.
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758
SUMATHI RAMASWAMY
which e
thought
it o
give
him,
resented
im
withMercators
sic]
great
ook
f
Cosmography
which
heAmbassadorad
brought
hitheror isown
use),
telling
the
Mogol
hathat ook
escribedhe our
arts
f he
world,
nd ll several
ountreys
in hemontained.heMogol t he irsteem'd obe muchaken itht, esiringre-
sently
o see hisown
erritories,
hich
ere
mmediately
hewen nto
im;
e
asked
where ere hose
ountreys
bout
hem;
e
was old
artaria
nd
Persia,
s the ames
of the estwhich
onfine
ith
im;
nd hen
ausing
he ook obe turn'dll
over,
and
finding
o more o
fall
ohis hare utwhat e first
aw,
ndhe
calling
imself
the
Conqueror
f
theWorld nd
having
o
greater
hare
n
t,
eemed o be a little
troubled,
et ivily
old he
Ambassadour
sic],
hat eitherimselfor
ny
of
his
people
idunderstandhe
anguage
n
which hat ookwas
written,
ndbecause
o,
he furtherold
im
hat e
would ot obhim f uch
jewel,
nd herefore
eturned
it
unto
im
gain.
And he ruths that he
Great
Mogol
mightery
ell
bring
is
action gainstMercator nd otherswho describe heworld, ut treightenimvery
much n their
maps,
not
llowing
him
o
be
lord nd commander
f
those
rovinces
which
roperlyelong
nto im
Foster
990:
82-83n,
my
mphasis).14
Terry's
eporting
f
he
eeminglynconsequential
ncounteretween
ahangir
andMercator's tlas choes
xamples
rom
ther imes ndother
ultural
on-
texts
f
he
antasies,
opes,
nd nxieties nleashed
hen he elf onfrontsn
image
f heworld
n
modem
artographic
rtifacts.15
n
ts
one,
t s
also
sug-
gestive
f
omething
hat ecomes ll
too
familiar
rom
ubsequent
enturiesn
its
nticipation
fthe
umbrage
hat olonials
ypicallyisplay
when henative
speaks
back. Others avenoted hat
Abu'l
Hasan's
provocative
ainting
adi-
cally
e-centeredn
Jahangir'smpire
ith
urope
onfinedo ts
margins,
nd
produced
round he
ime
f
this ateful
ncounter,
ay
be seen s an
mperial
retort-a
painting
ack-to thefamous
uropean
artographer
ho had dared
to confine he
greatMughal
o
only
small ection f theworld n his
maps
(Gascoigne
971:
152).
Such a
reading
s
strengthenedy
thefact hat his s
notthe
only
ime hat
Abu'l
Hasan
and
his
colleagues
esortedo the
globe-
form o
praise
ndflatterheir
mperial
master,
ndto
disparage
is
potential)
rivals, oth hemore raditionaloes ike he afavidsnd heOttomans,s well
as newarrivalsike he
Europeans.
rom round his ime ndfor
henext ew
decades,
under hedirect
atronage
f
both
Jahangir
nd
his successor hah
Jahan
r.
1628-1658),
the
errestrial
lobe
comesto be
deployed
n
some
of
the most
nnovative
aintings
f the
Mughal
telier.
t
is used
in
ways
that
14
Terryoined
Roe in
February
617 after he
atter's
revious haplain
ad
died,
ndreturned
withRoe to
England
n
1619 and wrote bouthis
experiences
n 1622 nA
Voyage
o East ndia.
15
For
another,
imilar ncounter
etween
ahangir'srandfather
kbar nd an earlier
tlas,
Ortelius's heatrum rbis
Terrarum hen he
Mughal
mperorpparently
askedwhere
ortugal
was, ndwhere isown
kingdom,
eeQaisar
1982: 148).
nanotherurasianontactone,Walter
Mignolo
uggests
hat
map
that
dorned
he
wall of
theJesuit ather
atteoRicci's mission n
1584 in
Canton
was
likely print
f
Ortelius'
Tipus
orbis
terrarum
1570).
Ricci's learned
Chinese visitorswere
seemingly
astonished
y
its
representation
f the earth nd that t
de-centeredhina.Ricci's own 1602
map,
which
e-centered
he
map
on the Pacific ndAsia
instead f the Atlantic nd
Europe,
demonstratesor
Mignolo
the
power
of the
cartographic
deviceof the movable enter
1995:
219-23).
See also note 4.
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CONCEIT
OF
THE
GLOBE
IN
MUGHAL VISUAL PRACTICE
759
suggest
hat t became
an
intriguing
ew-fangled
ngredient
n
conventional
regimes
f
praise
nd dulation
n
the
mperial
ourt,
s well
s
for he ashion-
ing of the royalSelf and the visible assertion f imperial uthorityn
seventeenth-century
ndia.
And
yet, uriously,
hile several f these
paintings
ave been
skillfully
studied t
length y
historiansf
Mughal
rt,
he visual
appearance
f the
globe
in themhas
only
elicited ccasional
comments,
sually
o illustrate
the
growing uropean
rtisticinfluence
n
the
Mughal
ourt.16
requently,
the
globe
s dismissed s a
European bject.My goal
here,
y
contrast,
s
to demonstrate
ow the
Mughal
artistsmade it their
wn,
rendering
t
Mughalai.17
As for
historians,
ncluding
rfan
abib
1979)
and A. J.
Qaisar
(1982), who have writtenhoughtfullybout Mughal cartographynd
science,
they
have
largely gnored
hese
striking xamples
of
an
early
modem
ttempt
rom ndia to
appropriate
rom
urope
he
representational
authority
o
map
the knownworldon and with
cartographic
nstruments.
Even the astute
Sanjay
Subrahmanyamgnores
he
gifting
nd return f
Mercator's tlas
n his
insightful
eflections
n how
one
may nterpret
uch
cross-culturalncounterss Roe's with
Jahangir
2002). Building
on his
work,
would ike o
suggest
hat oe and
Terry
ere oo
hasty
n
concluding
that
ahangir
nd his court ouldnotreador understandhe
new
cartographic
language
hatMercatorndhis
colleagues
were
eginning
ofashionndistant
Europe. propose
n what ollows hat ot
nly
did the
mperor's
rtists
rasp
thisnew
anguage,
utthat
hey
were
ophisticatednough
o
paint
back
n
response
n
alternative
ndmore
atisfying
ision nd
version,
ndto
skillfully
deploy
he
globe-form
n
support
f
agendas
hat
ad
ittle o do with
urope.
So,
although
he
globe's
universal
conographicegibility
as
been
noted
(Lippincott
999:
78),
I
am more nterested
n
ways
that hese
aintings
lter
its
meaning
nd
message eyond
what
might
avebeen ntended
y European
science, osmography,r rt ntheir articulareploymentsf tsformnearly
modem
ndia.
In therest f the
ssay,
herefore,
discuss
he
ppearance
f the errestrial
globe
n
a
range
f
visual situationsn order o elicit ts work s a
socially
and
politically
ffective
bject
in
the
Mughal
court. considerhow the
16
From
he
vast
orpus
f
scholarship
n
Mughal
ainting,
havefound
mportant
iscussions
of the
ppearance
f
the errestrial
lobe
n Beach
1981;
Das
1978;
Ettinghausen
961;
Findly
1992;
Leach
1995;
Okada
1992;
Skelton
988;
Srivatsava
000;
and Verma 005.
Ebba Koch's
essays,nparticular,renoteworthyor he ttentionhey iveto theMughal 'globe aintings,
andfor he
nfluence
pon
hem f acred
ictures
ntroducednto
arly
modem
ndia
by
Jesuit
is-
sions
Koch
2001;
see
also
Bailey
1999:ch.
5).
17
In this
egard,
his
ssay
harts differentourse rom recent
nalysis
hat sserts hat
uro-
peanglobes
ndmaritimeharts
slipped asily
nto
he
portraiture
fthe
mperor
n the
Mughal
court
Sen
2002:
64).
In
arguing
hat here asno
easypassage
r
traightforward
ranslation,
have
benefitedrom bba
Koch's valuable iscussion fthemanner
n
which
Mughal ainters
dapted
and
transformed,
atherhan
imply eproduced,
ovel
European
motifs
Koch
2001).
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760
SUMATHI RAMASWAMY
globe's
calculated
isplay
Brotton
999:
82)
in
the
roductions
f he
mper-
ial atelier
may
mark ew
ways
f
marking
he
ingularity
f
he
oyal ersonage
and of
working
ut
complex
ocal
and
trans-regional
ssertionsf
power
nd
prestige.
t the same
time,
hese
paintings
etort ack to
Europe's
newly-
emerging ays
of
mapping
he arth hatwere
eginning
o
ncreasingly
ircu-
late
n
the
eventeenth-century
orld. hese
paintings
re lso
mportant
n
that
they
re
arguably
he earliest nstances
n
the subcontinentf the deliberate
visual ssociation f
the errestrial
lobe
with hehuman
ody,
nd
n
pictorial
presentations
fthe
elf.
They
an
help
us to
understand
hat
kind f Self he
Mughal emperor
as
seeking
o fashion orhimself nd
project
or
thers,
specificallyhrough
se of the
globe-form.18
hetherr notthese
paintings
representtheunrealistic antasies f a benigndemagogue Findly1992:
208),19
r
whether
they ivemeaning
o the
Mughal]
ream f
universality,
order nd
eternity
Mukhia
004:
86),
they ertainly
ffer hemost
triking
examples
n
ndiaof
historically-known
ndividuals
isually
resenting
hem-
selves
with
modem
artographic
rtifactss
part
ftheir
ublic dentity.
n
the
West romt east he
arly
ixteenth
entury
ntil
elatively
ecently,aintings,
portraits,apestries,
nd
photographs
how
monarchs, erchants,ravelers,
ur-
ghers,
nd educated
entlemen
n
the
ompany
fthe
errestrial
lobe.
t
s the
paradigmatic
isual conof
the
worldly
male)
self ntil he
past entury
Lip-
pincott
999).
Tellingly,
owever,
iven
he
regimes
f
mimicry
f theWest
that ometo be
institutionalized
n
colonial
ndia,
lite ndians
arely
sedthe
globe
in
theirvisual
self-presentation
n
portraits
r
photographs.
hese
Mughal
aintingseaturing
he
lobe
re
quite
recocious
n
his
egard
s
well.
To
return
o one final
oint
egarding
oe's
returned
ift, erry eports
hat
the ncounter ithMercator's tlas
destroys
the onceit n which
Jahangir
feeds nd feasts imself that e is
Conqueror
f theWorld.
bviously,
hope
o
suggest
othe
ontrary
n
this
ssaybydemonstrating
hat
his onfron-
tation
ith
eemingly
ovel
uropean ays
f
representing
he errestrialorld
enables
Jahangir
ndhis rtistso
re)present
im,
s hisname
uggested,
s the
world-gripper,
he
world-seizer,
he
world-holder,
he
world-king,
ndthat
his
worldwas not
necessarily
enteredn
Europe
r
matters
uropean,
s in
the
variousworks f art
being
mported
nto hecourt. ut n
the losed
circuits
of
Mughal
rtistic
ulture here ew
outside he
emperor's
ircle
f choice
might
ave
had access to
these
painterly
ssertions f
imperialordship,
e
must sk who and where s
theaudience hatwill
behold
him
as
master f
the
globe?20
Where ndwho s the
world hat
ahangir,
theworld
apturer,
18
Many
cholars ave
nsisted
hat
ahangir,
n
particular,
orked
losely
with is
rtists,
o the
interventions
f he
mperor
n
fashioning
or
imself
Self
hrough
ainting
annot e minimized
(see
especially hatterjee
.d.;
Okada
1992;
and Verma
005).
19
For other imilar
ssessments,ee Leach
1995: 353, and Okada 1992:27, 43-50.
20
AlthoughheMughal mperor
outinelyave away
paintings,ometimesy evenhis most
favored
rtists,
here s no evidence o
suggest
hat hesedramatic
ortraits
eaturing
he
globe
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FIGURE The St.
Petersburg
lbum:
Allegorical epresentation
f
Emperor ahangir
nd
Shah
'Abbas of Persia.
Painted
y
Abu'l
Hasan,
a.
1618.
Opaque
watercolor,
old
and
nk
on
paper,
23.8
x
15.4cm.Freer
allery
f
Art,
mithsonian
nstitution,
ashington,
.C.,
purchase
1945.9.
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?co~?
ii
LJ~lf
( ;i
~1~31111~8L~~ ?;C~j~llCi~sl~B~%
:.~~i~ :1qlPe~Bg~~~CI I I
3;g-a
XJ-:
?~S'
:I
gt~
I~t~q r r
~~J
::::
~i~~l~ ~?~~SZ~l~'BEIrs~~i~c~~
:::?t.
GERARDIER-CATrORISVPE-LMVNDANI
EMGJf
A NOkR
I)v0Y .Vf
ZT
SEX
-
AGTNrTA,SVI
E3RGLAT
PSVM
STVDII
CAVSA
s
INGEX1CV
v
rFRANC.
ROG,
CID.
I3.
LXXWV:
FIGURE
2
Portraitf Mercator
olding
nd
measuring globe.Engraved
y
Frans
Hogenberg
n
1574. From Atlas sive
cosmographicae
meditationes e
fabrica
mundi t
fabricati
igure,
1595.S0005093.
Royal
Geographical
ociety
icture
ibrary,
ondon.
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FIGURE
Jahangir
hoots
Malik Anbar.
ainted
y
Abu'l
Hasan,
a.
1620.
Gouache
n
paper,
25.8
x
16.5cm. CBL
In 07A. 15.
?Trustees
of theChester
eatty
ibrary,
ublin.
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FIGURE
4
Emperor
ahangirriumphing
ver
overty,
ttributedo
Abu'l
Hasan,
a.
1620-1625.
Opaque
watercolor,
old,
nd nk n
page,
3.81
x
15.24cm.Los
Angeles ounty
Museum f
Art,
Nasli
and
Alice Heeramaneck
ollection,
useum
Associates,
urchase
M.75.4.28.
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FIGURE5 Durbar ceneof
Jahangir.
ainted
y
Abu'l
Hasan,
a.
1615.
Opaque
water
olor,
old,
and nk n
paper,
6.9
x
12.3 cm.Freer
Gallery
f
Art,
mithsonian
nstitution,
ashington,
.C.,
purchase
1946.28.
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FIGURE The
MughalEmperor
ahangir
ithRadiantGold
Halo,
Holding
Globe.Painted
y
Abu'l
Hasan,
ca.
1617.
Gouache
with
old
on fine
otton,
10.5
x
143 cm.
Courtesy otheby's
Picture
ibrary,
ondon.
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FIGURE a
(left)
haykh
u'in
l-DinChisti
olding
Globe.FIGURE
b
(right) ahang
by
Bichitr,
a.
1620.TheMinto
Album.
Gouache
n
paper.
)Trustees
f
heChester
eatty
21.8
x
13 cm. CBL In 07A.14.
Figure
b: 20.5
x
12.7cm.
CBL
In
07A.5.
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FIGURE
The
Emperor
hah Jahan
tanding pon
Globe; above,
Angels
Bearing nsignia
f
Sovereignty.
ainted
y
Hashim,
629. Color and
gold
on
paper
25.1
x
15.8cm. Freer
Gallery
of
Art,
mithsonian
nstitution,
ashington,
.C.,
purchase
1939.49.
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CONCEIT OF THE GLOBE
IN
MUGHAL VISUAL PRACTICE
769
or Shah
Jahan,
the
world
uler,
eeks o
address
hrough
uch
deployments
f
the terrestrial
lobe?
s
Europe
ven
istening
o
these
ssertions,
r
seeing
them?Moretellingly,iven
ts
marginal
nd
shadowy resence
n
therealpo-
litik
nd
everyday
ife of
seventeenth-century
ndia,
is
Europe
even
the
intended
udience,
r is this notherase of the
ppropriation
f a
European
artifact
or
pecific
ocal
and
regional gendas?
The
calculated
isplay
f
the
globe
n
hese
aintings
ight
ot ven are
bout
n
assumed
ubject-audience
that
as to be
readily mpressed;
hat oo s
part
f
the
onceit f the
globe
n
Mughal
visual
practice
hatwe must
onsider.
MUGHAL
GLOBAL CONCEITS21
By the time he terrestriallobe is drawn ntothe artistic ctivitiesf the
Mughal
court
n
the
early
seventeenth
entury,
t
had
begun
to
circulate,
albeit
pisodically
nd
ephemerally,
n
India. HarbansMukhia
has
recently
drawn
ur attentiono
a
tantalizing
ccount f John
rancis
areri
n
which
the talian
writes hat ecause
Aurangzeb
or
Alamgir)
elieved hathe was
lord f
three-quarters
f
the
world,
for his
eason,
e
carry'd
s his
particular
Ensign
Golden-Globe,
nd
had t nhis
Seal
2004:
60-61).22
While heres
scant
vidence rom
he
Mughal
rchive
hat
Aurangzeb's redecessors,
oo,
might
ave used the
globe
n this
fashion,
n a
tantalizingainting
ated o
circa 1639
and attributedo
Abid,
which
hows Shah Jahan eated
n
the
so-called
eacock
Throne,
mountederrestrial
lobe
s
prominentlyisplayed
in frontf and below
the hrone.23
e
do
learn, owever,
lmost
xclusively
from
uropean
ccounts,
hat
maps,globes,
nd other
artographic
rtifacts
were
sought
fter s
prestige
bjects
of
prestation
rom
he
timethe first
Jesuitmission
n
1580
to Akbar's ourt
resented
he
mperor
ithAbraham
Ortelius'
Theatrum
rbis
Terrarum,
The
Theatre
f the
World,
he first
atlas to have
made theearth
ortable,
hich
greatmany eople
assert o
be immovable Bailey 1999:
116).24
Around1611,FatherJerome avier
circulated
nthe
egimes
f
gift
hatwere ndemic
o
Mughal ourtly
ulture.
majority
f
Mughal
miniatures
ere
designed
s illustrations
or
manuscripts,
r wereretained
n
exclusive
lbums
called
muraqqa'
for
eposit
n
the
mperial
ibrary.
lso
important
o note s the
obering
ssess-
ment f
many
cholars
hat
many
paintings
re
now either ost
or remain
n-catalogued
nd
un-archived,
o
udgments
re
necessarily
rovisional
nd
contingent.
2
I
borrow
he
erm
conceit
rom
erry's isparaging
omments
uoted
arlier.t s also used
in
the
rthistorical
cholarship
o discuss
Jahangir's
llegorical
aintingse.g.,Bailey
1999: 141-
42;
and Leach
1995:
389).
22
For rare aintinghat howsAurangzebn the ompanyfa terrestriallobe, ee Schmitz
and
Desai
2006:
pl.
73.
1
am indebted
o
Asok Das
for
lerting
e
to this.
23
For
reproduction
f
this
ainting,ee
Binney
973: 100.
24
The quote,
ttributedo
an
admiring
ate-sixteenth-century
eader,
s from
rotton 997: 175.
The
Theatrurm,
irst
ublished
n
1570
and
themost
xpensive
ut lso thebest
elling
ook
n
Europe
for
he econd
half
f that
entury),
as
reprinted
ithminor
ariationsnd
additional
maps
several
times
n the decade between
ts initial
publication
nd its
presentation
o
the
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770
SUMATHI
RAMASWAMY
describes ome
of the
decorations
hat heJesuits sed one
year
t the
Christ-
mas crib
n
Agra
s
including,
an
ape
which
quirted
ater romts
yes
nd
mouth,
nd bove
t birdwhich
angmysteriously
..
and
globe
f he
world
supported
n the
backs
of two
elephants
..
(ibid.:
123).
From at
least
November
615,
etterseceived
y
both he
English
nd Dutch
rading
om-
panies
from heir ervants
osted
n India record
equests
or nd
receipt
f
globes
nd
maps
ntendeds
gifts
or he
Mughal mperor
nd his
governors
and subordinates
osted
n
different
arts
f the
empire
Beach
and
Koch
1997:
139;
Habib 1979:
94;
Qaisar
1982:
35-36,
148).25
Seventeenth-century
uropean
ccounts lmost
lways resent
he
ighting
by
natives
f
these
artographicbjects
s
giving
ise o wonder nd
surprise,
and as we havesee from oe andTerry's ritings,osomederision s well.
Thus,
K.
N. Chaudhuri
eminds
s
that
avernierame cross omeBrahmans
andnobles
uzzling
ver wo
globes
presentedy
the
Dutch)
n
Varanasi,
nd
that
e
was
called
upon
to
point
utthe
position
f France
pon
them
1990:
35).
But other han uch
European
eportage,
here
s
hardly
ny
nformation
on how the circulation
f the
terraqueous
lobe
was
received
n
Mughal
India.This s
yet
nother
eason
hat
he
hirty
r
so
paintings
f the
mperial
atelier
eaturing
his
artographic
nstrumentre so
important
or
ny
history
of
how the
globe
comes
o
be
apprehended
utside
urope.26
A remarkableate-sixteenth-centuryaintingromheOttomanourt hows
several
men
tudying
arious cientific
nstruments,
ncluding
mounteder-
restrial
lobe
on
which
Africa,Asia,
and
Europe
are
clearly
delineated
(Brotton
997:
pl.
8;
Savage-Smith
992:
27-28). By
contrast,
n the
known
productions
fthe
Mughal
telier he
globe
does not
ppear
o havebeenvisu-
ally represented
s a scientific
bject
of
curiosity.
ndeed,
n
none of the
hitherto-documented
ughal
paintings eaturing
t
does
the
globe
ever
Mughal
mperor.
ts
magnificent
itle
age
shows
Europe
s
queen,
eated n a
grand
hrone ith
her
ight
and
n
a
rudderttachedo a
terrestrial
lobe,
nd
feminized
epresentations
f
Asia
and
Africa. he
atlas lso features
map
of
the
whole
world,
ndividual
aps
of the
four nown
on-
tinents,
nd
map
dedicatedotheEast
ndies
van
der
Broecke t l.
1998;
ee
also
Brotton 997:
169-79).
Susan
Gole notes
either
rtelius'stlasnor
Mercator's
ncluded
eparatemaps
f
ndia.
Their
ndia
Orientalisncluded
hewhole f
Asia,
ometimes
s far s
Outer
Mongolia,
which
hey
called
ndia
Extreme
1976: 50).
See
Minnisale 000
for
valuable
iscussion f
how
motifs
rom
European
maps
nd
atlases,
uch s the
Theatrum,
ound heir
ay
from
he ate
ixteenth
entury
into
Mughal
andscape aintings.
25
We
also
learn rom
nayat
han's
hah
Jahan
Nama
that
n
elaborate
eweled
orb
kaukaba)
was presenteds peshkash tribute,ift) o Shah Jahan n 1656 (Verma 005: 66). Jahangir's
reported
ejection
f
Mercator's
tlas s all
themore
emarkable
iven
uch
ccounts.
26
The
Mughal
rtist'
ingular
eployment
f the
globe
s
also
striking
ince t
appears
hat n
noneof the
provincial
ourts
where
uropeansresented
lobes
does
this
ppear
o
have
resulted
in heir
alculated isual
isplay,
venwhen
hese
ourts ere
rying
o
fashion
hemselvesn
oppo-
sition
othe
enter
y
ppropriating
itherto
xclusive
Mughal
rivileges
uch s
the
iewing
t
the
jharoka
balcony).
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CONCEIT
OF THE
GLOBE
IN
MUGHAL VISUAL PRACTICE
771
appear
n
solation.
nstead,
t s
nvariably
isually isplayed
n
he
ompany
f
the
mperor,
ost ften
hysically
onnected
ohis
body
n somefashion:
e s
either
oldingt, tanding
n
it,resting
is
feet n
it,
or
waiting
o receive
t
from ither is
predecessors
r,
nterestingly,
romMuslim
holy
men.With
fewnotable
xceptions
hat will
flag
ater,
he
globe
visually ppears
nly
in
imperial
ontexts
where
the
Emperor nvariably
ccupies
center
tage.
This is
in
contrast
o,
for
xample,
ontemporaryurope,
where
ll manner
of
male)
grandees-navigators,
xplorers,
ea
captains,
stronomers,
eogra-
phers,
philosophers,
obles,
and
ambassadors-had
themselves
ainted
n
the
globe's
company,requently
o the
point
f
asserting
proprietary
ttitude
towardt
e.g., Figure
;
see also
Lippincott
999).
n
Mughal
isual
practice
on theother and, he errestriallobe ppears s an imperial rerogativear
excellence,
nd
oins
theranks f suchexclusive
ignifiers
f
mperial
over-
eignty
uch as
the
crown,
he
plume
r turban
rnament,
he
precious em,
the
falcon,
nd
the ceremonial
obe of honor
Okada
1992:
30-33).
Even
more o than hese ther
erquisites,
owever,
t seems o have been
exclu-
sively
dentified
ith
he
mperial ody,
orunlike
hese,
he
globe
s
never
shown
eing
handed ver
by
the
mperor
o lesser
ersonages.27
t
s
always
painted
s
an
object
f
mperial ossession,
ever falienationnd
separation,
as befitted
n
artifact
hat
might
ave ome
n
quite
handy
or
horing p
a
well-
establishedMughal onceit f theEmperor's erson s an embodimentf
Empire,
nd
in
this
ase,
more
han
he
empire-the
world tself
Richards
1998:
128).
The
imperial
rtist's
monopoly
ver he
globe's representation
o
the xclusion f
others'
apacity
o mimic
r
similarlyeploy
t
suggests
hat
the
Mughal
lone claimed
hevisual
apacity
o own the
globe-form,
nd the
world hat
t
purported
o
signify.
his is
the
most
triking
anifestation
f
the
mperor's
onceit
with
egard
o
this
artographic
pparatus.
Imperial
onceit
n
relation
o the terrestrial
lobe
is also underscored
n
these
portraitsy
the fact
hat he
emperor's
ody,
n
conformity
ith he
logic
of hieratic rts,
always
subordinateshe
cartographic
rtifact ver
whichhe looms
arge, educing
t
to an
entity
hat
s
literally
t his feet r
that e can hold
ightly
n
his
hand.How
muchmore
ffectively
nd
ffectively
could
his
artists
uggest
he
power
f their
mperial atron
han
by
visually
suggesting
hat
he
may
be
a man of
the
world,
o
to
speak,
but
was also
above t?
So,
in several
xamples,
n
a motif hat ecomes
ery
ommon,
he
emperor
s
painted tanding
n the
globe,
his feet
esting
ightly
n landfor-
mations
sometimes
istinctively
elineated,
ometimes
ague
and
unspeci-
fied)
marked
on its
surface
while his
body, elaborately ejeweled
and
sumptuously
lothed,
oars
gloriously
nto the cosmos. He is
frequently
27
In this
egard, he
globe s likethe
halo,which,
s
signifier
f divine
ight,
was
generally
associated n
Mughal
portraits
ith he
emperor's
ody
from
ahangir's
ime
n,
even
mperial
princes
nd
holy
men
nly ccasionallymeriting
t
Verma
005:
66).
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772
SUMATHI
RAMASWAMY
shown
bviously xercising
is
ordship
ver
thers,
s
ina
portraity
nother
of the
mperor's
avorite
rtists,ichitr,
hich as
been
widely
nterpreted
s
Shah Jahan
eceiving
he
submission f a
Hindu,possiblyRajputprince
(Arnold
nd
Wilkinson 936:
pl.
63).
As this
portraituggests,
more s
going
on
in
these
pictures
han
ust
the
bestowal
f
a
cosmic
persona
n
the
emperor,
s the
globe
s drawn nto ll
manner fvisual ramas hat
is rtistsnacted n
hisbehalf. hemost
triking
examples
f these re two
paintings
ttributedo
Abu'l
Hasan.
n
one,
com-
pleted erhaps
round
620,
Jahangir
s shown
tanding
n
the
globe hooting
at thehead of a sworn
nemy,
heDeccani
Abyssinian
verlord alik Anbar
(Figure
).28
In
the
other,
enerally
ated o
1620-1625,
he nails downthe
cringing igureof povertypersonified hile astridea terrestriallobe
(Figure
).29
Both
paintingsonscript
he errestrial
lobe
nto
omplex oliti-
cal, moral,
nd
personal
nvisionings
f he
oyal
elf.
n
the econd
ainting,
carefully ainted nscription
ver
the haloed head of the
emperor
eads,
Blessed
portrait
f His
SupremeMajesty
who
dispatches
is
eager
shafts
into
Poverty
nd
who,
hrough
is rectitudend
fairness,
s
laying
ew foun-
dations or heworld. 30
n
Ellison
Findly's
eading, ahangir
s set
up
here
as
a
divinelyegitimate
onarch
uling
verall theknown
world,
ut one
who
additionally
as the moral
haractero
fight overty
ith
martial-like
justice 1992: 208), while n the 1620 effortythesame artistt is clear
that ven
though
e
may
be a
righteous
nd
ust
sovereign,
his id notmake
Jahangir
ess of a
warrior,
s
demonstrated
y
his
vanquishing
f one of the
best-known raves of his
time,
Malik 'Anbar.
t
is
telling
hat he artist
thought
t
significant
o enact hese
complex
isual dramas
with
he aid of
the
newly
ntroducederrestrial
lobe
s
imperialtage rop, ainted
ith on-
siderable ttentiono detail.
ndeed,
t
s hard o
think
f he nactmentfthese
dramas
withouthe
globe'spresence.
ther rtists
ppear
o have found
t
so,
for these two
paintings
ere much
mitated,
ccasionally
with
variations,
into henineteenthenturyythoseworkingor newpost-Mughallientele
(Das
1978:
226,
n.
35;
Desai
1993).
n
our own
times,
heir heme as been
carried
orward
n
The
Greatest,
y
the
talented
iaspora ainters
mrit
and RabindraKaur
Singh
in
England,31
nd in works
by
the Pakistani
Karkhana ollective
Imran
ureishi
t al. 2005:
87-89).32
That heknown nd nhabited
orldwas
iterally
tthe
mperor's
eet s also
visually
nderscored
n nother
uch-analyzed
ainting
ca. 1615)
ttributedo
28
Foranalyses fthis ainting,eeespecially as 1978:220-21; Leach 1995:398-405; and
Skelton
988: 179-82.
29
For
discussions fthis
omplex
ortrait,
ee Leach 1995:
400;
Okada
1992:
51-52;
Skelton
1988:
185;
and
Verma 005: 71.
30
Quoted
n
Okada 1992: 51-52.
31 www.singhtwins.co.uk/galpage2.htm.
32
Thanks o Saleema
Waraich
or
his.
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CONCEIT
OF
THE
GLOBE
IN MUGHAL VISUAL
PRACTICE
773
Abu'l
Hasan.
n this
work,
Jahangir
s shown eated
n a
rectangular
hrone
under red
canopy,
ooming
verothers ssembled
n
his court nd
virtually
ignoringhem s he gazes beyond
them
o a distant
orizon,
while
his
unshod
feet
rest on a
delicately aintedglobe
placed
on
a
golden
stand
(Figure
).33
Although
bu'l
Hasan does nottrouble
o
name
theterritories
marked n
the
globe,
as
he does
in his
later,
618
venture,
e resorts o
another
nteresting
evice
o visualize
lobal
mastery.ahangir
s shown
arry-
ing
key
n
his
cummerbund,
hich its nto
he
keyhole
f
the
globe,placed
strategically
n what
Findly
dentifies
s
north-centralndia
1992: 206).
The
key
of
victory
ver
the
two worlds
s entrustedn his
hand,
reads
Abu'l
Hasan's
nscription.
hat he
mperor
s
shown
itting uropean
tyle,
literallyreatinghe world s his footstool, hilefiguresepresentingival
emperors
such
as
thePersian hah
and the
Turkish
ultan)
re
relegated
o
the
margins
f he
icture,
asbeenread
s
a
clear tatement
fhisworld om-
inance
Beach
1981:
203).
In Ellison
indly's
ords,
With
hewholeworld
t
his feet
nd
thefate f India
ocked
up tightly
n
his
hands,
e
occupies
he
central
osition
within is universe
1992:
206).
Thisconceit
f
having
heworld
t his
feet,
ts
key
n his
belt,
nd
potential
rivals istant
nd
foreignrranged
round
im n
a
manner hat
uggests
hat
they
re
paying
ourt
o
him,
s matched
y
another
n
paintings
n
which
theemperorightly oldstheworld-frequentlyeduced o a smallorb-in
his
capable
hands.34
he most
magnificent
xample
of the atter as also
been
declared
obe the
argest
nown
Mughal
ainting,
uctioned
y
Sotheby's
inLondon
n
October
995.This
was
also
painted
y
Abu'l
Hasan,
his
ime,
n
Mandu
ometime
etween
March
ndOctober
617,
roughly
round
he ame
time
s
Jahangir's
ateful
ncounter
ith heMercator
tlas.
n itthe
mperor
sits
n a
European-style
hair
with
magnificent
adiating
imbus round
is
head,
elaborately ejeweled,
clothed
but
with
unshod
feet,
holding
an
unmarked
rb
n
the
palm
of his
eft
and
Figure
).
Persian erses
ordering
the
picture
eclarehis
visage
as
world-illuminating,
nd note that if a
hundred
ings
ikeAlexander
ame o
the
World,
hey
would
ll
prostrate
hem-
selves
hundred
imes
t
a
glimpse
f his
face,
nd that the
kings
f
Rum
[Turkey]
nd Chinawait
at the
gate
Sotheby's
995: 74-83).
It has
been
suggested hat heabsence
of territorialarkers n the
globe representshe
33
For
analyses
f this
portrait,
ee
especially
as 1978:
217-19;
Ettinghausen
961;
Okada
1992: 56-58.
Dated
by
most
cholars
o
1615
and
painted
n
Ajmer
s
a
companion
iece
to
another
ell-known
ainting,
his
portrait
recedes
Roe's
presentation
f theMercator
tlas
to
the mperornd s arguablyhe arliest nownMughalportraithat eatureshe errestriallobe
(Findly
992:
206).
34
See,
for
nstance,
aintings
y
Abu'l
Hasan
done
n1623
Welch
t l. 1988:
pl.
13);
Bichitr
n
1620
Okada
1992:
frontispiece);
ashim/Ami
hand
n 1620
Arnold
nd Wilkinson 936:
pl.
61);
and
Hashim/Abu'l
asan n 1620
Gascoigne
971:
facing
15).
See also a
striking
ainting,
dated
o 1637-1638
and
by
n unknown
rtist,
hich
eatureshahJahan
olding globe
marked
by
what
ppears
o be the
quator
nd a series
f even oncentricircles
Topsfield
994:
pl.
13).
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774
SUMATHI
RAMASWAMY
emperor's
riumph
verboth the
emporal
nd
spiritual
orlds
Sotheby's
1995:
79).35
In another
magnificentortrait roduced
round 1620
by
Bichitr,
hich
imilarly
hows he
mperor olding
he
globe
while
tanding
with his hand
resting
n the
hilt
of
his
sword,
an
inscription
n the
upper-left-hand
omer
of the work
declares,
the
key
to
conquest
f
both
worlds
s entrustedo
your
and,
alid-i-fath-i
au
'alam
bi-dast st
musal-
lam]
Leach
1995:
388-89)
(Figure b).
The
conceit hat he
Mughal mperor
as master f both
worlds-widely
interpreted
s
the
emporal
r the
visible
'alam-i-suri)
nd the
piritual
('alam-i-ma
navi)-brings
s
to
another
roductive
ole
n
which he
globe
s
cast
n
several f
these
paintings,
s it
comes o
participate
n
the
politics
f
what he rthistorian eremiahosty efers o as thedervish-orienteding-
ship
thatwas critical o
sovereignty
nd
rule
from
he thirteenth
entury
(1991: 76).
As
Simon
Digby
observes,
ufi shaikhsheld the
power
to
bestow
kingship pon
ndividuals
hom
hey
ncountered,
r to
foresee he
attainmentf
a throne
y
such
men
1990: 75).
In
the artistic
roductions
of
the
Mughal
ourt,
he
mperor
s
frequentlyicturedeceiving
he
blessing
andendorsementf
ll manner
f
holy
mendrawn rom ifferent
aiths,
ut he
globe
figures
specially
n
those
aintingseaturing
hwaja
Mu'inuddin
histi
and
Khwaja
Khizr,
who
occasionally
re
pictured
ffering
he
world tself
o
him.So, in 1620,Bichtr ainted beardedmanpassing heTimuridrown
to
Jahangir;
he rown
n
turns
placed
on a
globe
on which he
and
masses
are
indistinctively
arkedwhile
pride
of
place
is
given
to an
escutcheon
plate
urmounted
y
a
key Figure a).
Tellingly,
he
globe
s
inscribed ith
the stock
phrase:
The
key
to the
conquest
f the two
worlds
'alam]
is
entrustedo
your
and
Leach
1995:
398).
A
companion iece
o
this
ainting,
also
by
Bichtr,
hows
resplendent
tanding
ahangirolding globe,
once
again
with ndistinctiveerritorial
elineations. ut this
time he
crown s
missing
nd
he
key
hat
was
perched
top
he
scutcheon
late
s now
nserted
in the ock Figure b). In Robert kelton's nalysis,Clearly
Jahangir
as
unlocked he
ecrets f the
visible
nd nvisible
worlds,
ince,
s the
Regent
of
God,
he shareshis
Creator's
mniscience
..
(1988:
183).
The
bearded
shaikh as been
widely nterpreted
s the
welfth-century
hwaja
Mu'inuddin
Chisti f
Ajmer,
who Akbar
evered
nd
to
whose ombhe went
n
frequent
pilgrimages.
lthough
ong
dead
by
Jahangir's
ime,
Mu'inuddin
s
placed
within
he
ame
temporalpace
as
the
mperor,
rasing
he
enturies
hat
ep-
arated hem.
That t
s not
Jahangir
lone but
lso ShahJahanwhowished ohave his
overlordship
f
the world
ndorsed
y
other-worldly
en s
confirmed
y
the
several
paintings
n
the
mid-seventeenth-century
adshahnama,
which
5
I am ndebtedo
AsokDas for
haring
his
eference,
ndfor
iscussing
he
ainting
ithme.
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CONCEIT
OF
THE GLOBE IN
MUGHAL VISUAL
PRACTICE
775
documents
heachievementsf Shah Jahan nd whichhas been
masterfully
discussed
y
Milo Beach and Ebba Koch
(1997).
In a
glorious
1656
work
attributedo a Kashmirirtist,hah Jahan s pictured isitinghe shrine
f
Khwaja
Mu'inud-DinChisti
t
Ajmer.
he shrines
painted
n
the
ackground
while
n the
foreground,
aiting
o
greet
is mounted
igure,
s
a
holy
man
offering
globe clearly
marked
with
various erritorial
ormations
Beach
and Koch 1997:
pl.
41).
The
figure
as been
interpreted
s the
mythical
mystic hwaja
Khizr,
n
emblem
f
fertility
..
[whose]
very ppearance
would cause
nature o become
green
nd lush
ibid.:
204).
Khwaja
Khizr
appears
n
other hah Jahani
eriod aintings
s
well,
playing
similar ole.
For
example,
n
a
imageby
Abid dated
o
1635,
Khwaja
Khizr
holdsout
an
orbtoJahangiroldingourtn theharoka viewing alcony) bovehim s
he waits o
greet
is on
Prince
hurram,
ho aterwent n tobecomehis uc-
cessor hahJahan
ibid.:
pl.
37).
The
emperor's
ominion-signified
ere
by
the
globe-seems
to
be
receiving
he
holy
man's endorsement
ibid.:
198-99).
Similarly,
n a
painting ecentlyublished
romwhat
s referredo
as
the
St.
Petersburg
lbum,
Khwaja
Khizr
offers he
elixirof
life in a
chalice
oised top globe.Waiting
oreceive
t
s a
figure
hohasbeen dent-
ified s ShahJahan's
on,
hah
huja, ecentlyppointed
s
governor
f
Bengal
(Akimushkin
996:
pl.
199).
I noted arlier hat he errestriallobe nMughal mperialisual racticesa
royalprerogativear
excellence,
nvariably
hown
n
association
with
he
emperor's ody
or his
wielding
f
authority
nd
power.Rarely,
f
ever,
s
anyone
other han
the
emperor
imself hown
handling
he
globe
or
in
contact
ith t.Even whenhis
sons
appear
n
the
ompany
f the
erraqueous
globe,
heir
mperial
ather
nvariablyccompanies
hem. he
painting
n
the
St.
Petersburg
lbum s
exceptional
n
this
regard.
he other
xception
n
the knownarchiveof
Mughal paintings
s when
Sufi elders are shown
passing
on the
globe,
or,
n
a clear mitationf
European
models,
elestial
angels
are envisioned
estowing
he
globe upon
the
emperor
Okada
1992:
pls.
31 and
246).
As we
learn
from
uropeanmissionary
isitors o the
Mughal
ourt,
ahangir
as
particularly
ond f a
painting
f
Christ
olding
an
orb,
and accorded
t
pride
of
place
on the walls of the
mperial alace
from s
early
s 1608
Bailey
1999:
134;
see also Verma
005:
131-43).
In
a 1640
painting
n
the Padshah Nama
by
Murar,
he
haroka
(viewing
balcony)
in
which
Jahangir
s seated is flanked
y Europeanpaintings,
mounted etween
hebrackets
upporting
he
roof f ts
gallery.
o the
right
of the mperial roup s the mage f theVirginMary,nd on the eft hat f
Christ
n his familiar
uise
as SalvatorMundi. t
is almost s
if
the avior f
the world himself s
endorsing
ahangir's orldly
ule
Beach
and Koch
1997:
pl.
38;
see
pl.
39 for similar
ppearance
n a
painting y Payag).
n
an earlier
ainting
rom
617,
whichhas been called
Jahangir
nd Prince
Khurram easted
y
Nur
Jahan,
similar
ainting angs trategically
bove
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776
SUMATHI RAMASWAMY
themis-en-scene
Stanley
larke1922:
pl.
5,
no.
7).
And n a
joint
work f
Hashim nd
Abu'l
Hasan,
dated o
circa
1620,
youthful
hrist t the
ross
shares
he
frame
ith
Jahangir,
he
palm
ofwhosehand ests
n
an
orb
Gas-
coigne
1971:
facing
15).
Jahangir's
alo is muchmore
distinctive,
ven as
Christ's
mage
s
clearly
ubordinatedo that
f the
Mughal mperor,
ho s
placed
above himwithin
heframe f the
painting.
f interestere s
that,
s
in
similar
ortraits,
the sacred
person
s
depicted
n the same level of
reality
s the
living mperor,
nd
also that he
painting
ubstitutes
the
sacred
protagonist
f a
Christian
ainting
or the
person
of the
emperor
(Koch
2001:
10-11).
In his
nfluential961
essay
The
Emperor's
hoice,
rthistorian
ichard
Ettinghausennalyzed everal f the o-called llegorical aintingsromhe
late
Jahangiri eriod
to conclude thatthe
emperor's
losing years
were
marked
y
a
progressivereoccupation
ith
piritual
nd
mystical
oncerns
to the
point
f disdain
or
he
emporal
orld.
would ike o
complicate
his
reading,
owever,
y
noting
hat,
aradoxically,
hese
ame
years
f
apparent
withdrawalrom
worldly
ffairs s
depicted
n
the
paintings
f the
Mughal
court re also marked
y
the
ncreasing resence
f the terrestrial
lobe
in
the
artistic
roductions
f that
ery
telier.
ttinghausen
as not
particularly
emphasized
herole
played
by
the
globe
n
theconstructionf an
ideology
of Sufi-sanctionedingshiphat pparentlyrivilegeshespiritualver the
temporal,
he
mystic
ver the warrior. ut it is ironic hat he
terrestrial
globe-the
cartographic
rtifactnd
visual con thatwas
beingdeployed
n
early
modem
European
rt o
suggest
worldliness,arthliness,nd,
ncreas-
ingly,mperial
each-is mobilized
n these
Mughal
rtistic
roductions
o
rep-
resent he constitutiveole of the
atemporal
nd the transcendent
n
the
emergence
f a
new
mperial
elf
nd new
modalities f
wielding oyal
uth-
ority.
t
is also
important
o
recognize
hat
s this
newfangled
rtifact
oming
in
from
Europe
was
incorporated
nto an
older
regime
of the
moral-cum-politicalelationship
etween heSufi nd the ultan,tunleashed
a different
rajectory
or he
globe
n
early
modem
ndia
han
he ne
t
nhab-
ited
n
contemporaryurope.
While haikhs nd
putti,
ven
Christ
imself,
ay
be shown
ffering
lobes
to the
mperor,anctioning
nd
endorsing
is
sovereignty,
ahangir
as
fully
aware f the
power
f
demonstrating
he
egitimacy
f successionn
temporal
terms s
well,
especially
o
given
he
fraught
ircumstances
n
whichhe had
ascended
he
mperial
hrone. his warenesss
signaled
n
numerous
aintings
that how he rown rthe urbanlaspor a preciousewel beinghanded ver
from ne
sovereign
o
another,
ut t s
noteworthy
hat
he errestrial
lobe
s
incorporated
nto hesemore onventional
egimes
f transferf
sovereignty
(Okada
1992:
30-32).
Thus
paintingyAbu'l
Hasan nd
Hashim,
one
poss-
ibly
round
615,
hows
haloed
Jahangir,ichly
ttired
n
costly
lothes nd
valuable
ewels,holding
framed
ainting
fhisfather.
kbar,
ooking
ld and
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CONCEIT
OF
THE
GLOBE
IN
MUGHAL
VISUAL
PRACTICE
777
fragile,
nd
dressed
n
pure
white,
olds
dark
green
rb
n
his hand hat
e
appears
o be
handing
verto
Jahangir
s
the
atter
azes
upon
him
Okada
1992:
pl. 27).36 Similarly,
n
a
painting roduced y
an
unknown
rtist
around
1645,
Akbar s on
display long
with
his
son and
grandson.
While
Akbarholds
an
ornamented
ewel
and
looks at Shah
Jahan,
who holds out
his hands
n
front f
him,
Jahangir
olds a
globe
on
which s
inscribed
cluster f
buildings;
e is in
the ct of
handing
ver
the
globe
to
his
son,
n
the same
way
as in the earlier
ainting y
Abu'l
Hasan and
Hashim
his
father as
depicted ffering
heworld o
him.37
There s a last onceit orwhich
mperial
rtists
esortedo
he
lobe
n
order
o
flatterheir
oyal atrons.
s
I
have
noted,
he
globes
hat
igure
n
these
aint-
ingsmay rmaynotdisplaydentifiableerritories.38very ow andthen hey
appear
s indistinctive
rbs,
ometimes
ith
band
unning
cross
hem,
tother
times
earing bjects
uch s an escutcheon
late
r he
Timurid
rown,
r
cup
bearing
he lixir f ife.
ntriguingly,
n
1629
portrait
y
Hashim
fShah
Jahan
done oon fter e succeeded
o the
hrone,
he
ruler
f
heworld s
shown n
top
f he
world,
hich s
n
urn
epresented
y globe
dorned
ith
wo
groups
of
holy
men,
ach
holding
crolls
n
which re
nscribed
prayer:
O
God,
pre-
serve his
ing,
his riendf
mystics,
n
whose
hadow he
eaceful
xistencef
men nfolds
Welch
t l.
1988:
pl.
62)
(Figure
).
This
ubstantiates
y
arlier
point bout he ncorporationf theglobe nto n older deology fkingship
sanctioned
y
Sufi
mystics,
ut
his
portrait
lso illustrateshat
might
e the
most
wide-spread
otif sed
by
mperial
rtistso
adorn
lobes:
he
mage
f
a
ferocious eastof
prey
dad),
usually
lion,
ying
own
peaceably
with ts
potential
ictim
(daanm),
enerally
lamb.Ebba
Koch has written
loquently
about his
magery
f
dad-o-daam,
nd
omments,
the
ower
ver
ad-o-daam
demonstrates
llegorically
he
ower
f he niversal
uler
ho
by
his
regal
har-
isma everseshe awsofnaturend
brings
nimical
ature,
he
ppressor
nd
he
oppressed,
o
a
peaceful
o-existence
2001:
116).
She
traces he
mpulse
f his
imageryack othe nfluencexertednMughal rtistsythe irculationfthe
title
age
llustration
f he
Royal olyglot
ible.Thiswas
printed
n
Antwerpy
Plantin etween 568 nd
1572 ndwas
presented
o
Akbar,
long
with
host f
Christian
mages, y
thefirst
esuit
mission o his court n 1580.Koch
writes,
the
Mughals
were
uick
o realize he
potential
f such
mages
or heir wn
36
For
nalyses
fthis
ntriguing
ainting,
ee
especially
as 1978:
147,
16;
Okada 1992:
27-
31;
and
Lowry
983.
37
Sotheby's
atalogue,
December
969,
ot
152.
38
Lippincottbserves hat uropeanrtistss well were oftenavalier,areless,nddisar-
mingly
nventive
ntheir
epictions
fterritories
n the urface
fthe
globe
1999: 83).
Nonethe-
less,
n
many
nstances
rtists
ought
o
picture lobes
and
maps
meticulously
n
terms
f the
distributionf
land and
water n their urface.
xamples
ncludeHolbein's
The
Ambassadors
(1533),
which eatureshe
historically
dentifiableehaim
lobe
manufacturedn
1492,
r Verm-
eer's
The
Allegory
f
Faith
1669-1670)
and
The
Geographer
1668)
that
eproduce
odocus
Hondius'
1618
production
Welu 1975).
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778
SUMATHI RAMASWAMY
purposes
nd surroundedhemselves
ithChristian
ymbols
o
enhance
heir
aura as semi-divine
ulers... The success
f this
[motif]
n
Mughal
rt
was
based on the fact
hat t related
enerally
o therole that nimal
ymbolism
played
n
the slamic
ictorial
radition.. .
[I]t
represented
visual
xpression
of he ncientdea
hat
eace
mong
he
nimals as
brought
bout
ust
ruler-
above all
by
theKoranic
model f
rulership,
olomon-which adbeen
used
extensively
o
eulogize
Muslim
rinces
..
(Beach
and
Koch 1997:
137).
The
Mughal
artisticnnovation
ere,
generated ertainly
ith
he
complicity
f
their
mperial atrons,
ies in
deploying
he errestrial
lobe
s the
ground
n
which o
play
out this
golden ge
drama f
peace
and
plenitude
mong
he
beasts s a
sign
f deal
kingship
nd rule
Koch
2001:
1-11, 116-29;
Verma
2005: 67-71). WhatMignolo haracterizess the geometricationalization
of
space
that
modem
cientific
artography
as
beginning
o
inaugurate
n
the West
round he same time s
magnificently
ountermanded
y
such an
enchanted
magery
n
which
very
differentind of
dominions
asserted
(1995: 222-23).
In
early
modem
uropean
rt he
errestrial
lobe
s
in
many
cases
meticulously
ainted
o
as
to
signifyintended)
ominionver
pecific
er-
ritories
Lippincott
999:
76-77, 83;
Welu 1975:
541-44).
By
contrast,
he
Mughal
telier's
eploymentuggests
hat
very
ifferent,
nd
perhaps
ven
superior
ind f
empire
s enabled
y
the
ust
ndmoral
uler fthe
overeign,
oneinwhich he trongndweakcanco-exist,ne where he ionhassipped
milk
romhe eat f he
oat
Koch
2001:
19).
The
dad-o-daams a
visual
up-
plement,
dded
o the errestrial
lobe
o
hide, lur,
r even
rase he
delineated
territories
n its
urface,
s
perhaps
he
most
owerful
eminder
e have of an
emergent
artography
f
difference
nd
alterity.
GLOBAL
CONFRONTATIONS
Theterrestrial
lobe
s an
object
nd s
representation
as
only
ntroduced
nto
India
in
the
later
years
of
the
sixteenth
entury,
ut it
was
incorporated
within fewdecades nto hevisualproductionsf theMughalworkshopo
generate
n
aura of
grandeur
nd
singularity
or
the
imperial
atrons.
t
remained
hough
n
elusive
nd
exclusive
restige bject
until
well into
he
colonial
period,
when
missionaries
nd
colonial
ducators
ttempted
o intro-
duce it
into
he
schoolroom.
have
demonstrated
lsewhere
hat
he
native
nonetheless
ontinued o
put
this
pride
of
the new
European
cience
to
affect-laden
nd
enchantedses
alongside
he
more
rofane
nd
secular
asks
of
pedagogy
nd
ssertionsf
tate
ower
or
which t
was
dominantly
estined
(Ramaswamy 003).
For
now, owever,etmeconclude yreturningotwo f
Abu'l
Hasan's
paintings
iscussed
arlier o
point
ut
how,
ven
n
the
Mughal
century,
hen he
errestrial
lobe
first
ntered
ndia,
t
was
never
imply
aken
on
board r
circulatedn
the
manner
ntended
y
ts
original
reators.n
Abu'l
Hasan's
painting
f
circa
1620,
where
ahangir
s
envisioned
laying
he
Abys-
sinianMalik
Anbar
Figure ),
the
globe
does not
tand s a
sovereign
phere
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CONCEIT
OF
THE
GLOBE
IN
MUGHAL
VISUAL
PRACTICE
779
unto
tself,
s
European artography
f the
day
would
have
t.
nstead,
ollow-
ing
lassical
slamic
osmological
onceptions
traced
y
ome cholarso
ran
and ncientabylonia,
nd
ventuallyerhaps
ack o
ndia),
t s made orest
on
an
ox,
whichn
urn
tandsna
large
ish ith cales.39n
nscription
n
the
painting
eads,
lmost n defiance
f the
purposes
orwhich he
free-
standingphere
as
designed
romhe1490s
y
men ikeMartin
ehaim,
Gemma
risius,
nd Gerard
Mercator,
Through
hedivine
elicity
f
the
Divine hadow's
oming,
he arth
s raised
p
on the
ish-bull,
zi
yumn-i
maqdam-i
ill-i llahi
amin
ashta
amk
ar
gav-mahi
Leach
1995:
00).
As Skelton
bserves,
The
ixing
f he
arth
n
place
s
oneof
he
mysteries
of God'screative
ower,
ndhe
quotes
romhe
welfth-century
ufi
oet
Farid l-DinAttar:At he eginningf he enturies,od used hemountains
as
nails o
fix he
arth;
ndwashed
arth'sace
withhe
watersf
Ocean. hen
he
placed
Earth
n the ackof
bull,
he
bullon
a
fish,
ndthe ish n
the ir
(1988: 182).
Similarly,
n
the
slightly
ater
painting y
the same
artist
(Figure
),
the
earthly
lobe
which
upports
he
grandMughal's
body
s
in
turn
upported
n the ack f
fish;
he x has
been
eplacedy
manwho
it has been
peculated
s
Manu,
who was saved
from
he
great
lood
y
Vishnu
n
his
first
ncarnation
s
Matsya,
he fish.This leads Skelton
o
suggest,
Under
heJust
ing,
hen,
ven
Hindu aws are
respected
1988:
185). nstead faccepting,rima acie, hat he arths suspendedn theuni-
verse ree f
external
upports,
hese
aintings
emonstratehat
oing
lobal
n
Mughal
visual
practice
id not
necessarily
meana
capitulation
o
European
worldviews
ut nstead
rovoked complex
ssertion f differencend
defi-
ance
through
hemediation
f
the
mperial
telier.
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a flat isc
restingn a support.A tradition.. tellshow nthe irstges, ince he arth asoscillatingn all
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od
created n
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t
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nd
grasped
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his
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had as his
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ockof
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tself orne
upon
a
giant
bull
which ests
pon
a fish
wimming
n thewater
van
Donzel
1978:
401).
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some
parts
f the
Muslim
world,
he nimal
hat
upports
he arths
magined
s a
hybrid
fbull
ndfish. he
popu-
larity
fthis elief
s also obvious
rom
tsdiscussion
nthe
widely
ead
hahnamah
y
Firdausi.
thank zfar
Moin
for
iscussing
his
oint
withme.
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