COMS 1010 Aug 2009 i

COMMUNICATION SKILLS COMS 1010

August 2009

Centre for Professional Development and Lifelong Learning

UNIVERSITY OF MAURITIUS

COMS 1010 Aug 2009 ii

COMMUNICATION SKILLS

COMS 1010

COURSE MANUAL

Centre for Professional Development and Lifelong Learning

UNIVERSITY OF MAURITIUS

COMS 1010 Aug 2009 iii

CONTRIBUTORS

Communication Skills, COMS 1010 was prepared for the Centre for Professional

Development & Lifelong Learning, University of Mauritius. The Pro-Vice Chancellor-

Teaching & Learning- acknowledges the contribution of the following course authors

from the Faculty of Social Studies and Humanities:

Mrs M Auleear Owodally

Mrs C Chan-Meetoo

Ms M Paroomal

The course authors are grateful for the comments provided by Assoc. Prof. D. Gokhool,

Faculty of Law and Management.

August 2011

All rights reserved. No part of the work may be reproduced in any

form, without the written permission from the University of

Mauritius, Réduit, Mauritius.

COMS 1010 Aug 2009 iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABOUT THE COURSE

Unit 1: Introducing Communication C. Chan-Meetoo

Unit 2: Effective Use of English M. Auleear Owodally

Unit 3: Writing Skills M. Auleear Owodally

Unit 4: Non-verbal Communication M. Paroomal

Unit 5: Informative Speeches;

Speeches on/for Special Occasions

M. Paroomal

Unit 6: Modes of Speech Delivery;

Presentation Aids

M. Paroomal

C. Chan-Meetoo

Unit 7: Persuasive Speeches M. Paroomal

Unit 8: Perception and Listening Skills M. Paroomal

Unit 9: Business and Technical Writing M. Auleear Owodally

REFERENCE LIST

ASSIGNMENT FILE

SAMPLE EXAMINATION PAPER

COMS 1010 Aug 2009 v

ABOUT THE COURSE

Welcome to COMMUNICATION SKILLS (COMS 1010), a module for Year 1 students

in the various Faculties. The aims of this module are to help you

Improve your oral communication skills

Improve your written communication skills with special focus on:

Academic writing

Business and technical writing

LEARNING OBJECTIVES FOR THE COURSE

By the end of the course, you will be able to do the following:

Unit 1 Define and analyse communication.

Unit 2 Identify the appropriate tools to better your use of English.

Unit 3 Use specific skills required to write for academic purposes.

Unit 4 Make effective use of non-verbal cues for oral presentations.

Unit 5 Design and deliver speeches for informative purposes and speeches on/for special

occasions.

Unit 6 Identify appropriate modes of speech delivery and make effective use of

presentation aids.

Unit 7 Prepare persuasive speeches.

Unit 8 Improve perceptual accuracy and listening skills.

Unit 9 Write in a formal style, from business letters to technical reports.

HOW TO PROCEED

COURSE MATERIALS

The manual is self-contained.

A Reference List is provided at the end of the manual if you want to deepen your

understanding of communication skills.

COMS 1010 Aug 2009 vi

HOW DO I USE THE COURSE MANUAL?

Take a few minutes to glance through the entire manual to get an idea of its structure.

Notice that the format of the different units is fairly consistent throughout the manual. For

example, each unit begins with an OVERVIEW, and LEARNING OBJECTIVES

sections.

The OVERVIEW provides a brief introduction to the unit and provide perquisite skills

and knowledge you will have to possess to proceed successfully with the unit.

You should then read the LEARNING OBJECTIVES. These objectives identify the

knowledge and skills you will have acquired once you have successfully completed the

study of a particular unit. They also show the steps that will eventually lead to the

successful completion of the course. The learning objectives also provide a useful guide

for review.

WHERE DO I BEGIN?

You should begin by taking a look at the TABLE OF CONTENTS in the MANUAL.

The table provides you with a framework for the entire course and outlines the

organisation and structure of the material you will be covering. The Course Schedule

indicates how you should allocate your workload and what you should be working on in

each week to be ready for the respective tutorial. You should stick to the Course Schedule

to ensure that you are working at a steady space and that your workload does not pile up.

COMS 1010 Aug 2009 vii

Proposed * Course Schedule (COMS 1010)

Session Student’s Workplan Tutorial 01 Read Unit 1

Introduction to module

02 Read Unit 2 Discuss Unit 1; submission of topic for mock essay (Assignment 1)

03 Read Unit 3. Do Assignments in Unit 3, Parts 1, 2,3

Discuss Unit 2

04 Do Assignment in Unit 3, Parts 4,5 Discuss Unit 3 05 Read Unit 4. Do Assignment in Unit 3,

Part 6 Submit Assignment 1 (Portfolio) Discuss Unit 4

06 Read Unit 5 Discuss Unit 5 07 Prepare/ Practise for Assignment 2 Assignment 2 due 08 Read Unit 6 Discuss Unit 6 09 Read Unit 7 Discuss Unit 7 10 Prepare/ Practice for Assignment 3 Assignment 3 due 11 Read Unit 8 Assignment 3 due 12 Read Unit 9/ Work out Activities 1-3 Discuss Unit 8 13 Read Unit 9 work out activities 4-5 Discuss Unit 9 14 Revision Revision 15 Revision Revision

* Any change will be communicated by your respective tutor in class.

YOUR TUTOR

A one and a half hour tutorial class will be held as specified in the Course Schedule . Refer

to the course schedule to check the unit(s) you must prepare before attending your

tutorial.

Remember that a tutorial class is not a formal lecture and to make the most of tutorial

classes, it is vital that students come prepared in the way indicated below:-.

Preparation required:

studying the course notes and readings for the relevant unit.

working through the activities which are sprinkled throughout the units. Your

response to these activities will be discussed during the tutorial.

COMS 1010 Aug 2009 viii

Your tutor will keep a close watch on your progress and any difficulties you may have,

and provide you with whatever assistance you may need in the tutorial class.

Note that tutorials are also opportunities for you to discuss your views and ideas with

your fellow classmates. The feedback you get from the tutorial sessions can further enrich

your comprehension of certain concepts and you can influence the way others think about

a certain issue too. So feel free to discuss the answers to the activities with your peers and

the tutor.

NOTE:

For this module you are required to submit/present three assignments.

Refer to the Assignment File for more information.

ASSESSMENT

COURSE GRADING SCHEME:

Continuous Assessment: 50 marks

Examinations: 50 marks

CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT:

Assignment 1 (Written Assignment Portfolio) - 20 marks

Assignment 2 (Speeches on/for Special Occasions) - 10 marks

Assignment 3 (Informative Speech) - 20 marks

FINAL EXAMINATIONS:

Scheduled and administered by the Registrar’s Office

A two-hour paper at the end of the Semester.

COMS 1010 Aug 2009 ix

STUDY TIPS

Much of your time in the course will be spent reading. Your comprehension and

assessment of what you read are likely to be best if you heed the following tips:

1. Organise your time. It is best to complete each assigned reading in one sitting.

The logical progression of thought in a chapter/unit can be lost if it is interrupted.

2. Be an active reader. Use question marks to flag difficult or confusing passages.

Put exclamation marks beside passages you find particularly important. Write

short comments in the margins as you go. For example, if you disagree with an

author’s argument or if you think of examples which counter the position

presented, note your opinions in the margin.

If you prefer to leave your book pages unmarked, you can make your notations on

“post-it-notes”.

3. Read critically. You must evaluate, as well as appreciate and understand, what

you read. Ask questions. Is the author’s argument logical? Are there alternatives

to the author’s explanations or to the conclusions drawn? Does the information fit

with your experience?

4. Take notes. If you make notes on an article or chapter right after finishing it, you

reap a number of benefits. First, note-taking allows you an immediate review of

what you have just read. (You will find that this review helps you recall

information). Second, it gives you an opportunity to reassess your flagged or

margin comments. Finally, it gives you a second shot at deciphering any confusing

passages.

5. Review your scribbling! Whether or not you make separate notes on your

readings, review your flags, underlining and marginalia. Study closely those

passages you considered significant or difficult.

6. Write down your ideas in a course journal. As you progress through the

course, the new information you absorb will stimulate new thoughts, questions,

ideas, and insights. These may not be directly related to the subject matter, but

may be of great interest to you. Use these ideas to focus your personal

involvement in this and other courses.

COMS 1010 Aug 2009 x

7. Your ability to explain the subject matter to others is a good test of your true

comprehension of the material. Try explaining the material you are learning to

others, classmates or friends, without resorting to jargon. Even if some of them

are not directly involved with the techniques discussed in this course, many of the

concepts may be of interest to them.

8. Activities found in units will not be marked. We strongly recommend that you

do not skip any of them. They will help you prepare for the graded assignments.

Now, it’s time to get to work. Good luck and enjoy the course!

COMS 1010 Aug 2009 1

UNIT 1 INTRODUCING COMMUNICATION Unit Structure

1.0 Overview

1.1 Learning Objectives

1.2 What is Communication?

1.3 Models of communication

1.3.1 Linear or Bull’s Eye Model

1.3.2 Circular Flow or Ping-pong Model

1.3.3 Harold Lasswell’s Model

1.4 Information Theory

1.4.1 Source/Encoding/Transmission

1.4.2 Receiver/Decoding/Destination

1.4.3 Message, Channel and Code

1.4.4 Sources of Noise and Interference

1.4.5 Feedback

1.5 Aspects of Communication

1.6 The Levels of Communication Process

1.6.1 Intrapersonal Level

1.6.2 Interpersonal Level

1.6.3 Intragroup and Intergroup Levels

1.6.4 Institutional Level

1.6.5 Public Communication

1.6.5.1 Mass Communication

1.7 A Few Points to Remember

1.8 Answers to Activities

COMS 1010 Aug 2009 2

1.0 OVERVIEW

This unit focuses on the question: "What is communication?"

We consider the elements present in communication, the types of flows of communication,

functions of communication and various levels in communication.

1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After having completed this unit, you should be able to do the following:-

1. Define communication;

2. Describe and explain the process of communication;

3. Distinguish the elements of communication;

4. Identify the various functions of communication;

5. Isolate the various levels at which communication occurs;

6. Apply knowledge gained to analyse your interaction with others in different types of

situations;

7. Apply knowledge gained to analyse communication situations that you may witness in

your academic, professional and social lives.

1.2 WHAT IS COMMUNICATION?

"We cannot not communicate"

(Paul Watzlawick)

"No man is an island, entire of itself"

(John Donne)

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"Communication" is today a very fashionable term that has emerged with what we like to

call the "information society" or "knowledge-based society". It is also of common opinion

that communication is THE skill that gives people an edge. The meaning of this magic

word, communication, is hard to pin down. What is communication?

Communication is a functional prerequisite of society and culture. It is an important

determining agent for social organisation, personality building and cultural occurrences

that make up our social fabric. Communication is therefore everywhere and occurs all the

time. This is what the two authors quoted above meant. We cannot NOT communicate!

This piece of information may puzzle you if you think that communication is only about

written and spoken words. You will however learn later that communication can be non-

verbal and non-vocal. Our gestures, eyes, tone of voice, as well as our silences convey

something! Illustrations, drawings and pictures also are vectors of meaning.

Communication = sharing of meanings

Communication can be broadly defined as a "sharing of meaning". In fact, the word

"communication" is derived from the Latin verb "communicare", which means: "be in

connection with". "Communication" also belongs to the same family of words as

"community".

In communication, there is a sharing of meanings among persons or other entities. Those

meanings may be transmitted through:

a linguistic form (through a structured language)

a symbolic form (e.g. the pictogram means ‘phone number’

irrespective of the language we are using).

COMS 1010 Aug 2009 4

Conventions to avoid confusion

Colin Cherry (1957) defines communication as “a sharing of elements of behaviour or

modes of life, by the existence of rules”. He introduces the idea of rules and social

conventions that give us a common set of signs and symbols to be used for transmitting

and assigning meanings. These rules help us ensure that we are on the same wavelength

and prevent possible misinterpretations.

All the words that exist in language are the result of a social agreement as there is no

direct connection between these words (both in their oral and written forms) and the

things or ideas they designate.

For example the word "dog" bears no resemblance whatsoever with the domestic animal!

It is a pure matter of chance that people have chosen this set of letters (D-O-G); it could

have been any other chain of characters. As a matter of fact, different languages have

different signs for the same notions. French speakers use the word "chien" for dog,

Germans use "hund" and in Creole we use "lisien"!

(Note: There are a few exceptions where the words used do have some kind of

connection with the things or concepts they designate. For example, some words are

onomatopoeic, i.e., they imitate the sound designated as in ‘the cuckoo’, the “cock-a-

doodle-do”).

Activity 1

Form groups of 5 to 6 persons. Each group will invent new words and set up their own

codes to communicate amongst themselves. The various groups may then try to

communicate.

COMS 1010 Aug 2009 5

1.3 MODELS OF COMMUNICATION

Now that you have learnt that communication is a sharing of meanings made possible by

the existence of conventions, let us look at simple theoretical models of communication.

Models help us organise our knowledge and give us a more comprehensible approach to

phenomena that occur around us. However, bear in mind that each of the following

models is just an attempt to explain communication. Each model sheds light on the process

of communication from a different angle. The models that we have used are amongst the

most popular ones that are used to teach communication at this level. They are, of course,

non-exhaustive…

1.3.1 Linear or Bull's Eye Model

The Linear or Bull's Eye model is the simplest one used in Communication Studies. It

describes communication as a one-way flow between two actors (a sender and a receiver).

Below is a diagram that illustrates the Bull's Eye model.

Diagram 1.1

Message

COMS 1010 Aug 2009 6

An example where communication is linear in its flow is found in the following illustration.

The writers of this manual are sending messages to you through this manual. Manual

writers are therefore acting as senders of information and you are acting as receivers.

Activity 2

Identify at least two communication occurrences that fit into the Bull's Eye model.

1.3.2 Circular Flow or Ping-pong Model

The circular flow or ping-pong model of communication describes a situation where there

are series of interactions between senders and receivers. As the ping-pong metaphor

suggests, the actors take turns to send messages to each other. The idea of feedback and

retroaction is here incorporated, as opposed to the Bull's Eye model. The initial sender of

a message becomes a receiver as soon as his/her counterpart responds.

Diagram 1.2

Sender Receiver

Course writers Students

COMS 1010 Aug 2009 7

Ping-pong communication occurs everyday in conversations, meetings, brainstorming

sessions. When you communicate with your friends, the ping-pong ball keeps coming back

and forth between you and the others.

Another image that is also used to describe non-linear communication is the spiral of

communication:

Diagram 1.3

1.3.3 Harold Lasswell's Model

Harold Lasswell, an American social scientist in the 1940’s, came up with a series of 5

questions that help in identifying the major elements in communication.

"Who says What to Whom through What channel, with What effects?"

This simple easy-to-retain formula is also known as the 5W's. Each of those W's indicates

an important aspect of every communication occurrence:

Who says? the sender

What? the message /content / topics

To Whom? the receiver

Through What channel? medium /means /languages

With What effects? modification /transformation of opinions, attitudes,

behaviour, whether intended or not (effect on receiver)

COMS 1010 Aug 2009 8

You may as well add a sixth W:

Why? functions / purposes (intentions of sender)

Note that the effects of the message on the receiver may not be identical to the effects

intended by the transmitter. For example, you will definitely not receive and interpret this

manual 100% as the course writers intend you to…

Here, the transmitters' intention is pedagogical (transmission of knowledge and therefore

incremental change in your knowledge). But, the results are not guaranteed due to

reception barriers such as lack of concentration, boredom, daydreaming or

misinterpretation (refer to section 1.4.4).

1.4 INFORMATION THEORY

During World War II, two American AT&T telecommunications engineers, Claude

Shannon and Warren Weaver, worked on what became known as the Information Theory.

They used physics, mathematics and engineering concepts to develop the theory which

they explained in a paper entitled The Mathematical Theory of Communication in The

Bell System Technical Journal.

Information theory deals with the quantitative study of information in messages and the

flow of information between senders and receivers. It was initially developed to separate

noise from information-carrying signals. The objective was to measure the volume of

signals that could pass on a line during a certain amount of time. Social theorists later used

this model to develop simplified versions that describe the communication process:

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You will note that Diagram 1.5 differs from diagram 1.4 mainly in that it introduces the

element of ‘Noise Source’, which we will discuss later.

Let us now have a look at each of the elements presented in the diagrams.

Channel of information

Source encoder transmitter channel receiver decoder destination

Message Message Signal Received

Signal

Information source Transmitter Destination Receiver

Noise Source

Diagram 1.4

Diagram 1.5

COMS 1010 Aug 2009 10

1.4.1 Source / Encoding / Transmission

Source, encoder and transmitter are three elements that belong to the "initialisation" stage

of the communication process. They were lumped into the notion of 'sender' in section

1.3.1.

The Source

The source is the initiator of the process: he or she wants to transmit thoughts, ideas and

feelings to his or her counterpart who thus becomes the receiver.

Encoding

Encoding refers to the activities that a source goes through to translate thoughts, ideas

and feelings into a form that may be perceived by the senses. For example, before

speaking, an individual has to use his/her brain to select words and sentence structures

from his/her personal database to carry the message. Naturally, different encoders have

different skills in choosing the most appropriate codes for communicating. This accounts

for differences in people's communication skills!

Transmission

Transmission refers to the action of using physical channels to get the message across to

the receiver. In the above-mentioned example, after having encoded the message, the

speaker will have to use his vocal organs to emit sound signals and thus pronounce the

words and sentences of the message. The encoding / transmission process might also take

place over various stages. For telephone conversations, the speaker encodes thoughts into

words and the telephone mechanism transforms the sound waves into electrical variations

along the line to the receiving telephone.

If we try to isolate the notions of source / encoder / transmitter in the process of

writing up for this manual, we can say that the message contained in this manual

originates from various sources: numerous readings done by the manual writers,

COMS 1010 Aug 2009 11

their previous experience in teaching Communication Skills, their own reflections

and original ideas.

Encoding is done in the writers' brains as they try to select the most appropriate

vocabulary, sentences and format to impart their knowledge to you.

Finally, transmission of the message is ensured by the physical action of drawing

symbols from the Roman alphabet on paper with the help of ink, i.e., typing out the

words, sentences and paragraphs on the pages of this manual so that you can read

them.

Activity 3

Look for advertising inserts in newspapers and try to identify the source, the encoder and

the transmitter of these commercial messages.

1.4.2 Receiver / Decoding / Destination

Just like Source / Encoding / Transmission were lumped into the idea of 'sender', the items

Receiver / Decoding / Destination were broadly categorised under the heading of 'receiver'

in section 1.3.1.

The Receiver

The receiver is the target of the message. It might be a specific individual or multiple

receivers. The receivers can be specifically targeted by the source as in one-to-one

communication or they might choose willingly to act as receivers in the case of a message

addressed to a large anonymous crowd (e.g. an audience for a TV show). Note that the

source and the receiver(s) may be in each other's immediate presence or may be separated

both in space and time (e.g. a book written last century, a pre-recorded TV programme).

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Decoding

Decoding is the reverse of encoding and refers to the activities that translate or interpret

physical messages into a form that has eventual meaning for a receiver.

The Destination

The destination is the ultimate entity that receives and stores the message sent.

To carry on with the applied example used in section 1.4.1, your eyes are acting as

receivers for the visual information sent to you in this manual. Your eyes detect

forms that have been drawn with ink on paper to represent signs of the Roman

alphabet. Therefore, your eyes are acting as the receiving device in this

communication event.

When these visual messages (sequences of signs on paper) have reached your

brain, you now have to decipher or decode the message and come up with the

meanings of the succession of English words, sentences and paragraphs. You thus

go through different stages: identify the code used (which language?), and grasp

the meaning of the message (What are we 'talking' about? What are the main ideas

being conveyed?).

Finally, you store the data that you have decoded in a section of your brain for

further use. That section of your brain that specialises in memorisation is therefore

the physical destination of the message.

1.4.3 Message, Channel and Code

The Message

The message is the actual physical product that the source encodes. In oral

communication, our speech is the message. In written communication, the words and

sentences that are put on paper are the message. The message can be addressed to one

specific individual ('one-to-one' or 'many-to-one' communication) or to multiple receivers

('one-to-many' or 'many-to-many' communication).

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The Channel

The channel refers to the physical way the message travels to the receiver. For example,

sound waves carry words that are spoken and light waves carry visual messages such as

written text, illustrations, pictures. Some messages use only one channel of

communication (e.g. written text). Others may cumulate various channels. For instance,

movies use both visual (moving images on screen, titles) and oral channels (soundtracks

transmitted by the movie theatre's speaker systems).

The Code

The code refers to the systems of signs (available language or symbolic forms and

associated rules governing their use) that are used to transmit the message. In language,

the vocabulary level and the sentence structures chosen make up the code. A sign can be

defined as the minimal unit of meaning in a code (a word, a pictogram, an element of body

language).

In fact, there are different levels of code. Before trying to convey ideas to our counterpart,

we have multiple possibilities in terms of codes. To impart communication skills to you,

we might have decided to make a film instead of a manual! We would then be using the

cinematographic code that combines multiple codes (body code, oral codes, written

codes).

You will find that it is difficult to isolate the code from the channel. To be clearer, let us

say that the channel is a physical medium whereas the code is a set of signs that is used

within the channel to convey meaning.

1.4.4 Sources of Noise and Interference

Noise is an item that interferes with the delivery of the message and that can impede the

communication process. Because of noise and interference, the message that is decoded

COMS 1010 Aug 2009 14

by the receiver will not be an exact replicate of the original message that was encoded or

the signal carrying the message will not even reach the receiver altogether!

We can categorise noise under four broad headings:

1. Mechanical noise

Mechanical noise usually occurs when a physical device is used either to encode or

decode the message or both. In this case, there is a problem with the physical medium

itself. For instance, in a telephone conversation, the apparatus or the physical lines of

communication may be faulty. As a result, the sound waves being transmitted over

the telephone line may be unclear so that the message is distorted.

2. Semantic noise

Semantic noise occurs when different people have different meanings for the same

words and phrases. Misunderstandings thus arise because of multiple meanings

assigned to the same words and phrases. This kind of situation (called "quiproquo" in

French) is often exploited in theatre plays and movies for comic or tragic purposes.

3. Environmental noise

Sources of noise may be completely external to the communication process. For

example, in a public place like a restaurant, the other people surrounding you and

your counterpart may be so noisy that you cannot even hear each other. This is

known as environmental noise.

4. Internal noise

Internal noise occurs inside the mind of the receiver. The latter may not properly

receive, decode and store the data sent because of a number of internal barriers such

as selective attention, selective distortion and selective recall.

Selective attention refers to the fact that the receiver cannot pay attention to all the

stimuli or the receiver focuses on something other than the communication at hand.

You have certainly experienced this situation in class during a lecture or a talk. In this

case, your daydreaming interferes with the proper reception and decoding of

COMS 1010 Aug 2009 15

messages sent to you by your lecturer. Of course, you would have to make sure this

happens as rarely as possible!

Selective distortion occurs when receivers twist the message to hear what they want

to hear. People often have set attitudes and expectations about what they will hear or

see due to stereotyping, prejudices and bias. They will thus distort the message

received so that it fits into their belief system.

Selective recall happens because people will retain in permanent memory only a small

fraction of the messages that reach them.

1.4.5 Feedback

Feedback refers to those responses of the receiver that may alter and shape the subsequent

messages of the source. The receiver becomes the new source and vice versa. This

explains the communication spiral as discussed in section 1.3.2.

Feedback is important as it allows the source to adjust and attempt a change in some

elements of the communication process to satisfy the demands of his addressee. Feedback

also acts as a regulator in the case of sources of noise that interfere with the transmission

of the message.

For instance, in the case of semantic noise, the receiver's reactions, which make up the

feedback, will give an important hint to the initial sender. Thanks to the receiver's

feedback (e.g. raised eyebrows, puzzled reply), the sender may understand that the

message did not get across properly. As a result, he/she may reformulate the initial

message to discard misunderstandings.

Feedback is very important to communication because it lets the

participants in the communication setting see whether ideas and feelings

have been shared in the way they were intended.

(Weaver, 1949)

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Note that feedback can be negative (e.g. raised eyebrows showing disagreement or

confusion, strong reply, or even wearing a completely bored expression on the face!) or

positive (e.g. smiles, nods, assents).

Feedback can also be immediate (on the spot) or delayed (due to time or space

constraints).

1.5 ASPECTS OF COMMUNICATION

Murielle Saville-Troike is a researcher whose theories are also helpful in understanding

communication. In her book The Ethnography of Communication published in 1982, she

identified the following as being ten aspects that are interesting to analyse in

communication events:

1. The genre or type of event (e.g. joke, story, lecture, greeting, conversation).

2. The topic or referential focus (what is the overarching theme?).

3. The purpose or function, both of the event in general (e.g. sensitisation of the

public on a specific issue) and in terms of the interaction goals of individual

participants (e.g. your goals in the tutorial sessions may be to learn a few tips from

your tutor to improve your communication skills).

4. The setting, including location, time of day, season of year and physical aspects of

the situation (e.g. size of the room, arrangement of furniture). The setting may

have a bearing on the communication style that you adopt. For instance, lecturers

might not communicate in a Lecture Theatre in the same way that they

communicate in a small classroom.

5. The participants, including their age, sex, ethnicity, social status, or other relevant

categories and their relationship to one another.

6. The message form, including both vocal and non-vocal channels and the nature of

the code which is used (e.g. which language and which variety?).

7. The message content, or surface level denotative references (what are the ideas

being communicated?).

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8. The act sequence, or ordering of communicative speech acts, including turn taking

and overlap phenomena.

9. The rules of interaction, or what properties should be observed (e.g. students, as

a rule, will not interrupt lecturers in a whimsical fashion!).

10. The norms of interpretation, including common knowledge, the relevant cultural

presuppositions, or shared understandings which allow particular inferences to be

drawn about what is to be taken literally.

1.6 THE LEVELS OF COMMUNICATION PROCESS

Levels of communication process refer to the level of complexity on which communication

occurs, mainly in terms of number of people involved. Channels used, message structures

and opportunity for feedback vary according to the number of people involved, the degree

of formality, the setting, the goals pursued.

1.6.1 Intrapersonal Level

Intrapersonal communication occurs within a single person. It is an internal process of

‘self-communication’ and processing of information within one’s brain. This level of

communication involves the encoding and formulating of a message and the thinking

process. Before communicating with others, intrapersonal communication is vital.

Examples are thought processes, diary entries, and notes to oneself that help personal

reflection and organisation.

The intrapersonal level refers to the processing of information on an

individual basis (for instance, attention, perception, comprehension, recall

and learning). The possible effects are on knowledge, opinion and attitude.

(McQuail, 1987)

Intrapersonal communication also integrates things that make up our self, our feelings and

the way we perceive our individual selves. The individual here is the sender and the

receiver. Messages circulate inside our brain with instant feedback. In fact, we can say that

COMS 1010 Aug 2009 18

individuals hold private conversations within their own mind. The content of the messages

may be positive (self-congratulation) or negative (remorse). The outcome of intrapersonal

communication may, as well, have an impact on interaction with others.

1.6.2 Interpersonal Level

Interpersonal communication refers to communication occurring between and amongst

persons. It is often one-to-one but it may include more than two persons. Interpersonal

communication is characterised by immediate feedback. It is often based on some shared

feature of daily life: something we have in common such as our environment, interests,

needs, activities, beliefs. Communication between and communication within a happy

couple are examples of interpersonal communication on a very intimate basis. Some

people are endowed with very good interpersonal skills, meaning that they can easily

interact with other people.

Good interpersonal skills require a high level of self-awareness. Understanding your

personal style of communicating will help you create and maintain good relations with

others.

There are three basic communication styles:

1. Aggressive Style: The communicator constantly interrupts, exaggerates, blames,

makes demands or uses sarcasm. Voice volume can be very high and thus difficult

to bear for the counterparts. Other people's feelings are not rated very high with

the aggressive person.

2. Passive Style: The person is constantly hesitating or apologising and usually says

nothing or easily gives in. Often, the person avoids eye contact and speaks in a shy

or timid voice, or mumbles.

3. Assertive Style: The individual speaks clearly and firmly, using "I" statements, and

shows respect for self and for others. He or she uses an upright confident body

posture and a pleasant, firm voice for communicating with others.

COMS 1010 Aug 2009 19

The assertive style is the one to strive for. However, very few people are all one or

another style. In fact, the aggressive style is vital in some cases, for example, during

emergencies (for rapid decision-making). Passiveness can also help, for example, when an

issue is minor or when there are highly emotional situations demanding that we stay calm

and take the time to regain perspective.

Activity 4

Identify your interpersonal styles with the help of the checklist on the following page. Be

honest with yourself!

CHECKLIST OF COMMUNICATION STYLES

1. Mottos and Beliefs

I have rights and so do others." Believes self and others are valuable.

"Don't make waves" and "Don't disagree"

"I'm always right and others are just fools."

2. Communication Style

Interrupts and monopolises attention, poor listener.

Active listener, expresses self directly, honestly and checks on others feelings.

Indirect, always seems to agree, doesn't speak up.

3. Characteristics

Apologetic, self-conscious, doesn't express own feelings, allows others to make

decisions for self.

Domineering, bullying and patronizing.

Confident, trusts self and others, non-judgmental, sense of humour.

4. Behaviour

Bossy and puts others down - know-it-all attitude.

Self-effacing, complains without taking action, never takes sides in conflicts.

Consistent, fair, just, operates from choice.

COMS 1010 Aug 2009 20

5. Non-verbal Cues

Direct eye contact, open and natural gestures, varied rate of speech, interested

facial expression.

Critical, loud, yelling tone of voice with fast, clipped speech.

Nods head often as if pleading, downcast eyes, low voice volume, rapid pace

when anxious; slow and hesitant when doubtful.

6. Verbal Cues

"What are my options?" "What alternatives do we have?"

"You must (should, ought better)."

"I can't..." "You have more experience than I do."

7. Confrontation and Problem-Solving

Operates from win/lose position, Must win arguments.

Sullen, withdrawn and silent, agrees externally, while disagreeing internally.

Negotiates and compromises.

8. Feelings Felt

Enthusiasm, even tempered, sense of well-being.

Anger, hostility and frustration.

Powerlessness, wonders why doesn't receive credit for good work.

9. Effects

Forces compliance with resentment and provokes alienation from others or

counter-aggression.

Others know where they stand, increased self-esteem and self-confidence.

Slowly loses self-esteem and builds dependency relationships.

- Aggressive Style

- Passive Style

- Assertive Style

COMS 1010 Aug 2009 21

1.6.3 Intragroup and Intergroup Levels

Intragroup level refers to communication occurring amongst members of a group of

persons. Inside a group, there may be various flows of communication on a 'one-to-one'

basis or 'one-to-many' basis, depending on the size of the group and on the implicit rules

that are followed.

Within a small-group communication uses the same channels as for interpersonal

communication are used with almost immediate feedback. However, as there may be

multiple receivers, messages need to be more structured, especially when specific goals are

targeted. Settings also tend to be more formal. Intragroup communication occurs within

family circles, clubs and associations. Facilitating factors for fruitful interaction are: similar

backgrounds, similar levels of skill in writing / speaking / reading.

Intergroup communication refers to communication amongst different groups, i.e. when a

group communicates with another one.

For example, an association writes to another one to ask for their collaboration as a

charity initiative.

1.6.4 Institutional Level

Institutional or organisational communication refers to the sets of communication flows

occurring within an organisation or institution (including firms, non-profit organisations

and governmental bodies).

Formal vs. Informal communication

In the internal communication flow of organisations and firms, there are at least two types

of communication:

Formal communication

This communication follows the lines of the firm's chart. The communication flows

downwards (from managers to subordinates) and seldom upwards (from employees to

COMS 1010 Aug 2009 22

employers). Formal downward communication leaves little room for feedback from

employees.

Informal communication

Informal communication entails no written documents. However rigid the structure,

there will always be an informal network of information and communication inside an

organisation. The main characteristic of informal communication is that there are no

traces for record; the communication somehow has no permanent character, except in

the minds of people. In fact, the more rigid an organisation is, the more chances there

are that informal communication will develop with the rapid circulation of rumour and

hearsay. This type of communication is essentially horizontal as compared to the

vertical flow of communication imposed by hierarchical status.

1.6.5 Public Communication

Public communication refers to very formal communication, usually on a 'one-to-many'

basis. It may be face-to-face (e.g. a public talk in a specific location) or transmitted

through a mass medium (e.g. a minister's speech covered by the television news bulletin).

This type of communication usually entails a highly structured message in a formal setting.

There is limited opportunity for feedback as audiences are bigger and individuals become

anonymous listeners / viewers / readers. Delivery also tends to be very formal (e.g. louder

voice for oral communication).

However, the communicator may sometimes decide to change the above parameters for

public communication. For instance, a public speaker in a room may encourage listeners to

become more active in order to obtain immediate feedback and inject more dynamism in

the interaction. In this case, the communicator needs to have the following qualities: good

coordination skills, excellent ability to manage crowds, capacity to process and adjust to

feedback information very rapidly.

COMS 1010 Aug 2009 23

1.6.5.1 Mass Communication

The expression Mass Communication was coined around the 1930's. ‘Mass’ denotes great

volume, range or extent. Here, the mass refers to large numbers that are scattered

(geographically), anonymous (unknown to one another and to the communicator) and

heterogeneous (variety of persons). Mass communication therefore differs very much from

the interpersonal level of communication in that it occurs at national or societal level.

"Mass communications comprise the institutions and techniques by which

specialised groups employ technological devices (press, radio, films, etc.) to

disseminate symbolic content to large, heterogeneous and widely dispersed

audiences".

(Janowitz, 1968)

The ‘technological devices’ referred to here are commonly known as mass media and they

comprise the press, television, radio, billboards, cinema and increasingly, the Internet.

Those media nowadays form part of all industrialised and developing societies.

Activity 5

Under what category of level of communication would you place the following examples

of communication?

i. The Prime Minister’s address to the nation on television on the occasion of

Independence and Republic Day.

ii. A telephone conversation between two close friends.

iii. A letter sent by the Financial Manager of a company asking employees to reduce

wastage of stationery.

iv. The mental notes a student makes to the following week’s revision schedule.

v. A commercial firm’s advertising spot on radio.

vi. A brainstorming session between five students who form part of a team for a project

competition.

COMS 1010 Aug 2009 24

vii. The conversations two colleagues have during lunch to share the latest “who dates

whom in the office” news.

1.7 A FEW POINTS TO REMEMBER

Communication is a complex ongoing phenomenon, which can be analysed from

multiple points of view (e.g., type of flow, categories of elements involved, number

of actors, level of complexity, etc.). These points of view are not mutually

exclusive.

Communication is a process rather than a series of steps, implying that there is no

clear beginning or end.

We cannot NOT communicate.

1.8 ANSWERS TO ACTIVITIES

Activity 2

Examples of Bull’s Eye Communication:

Anonymous letters.

A director who is on the move (no fixed address or telephone number) and sends

instructions to be carried out.

Activity 3 Source / Encoder / Transmitter in adverts:

Source The commercial firm is initiating the communication process to

advertise its products or services.

Encoder Often, a communications or advertising agency is paid for encoding

the message, i.e. formulating the textual and the graphic aspects of the message.

COMS 1010 Aug 2009 25

Examples of advertising agencies in Mauritius include Cread, Circus, Maurice

Publicité, Impressions, etc. In many cases, they put a small signature in a corner of

the insert.

Transmitter The newspaper’s advertising department acts as transmitter of the

message as it is paid for placing the insert inside the pages of the newspaper.

Activity 4

- Aggressive Style

- Passive Style

- Assertive Style

Activity 5

Levels of Communication Process:

i. The Prime Minister’s address to the nation on television on the occasion of

Independence and Republic Day. Mass Communication. Public Communication

on Mass Media. Formal Speech.

ii. A telephone conversation between two close friends. Interpersonal

Communication (intimate nature).

iii. A letter sent by the Financial Manager of a company asking employees to reduce

wastage of stationery. Institutional Communication. Formal & downward (top

to bottom).

iv. The mental notes a student makes to the following week’s revision schedule.

Intrapersonal Communication. Thought processes.

v. A commercial firm’s advertising spot on radio. Mass Communication. Use of

Mass Medium (TV).

vi. A brainstorming session between five students who form part of a team for a

project competition. Intragroup Communication.

COMS 1010 Aug 2009 26

vii. The conversations two colleagues have during lunch to share the latest “who dates

whom in the office” news. Interpersonal Communication. Institutional but

Informal (rumour & hearsay).

COMS 1010 Aug 2009 27

UNIT 2 EFFECTIVE USE OF ENGLISH

Unit Structure

2.0 Overview

2.1 Learning Objectives

2.2 World Englishes

2.3 Registers

2.4 Style

2.4.1 Written/Spoken Style

2.4.2 Writing Styles

2.5 Vocabulary

2.5.1 Tools Needed

2.5.2 Choosing the Right Word

2.6 Grammar

2.6.1 Verb Tenses

2.6.2 Concord

2.6.3 Active/Passive Voice

2.6.4 Punctuation

2.7 Sentence Structure and Synthesis

2.8 English Usage and Academic Writing

2.8.1 Writing Impersonally

2.8.2 Make Tentative Statements

2.8.3 Adopt the Appropriate Attitude

2.9 A Few Points to Remember

2.10 Answers to Activities

COMS 1010 Aug 2009 28

2.0 OVERVIEW

This Unit will encourage you to see English as a versatile language which is used around

the world and which has various functions and various domains of use. Moreover, the Unit

will consider the areas of grammar that are problematic and suggest ways to improve your

style – both written and spoken. This Unit will focus on the style required for written

assignments, dissertations, and why not, academic papers!

Note that some materials have been borrowed from the COMS 1010- DE manual

developed in January 1997 by the following persons:

Mr K J Bheenick

Ms R Kasenally

Mrs P Hookoomsingh

2.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After having completed this unit, you should be able to do the following:-

1. Be sensitive to different varieties of Englishes;

2. Analyse the flexibility of the English language;

3. Use the relevant tools to better your English;

4. Avoid the common pitfalls of grammar;

5. Use vocabulary judiciously;

6. Develop skills to express yourself suitably in English.

COMS 1010 Aug 2009 29

2.2 WORLD ENGLISHES

“Whan that Aprill with his shoures sote

The droghte of Marche hath perced to the rote,

And bathed in every veyne in swich licour,

Of which vertu engendred is the flour.”

G. Chaucer “The General Prologue to the Canterbury Tales”

“I want one of my sons to join these people and be my eyes there. If there

is nothing in it you will come back. But if there is something there you will

bring home my share. The world is like a Mask, dancing. If you want to

see it well you do not stand in one place. My spirit tells me that those who

do not befriend the white man today will be saying had we known

tomorrow.” [my underlining]

Achebe “Arrow of God”

‘English’: does that not sound grand? Do you not feel that it is something stable and

unchanging? a complete entity?

But anyone who compares a text written in English in Medieval England to a text written

in English in contemporary Africa, or compares a legal document to a poem realises that

‘English’ is a vague, but convenient term, which we use to refer to a language that has

been spoken and written over the past 14 centuries by people in different parts of the

world for different purposes .

English was born in England in the 6th century when invaders from Germania came to

England speaking their own dialects. These dialects were influenced by Scandinavian

languages, French, Latin, Greek, amongst others, and developed into what has become

today, an international language.

COMS 1010 Aug 2009 30

The British empire and consequently, the English language spread with colonisation.

English became the official language in many of the colonies, this often at the expense of

the indigenous languages.

Despite the gradual disappearance of the British empire, English did not lose its status. It

remained the main language in ex-colonies like America, Canada and Australia as those

who spoke English had social, economic and cultural power, thus ensuring the survival of

the language. In other ex-colonies, like India for instance, English was retained as an

official language because of its neutrality vis-à-vis the other indigenous languages which

have ethnic affiliations.

As English was developing simultaneously in different geographical locations and as

English was in contact with different languages and cultures, different Englishes emerged.

Some of those Englishes, like American English, are standardised. American English has

its own spelling system, which is different from British English, and it has its own

dictionary. Other Englishes, like Indian English, have their specificity and have become

popular via the media. Each variety differs in terms of pronunciation and vocabulary and

more rarely, in terms of grammar.

The ‘English’ which is popular in Mauritius is British English because we were a British

colony and we still sit for British exams. But with the world becoming a global village due

to developments in the media, those differences are becoming less and less apparent for us

and we tend to mix British and American English. This tendency should be avoided

especially when writing in a formal style as we need to be consistent.

COMS 1010 Aug 2009 31

Some obvious differences between American and British English are shown as follows:

British spelling American spelling British word American word

Colour Color Got Gotten

Honour Honor Lorry Truck

Programme program Nappy Diaper

analyse analyze lift Elevator

centre center disc Record

defence defense petrol gas

paediatrician pediatrician coach bus

Although we should not mix varieties when writing a text, we should be true to the

original texts when quoting materials. For instance, if we are quoting from an American

author, we should be careful to spell as he/she does in his/her text.

2.2 REGISTERS

Registers are a special case of a particular kind of language being produced by a social

situation. For instance, the kind of language used in a medical pamphlet is different from

the kind of language used in a legal document. The two differ in terms of

vocabulary – a specialised jargon for medicine and law

grammar – the grammatical structures of a legal document will be more complex

than in the pamphlet

structure of text – each paragraph in the legal document will contain a central

idea that will have been unambiguously phrased, even though the meaning

might appear obscure to the common reader

COMS 1010 Aug 2009 32

The two texts are different because each has its own communicative purpose. The first

aims to inform a general audience, while the second one is geared towards a more

restricted audience in a very specific setting – a court room for example.

Activity 1

Consider the two texts below and analyse the ways in which they differ in terms of

vocabulary and grammar, and structure of text. Bear in mind the communicative purpose

of each text.

I. INCOME TAX ACT 1995

19. Expenditure incurred on interest in the production of income

(3) The Commissioner may refuse to allow a deduction on expenditure

incurred as interest where he is satisfied that –

a. The interest is payable to a non-resident who is not

chargeable to tax on the amount of the interest; or

b. The interest is not likely to be paid in cash within a

reasonable time.

II. LETTER TO MY GIRLFRIEND

Dearest Sweetie,

Just a short message to say: I U

Waiting 4 the minute when I’ll see U

and ,

Sunil

COMS 1010 Aug 2009 33

You will realise that your field has its own ‘register’ and you will learn to use the language

appropriate to your subject – technical vocabulary, grammatical constructions, text

structures – by observing what is being used in books and articles from your own field.

2.3 STYLE

Style is the way in which something is said, done, expressed or performed. Everyone has

his own particular style, but one’s style often has to be bent to suit the topic, the purpose

and the audience. We communicate in totally different manners when we are at home,

speaking to our parents and when we are at the office, writing a report for the bank

manager.

In the following subsections, we will consider some elements of style. These may help

you when you communicate.

2.3.1 Written/Spoken Style

Spoken style and written style differ in that the former involves at least two people

exchanging discourse at one point in time while written discourse allows time for thinking

and rewriting. This fundamental difference affects and determines the form of both styles.

As far as sentence structures are concerned, spoken style favours short sentences while

written style longer sentences. Furthermore, spoken style allows for omissions like

pronouns and auxiliary verbs at the beginning of sentences, while written style does not.

Finally, spoken style tends to accept contractions and colloquialisms like don’t, a lot,

mate which written style is more cautious in using. Because the spatio temporal context

of both styles are different, spoken style differs significantly from written style.

COMS 1010 Aug 2009 34

2.3.2 Writing Styles

Writing styles vary significantly depending on the context of the writing process as well as

the aims and objectives of the writing activity. We will now consider four writing styles

that are often used in communication:

Narrative style is used when writing fiction, biographies, autobiographies, history

books, travel books and television documentaries, to mention but a few.

It was a calm night and I was studying in my room. I smelt something

burning and heard some noise. Looking out of my window, I was shocked

at the sight. A house nearby had caught fire, the flames were leaping out of

the windows, screams could be heard in the darkness of the night. I ran out

of my room to wake up my parents. I telephoned the fire brigade before we

all rushed out of the house.

Narrative paragraphs may also appear in analytical essays to illustrate an idea. However,

it is fairly rare to use a narrative style in academic writing. Descriptive, analytic and

argumentative styles are used more, often within the same piece of writing. That is why

we have chosen three extracts from the same research article which exemplify the 3 styles

mentioned above.

Descriptive style – descriptions represent in words our sensory impressions

caught in a moment of time. In much descriptive writing, visual imagery

predominates. Descriptive passages are commonly used in essays to support

analysis.

In the following example, a descriptive style is used for the methodology part of the

research article.

COMS 1010 Aug 2009 35

Seventy-three adult subjects (aged 17 to 55) were tested. The subjects were

members of the eight classes in ESL (the first four levels of each of two

programs) at Queens College, New York. One Program, the English

Language Institute program, is an intensive all day program for foreign

students preparing to study in American colleges, and the other, the

Continuing Education Program, is a four hour per week adult education

course. Generally, the adult education subjects had more exposure to

English outside the classroom. The subjects were also classified as Spanish

or non-Spanish speaking.

Bailey, N., Madden, C., & Krashen, S. D., 1974,

“Is there a ‘natural sequence’ in adult second language learning?”,

Language Learning, vol. 24, pp 235-243.

Analytic style: analysis (literally separating into parts) is not only the source of

writing that seeks to explain, it is also a way of thinking, a way of arriving at

conclusions (generalisations), or of discovering how conclusions are reached.

Analytic writing presupposes detective work: the writer, like the detective, looks

at evidence, finds clues, pursues the trail from one place to the next to find out

something.

There was a significant correlation between relative accuracies of function

words for Spanish and non-Spanish speakers (r=.926, p<.005, one tailed

test). The scores are portrayed in Figure 1. Correlations among the eight

instruction groups are given in Table 2. There was a high degree of

agreement as to the relative difficulty of the functors among all groups, with

the exception of level 3 in the English Language Institute program, which

maybe due to a ceiling effect caused by a high level of English language

proficiency in this group. Percentages of accuracy are given in Table 3.

Bailey, N., Madden, C., & Krashen, S. D., 1974,

COMS 1010 Aug 2009 36

“Is there a ‘natural sequence’ in adult second language

learning?”,

Language Learning, vol. 24, pp 235-243.

Argumentative style - This style of writing usually requires you to give your ideas

on a certain topic by discussing a certain point of view. Once you have analysed

data, or a problem, you need to give your conclusion. One cannot be too definite

in a conclusion as someone is always there to challenge what has been said. That

is why one needs to argue before giving one’s conclusion.

Despite the differences in adult learners in amount of instruction, exposure to

English, and mother tongue, there is a high degree of agreement as to the

relative difficulty of the set of grammatical morphemes examined here,

supporting Hypothesis 1. This result, in conjunction with error analysis

research, indicates that adults use common strategies for second language

learning. In addition, if relative difficulty corresponds to order of

acquisition as implied by de Villiers and de Villers’ (1973) results with

children, this result also suggests a common order of acquisition for functors

in adults.

Comparison with Dulay and Burt’s data reveals that relative accuracy in

adults is quite similar to the relative accuracies shown by children learning

English as a second language for the same functors, supporting Hypothesis

2.

Bailey, N., Madden, C., & Krashen, S. D., 1974,

“Is there a ‘natural sequence’ in adult second language

learning?”,

Language Learning, vol. 24, pp 235-243.

Activity 2

COMS 1010 Aug 2009 37

Refer to the article given to you by your tutor at the beginning of the semester. Analyse

how the different writing styles have been used.

2.4 VOCABULARY

2.4.1 Tools Needed

Whenever you are writing English, you need:

(i) A good dictionary: it provides information about thousands of words and helps

you understand them and use them correctly.

Suitable dictionaries for native speakers of English are, among others: Shorter

Oxford Dictionary, Concise Oxford Dictionary, Chambers, Collins English

Dictionary, Penguin English Dictionary, Webster International Dictionary

(American English).

Dictionaries which are aimed at second language learners of English are: The

Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English and The Longman

Dictionary of Contemporary English

(ii) A good translating dictionary (English/French): for instance, The

Robert/Collins or Harraps. Sometimes you have to use a translating dictionary if

you know a word in French but not its equivalent in English. Note, however, that

it is advisable to check the English word in the English dictionary as some words

can be used in specific contexts and some words have connotations. Think of the

French word ‘aimer’ - the translating dictionary gives us two English words: ‘like’

and ‘love’ and you will agree that they have quite different connotations.

COMS 1010 Aug 2009 38

(iii) A thesaurus – it is important to vary your vocabulary as it makes a text less

boring to read and it allows you to find the precise word needed. As in the case of

the translating dictionary, if you decide to use a word which you are not familiar

with, it is better to check the word in a dictionary - there are words which will fit a

context but not another one. For instance freedom and liberty are synonyms but

you can say “I am at liberty to say what I want’ but not “I am at freedom to say

what I want”. A thesaurus that you might want to use is: Roget’s Thesaurus of

English Words and Phrases.

(iv) Grammar books - for you to verify grammatical rules. Cassell’s Students’

English Grammar and A University Grammar of English are interesting works to

consult in case of doubt.

Activity 3

Consider the following words and see whether the individual words have the same

connotations:

1. friend, boyfriend, young man, lover

2. dine, eat

3. upbringing, conditioning, brainwashing

4. antiabortion, pro-life, pro-abortion, pro-choice

COMS 1010 Aug 2009 39

2.4.2 Choosing the Right Word

Words are like clothes. Clothes serve a function: covering the body; words have a

function: communicating a message. But clothes are also cultural symbols, so are words.

Lorry and truck mean the same thing, but the recipient knows that the former is a British

speaker while the latter is an American speaker. The social aura accompanying a word

contributes to its connotations. The choice of words is thus central in the image that one

wants to project of oneself.

Precision

We all understand thousands of words, but the never-ending challenge is to use those

words with precision. For communication to be effective, it is crucial to choose the

word which best suits the purpose, and that has the desired influence / the required

impact on the reader. If we take the word ‘nice’ for example, it is one of those words that

can fit in, in many contexts. But it is a vague word and it could be replaced by more

precise words depending on the situation. That is where a thesaurus comes in handy.

Consider these two sentences:

- He feels uncomfortable at the whole situation.

- He feels guilty for having disturbed his father.

The former is vague and the latter specific.

Avoid bombastic words

Although one should aim at being as precise as possible when choosing words, one should

be careful about falling into the trap of using big, bombastic words which you think will

impress. Simplicity is often clarity. Where you can, use everyday words as you want to

express ideas clearly rather than impress your readers, with the risk of antagonising them.

Writers who rely on inflated language are usually trying to dress up ordinary ideas to make

them look more important than they really are, so that the reader will be impressed. Most

COMS 1010 Aug 2009 40

readers, however, recognise the trick and regard writers using such a language with

suspicion.

Words to be avoided

Regionalisms are words that are associated with certain regions of Britain or America.

For instance, the expression “a bony lass” is an expression used in the north of England

meaning “a pretty girl”. But the expression would be quite unfamiliar to anyone who has

not been to the north of England.

Colloquialisms are words and expressions that tend to be used in spoken English only:

ain’t, gonna, cos, folks are acceptable in spoken English but not in formal writing.

Slang words are words that have originated in a given cultural group or subgroup. They

are often short lived and carry a strong connotation on group membership. Examples of

slang of college or university students are pro, econ, cram, poly, the pits.

Clichés are trite expressions mechanically reproduced, like for instance, first and

foremost, slowly but surely, short but sweet, D-day arrived.

Think of your target audience when using specialised jargon. Will your audience

understand the technical terms you are using or are you obscuring your message by

overloading your assignment with technical terms?

When you are writing the first draft of an assignment, write freely, follow your

flow of ideas

When you are rewriting your assignment, take the time to use the most appropriate

word!

COMS 1010 Aug 2009 41

Activity 4

Fill in the right hand column of this table with simpler, more direct words. Possible

answers are found at the end of the Unit.

Abatement/abate

Absence of

Accede to

accelerate

acknowledge

aforesaid

ascertain

cognisant

comprises

Due to the fact that

henceforth

hereunder

In lieu of

notify

Subsequent to

2.5 GRAMMAR

2.5.1 Verb Tenses

Early in your writing/speaking process, establish a ‘base’ tense and shift away from it only

for a good reason. Keep to the same tense. You should choose one of the columns in the

table below and stick to it.

COMS 1010 Aug 2009 42

ACTIVE VOICE

PAST PRESENT FUTURE

SIMPLE Wrote Write/writes Will write

PROGRESSIVE Was/were writing Am/are writing Will be writing

PERFECT Had written Have/has written Will have written

PERFECT

PROGRESSIVE

Had been writing Have/has been

writing

Will have been

writing

PASSIVE VOICE

PAST PRESENT FUTURE

SIMPLE Was/were written Is/are written Will be written

PROGRESSIVE Was/were being

written

Is/are being written

PERFECT Had been written Has/have been

written

Will have been

written

PERFECT

PROGRESSIVE

Note: the cells that have been left empty indicate that those forms are very rarely

used although you can form the passive.

When you speak, you will usually use the active voice. It is when you write academic

papers that you use the passive voice.

When you speak, you can use contracted forms like don’t, won’t, shan’t, but when

you write you should avoid using the contracted forms and use do not, will not, shall

not.

COMS 1010 Aug 2009 43

2.5.2 Concord

Agreement verb/subject is an area full of traps. The following exercise will help you

remember some of the exceptional rules about concord.

Activity 5

Do the following exercise. Discuss your answers with your friends and find the

grammatical rule governing each case. Your tutor will then give you the correct answers

and the grammatical rules.

1. The conditions of service (is, are) desirable.

2. Father, as well as mother (is, are) at home.

3. Do you think that Rs 5 million (is, are) a large sum?

4. Either you or I (are, am) lucky.

5. Three quarters of

the marbles (is, are) lost.

the sugar (is, are) finished.

6. His advice (is, are) always good.

7. The public (is, are) wild with the Prime Minister.

8. Beans and peas are good value. The former (is, are) cheap and the latter (is, are)

expensive.

9. It (is, are) time to go home.

10. There (is, are) a cat in the kitchen, there (is, are) sugar in the pot, there (is, are) a lot

of apples in the fridge and there (is, are) some flour in the jar.

11. Each child in the school (is, are) questioned. Every child (is, are) scared.

12. Billiards (is, are) becoming more popular.

13. Brussels (is, are) a great place to visit. (Athens, Naples)

14. The man, who is walking down the road, (is, are) my teacher.

COMS 1010 Aug 2009 44

2.5.3 Active/Passive Voice

Passive Voice is used when one wants to emphasise the act rather than the doer, or when

one does not want to disclose the identity of the doer. The Passive is a useful voice to use

especially in academic writing which requires writing to be as objective and detached as

possible. Different ways of forming the Passive are:

1. Passive without agent: in this case, the agent is vague or unknown, the main

interest is on the action and not on the doer, you want to state facts:

Active- They speak English all over the world.

Passive - English is spoken all over the world.

Active- Someone can easily collect quantitative data

Passive- Quantitative data can be collected easily.

2. Passive with agent: if you want to emphasise the act/product rather than the doer.

Active- Keats wrote a poem

Passive- A poem was written by Keats

Ask yourself whether you can use the active voice in this case.

3. Passive with ‘to-infinitive’- verbs like ‘claim, understand, think, believe’ are

followed by the infinitive when in the passive voice:

Active- People say that cats have seven lives.

Passive- Cats are said to have seven lives

Active- They assumed that the questionnaires had been filled in.

Passive- The questionnaires were assumed to having been filled in.

4. The passive using the ‘it is’ form – statements in the active voice that contain

‘there is’ are introduced in the passive by ‘It is’

Active- People fear that there will be another world war.

Passive- It is feared that there will be another world war.

When writing for academic purposes, you are generally required to be as objective as

possible. You can use the above grammatical constructions to achieve this goal.

COMS 1010 Aug 2009 45

Activity 6

Put the following sentences in the Passive voice.

1. People will forget the scandal in time.

2. Beethoven composed this piece of music after he had become deaf.

3. The natives believe that evil spirits cause illnesses.

4. They say that there is a lot of food in the oceans.

5. In some countries they deny women the right to vote.

6. They fear that all the passengers in the ship drowned.

7. Circumstances forced him to act that way.

8. They know that drastic changes have been made in the Police.

Note that

we usually use the active voice in oral communication;

we tend to use the passive voice in written assignments, including academic writing.

2.5.4 Punctuation

In brief, here are cases where the different punctuation marks should be used.

CAPITALISATION:

- The first word of a sentence/phrase or a direct quotation

- Statements after a colon if it is a formal rule, a direct quotation or it is introduced

by a single word.

- Names and adjectives derived from them (where appropriate): people, places,

organisations, subjects, brand and trade, months and days of the week:

Linguistics

- Title of people, acronyms: Mrs, UNICEF

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- The first word of a title of a book, magazine, story, essay or play and all other

important words also: “The Remains of the Day”

- Historical events: 1381 Peasants’ Revolt

FULL STOP:

- At the end of a sentence (declarative, indirect question, imperative and elliptical)

- After an abbreviation

QUESTION MARK:

- Interrogative sentences: “How are you today?”

EXCLAMATION MARK:

- Exclamatory sentences: “Oh my God!”

QUOTATION MARK:

- To enclose speech: “Where are you?” I asked Alan.

- Quotations or sayings, titles of books, films, essays, and names of ships – usually

single inverted commas

- Foreign words or words we wish to single out: We wished him “bon voyage”.

COMMA:

- To separate a list of things/actions

- To separate nouns in apposition: Tom, our friend, died of cancer.

- To separate clauses from the main statement: If you are tired, go to sleep.

- To mark off words/phrases like ‘however’. ‘indeed’, ‘without doubt’

SEMICOLON:

- Used to show a pause longer than that denoted by comma, but shorter than a full

stop: The village can be reached only by this path; there is no other way.

- To separate a list of words where a comma may cause confusion: Give the

meaning of the following: incoherent; to catch unawares; lock, stock and barrel;

immersed.

THE COLON:

- To produce items in a list: All that you need are: rope, planks and a hammer.

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- To introduce an explanation of previous statement: He could not contact them:

his phone was out of order.

THE DASH:

- To indicate a break in the flow of a sentence: It was reported that forty people-

maybe more – died in the plane crash.

- Emphasis: I heard a mournful sound – a sound that sent shivers down my spine.

- To replace a colon when introducing a list of things or to explain a previous

statement.

Activity 7

Punctuate the following text:

the abstract should be written concisely in normal rather than highly abbreviated english

the author should assume that the reader has some knowledge of the subject but has not

read the paper thus the abstract should be intelligible and complete in itself particularly it

should not cite figures tables or sections of the paper the opening sentence or two should

state the objectives of the investigation it is also desirable to describe the treatment by one

or more such terms as brief exhaustive theoretical experimental and so forth the body of

the abstract should indicate newly observed facts and the conclusions of the experiment or

argument discussed in the paper it should contain new numerical data presented in the

paper if space permits otherwise attention should be drawn to the nature of the data in the

case of experimental results the abstract should indicate methods used in obtaining them

for new methods the basic principle range of operation and degree of accuracy should be

given the abstract should be typed as one paragraph its optimum length will vary with the

nature and extent of the paper but it should not exceed 200 words

COMS 1010 Aug 2009 48

2.6 SENTENCE STRUCTURE AND SYNTHESIS

The basic and most common sentence structure in English is subject+ verb/complement

pattern. But this is by no means the only way of building sentences . There are other

grammatical constructions which, when used, add to the richness of your style. Here are a

few examples:

1. Examples of inverted sentences:

By the tree stood my bicycle.

By the tree my bicycle stood.

2. Elimination of the relative pronoun:

The thieves took the bags which contained the money.

The thieves took the bag containing the money.

This is a point which we should bear in mind.

This is a point to bear in mind.

3. Combination of sentences

We stood on the balcony. We could see the whole park.

Standing on the balcony, we could see the whole park.

4. Look for words that are irrelevant and superficial:

There’s a light on the scoreboard that flashes on and off.

The scoreboard light flashes on and off.

5. Use strong verbs:

In a cautious manner the car went round the corner.

The car negotiated the corner.

COMS 1010 Aug 2009 49

Activity 8

The following exercise aims at making you conscious that there are different ways of

writing the same sentence. Try rewriting the sentences by using the word suggested in

(b). An example has been worked out for you.

a. She is not old enough to enter the contest.

b. (young)

She is too young to enter the contest.

1a. It is likely that the experiment will fail.

1b. (May)

2a. He became manager after a year at the firm.

2b. (promoted)

3a. He fired when he saw the signal.

3b. (seeing)

4a. Although his mother disapproved of it, he became a singer.

4b. (Despite)

5a. Both experiments failed.

5b. (Neither)

Your ability to join sentences and paragraphs also helps in making your assignment

interesting! There should be a flow within your paragraphs as well as between

paragraphs. Your ideas should not appear disjointed. Choppiness in your way of writing

will act as a barrier to understanding.

COMS 1010 Aug 2009 50

Example:

1a. No one was watching. The thief first made sure of this. He climbed up a drainpipe.

He climbed up to a window on the first floor. He succeeded in entering the house through

the window. He was not observed.

1b. Having first made sure that no one was watching, the thief climbed up the drainpipe to

a first floor window, through which he succeeded in entering the house unobserved.

Activity 9

Do the same thing as in 1b above for the following examples:-

2a. The bubonic plague raged in England during the Middle Ages. The name given to it

was “The Black Death’. It carried off thousands of the population. In some cases, it

exterminated whole towns and villages.

2b. ‘The Black Death’…, carrying…and …exterminating…

3a. Fleet Street was once famous for its coffee houses. Men used to meet there. They

were prominent in the literary world. It is now synonymous with journalism and English

national newspapers. It takes its name from the Fleet Stream. This used to run from

Hampstead. It ran down into the Thames at Blackfriars.

3b. Fleet Street, once…where men… and now… , takes…

To help you in your task of joining sentences, here are a few link words/phrases that you

may find handy when writing:

COMS 1010 Aug 2009 51

Adding points:

Another possibility is that…

In other words,…

It should be emphasised/noted that…

And, and so, furthermore, further along, in addition, besides, incidentally, by the way, also,

again, above all, too, as well as…

Alternative:

Alternatively, apart from this, conversely, so far as…

Comparing:

In sharp contrast to x, y is not…

Likewise, similarly, in the same way, in like manner, as, just as…

Concluding:

All things considered then…

Events show us that…

In general/short…

It seems clear that…

To put it crudely/simply…

To sum up…

Contrast:

Aside from this, or, or else, otherwise, yet, though, however, nevertheless, despite this, on

the other hand, in fact, as a matter of fact, actually, instead, rather, on the contrary…

Enumeration:

First, furthermore, finally, first…second…third, to begin/start with…in the second

place…moreover,

COMS 1010 Aug 2009 52

Exemplifying;

Another example of this may be that…

More detailed studies show that…

This was typified by…

For example, for instance, in particular, specifically, that is, to illustrate…

Explaining:

A general explanation remains difficult to find

As a result

Partly for this reason,

The tendency for x…

This applies especially to…

This in turn means that…

Place:

Nearby, here, there, next to, opposite to, under, beyond…

Result:

So, therefore, as a result of, consequently, accordingly, because of…

Summary:

To sum up, in short, briefly, in brief, on the whole, as has been said, in sum, indeed…

Time:

Then, next, after, just then, at the same time, previously, before that, finally, at last…

When you are writing, make sure to vary the length of your sentences. If all your

sentences are short, it gives the impression that you have not fully mastered the art

of writing. If all your sentences are long, then it becomes difficult to read you.

COMS 1010 Aug 2009 53

Short sentences are usually very effective when you have written several long

sentences. Short sentences can be used to emphasise on a point.

2.8 ENGLISH USAGE AND ACADEMIC WRITING

When you write an academic paper, there are certain conventions that you are expected to

follow. Some of them are closely linked with the way in which language works.

2.8.1 Writing Impersonally

When you are writing for academic purposes, an objective or neutral tone is

expected from you. You want to avoid using the pronoun ‘I’ and the phrase ‘In

my opinion’ as far as possible. There are different ways in which you can achieve

a sense of objectivity when writing:

Using the pronoun ‘one’ is an option when writing impersonally. Examples of

common phrases with ‘one’ are:

One could envisage

One could argue

One might expect

One could seriously question….

‘One’ is a third person singular pronoun like ‘he’, ‘she’ or ‘it’ therefore it will call

for a final ‘s’ for the present tense.

Another way would be to use the pronoun ‘we’. “We’ is more effectively used if

you wish your reader to identify with your viewpoint. It has the effect of carrying

your reader with you as you develop your argument, it may also have as effect to

convince your reader of your view point, but it does so in a more subtle way.

COMS 1010 Aug 2009 54

You can also use the impersonal pronoun ‘it’, like for instance:

It can be argued that

It is anticipated that

It is clear that

It seems that

It is significant that

A technique of commenting on your own work, while at the same time remaining fairly

detached from it is by using such phrases as: Interestingly, surprisingly,

significantly, crucially, predictably, admittedly, understandably…

Finally, you can use the passive voice. The passive voice helps you to emphasise the

act/deed rather than the agent of the act/deed. It definitely helps when you are writing

academic papers. (Refer to Section 2.6.3)

For you to sound impersonal, you need to avoid being informal. It is thus better to

avoid contractions like don’t and can’t in academic writing as they give an aura of

familiarity to your work and academic writing is far from being informal and casual.

You should also avoid using hesitation filters , for instance, well and you know, which

are for informal spoken and written styles but not for formal written contexts.

2.8.2 Make Tentative Statements

Writing in a tentative tone means making cautious and careful statements. The difference

between hesitation filters and a tentative tone is that the former are words used in

informal speech and the latter is a particular style adopted in academic writing.

A tentative tone is the kind of language you use to show that you are not too sure of

yourself. A tentative tone is not a mark of weakness. On the contrary, your reader will

probably respect your judgement in making a cautious statement. It is not good practice

COMS 1010 Aug 2009 55

in academic writing to produce lots of strong statements; it is better to write in a careful

style and not to commit yourself absolutely to generalisations. It is a sign of wisdom as

further research can easily disprove what you have fervently claimed

Modal verbs such as could, may and might are common in academic writing as they help

you express uncertainty. Other common verbs used for the same purpose are appear to,

seem to and tend to. Adverbs of probability that can be of use are: perhaps, possible,

probably, likely, unlikely. Some phrases that can be used are:

Practically, so to speak, to some extent, up to a point, it may be that, we could say that,

almost, this suggests that…

2.8.3 Adopt the Appropriate Attitude

Being able to stand back and not let yourself get emotionally involved in a topic while

expressing your ideas through language is a sign of wisdom and maturity. Therefore, you

should avoid using exaggeration and emotive language as they stand in the way of

showing that you are rational, critical and objective.

Compare the following sentences and see how the use of language affects your impression

of the writer:

Pre-marital sex is a sin and should be condemned.

Pre-marital sex is considered to be a sin by various religions of the world.

COMS 1010 Aug 2009 56

Activity 10

Which of the following sentences are formal? And which are informal? Justify

yourself.

1. The project will be completed next year.

2. I showed that his argument did not hold water.

3. I wonder why he put up with those terrible conditions for so long.

4. Five more tests will be necessary before the experiment can be conducted.

5. It is possible to consider the results from a different view point.

6. It has been proved that the arguments so far are without foundation.

7. He’ll have to do another five tests before he can stop the experiment.

8. It is not clear why such results were obtained from the experiment.

9. There are number of reasons why the questionnaire should be revised.

10. We’ll finish the job next year.

Read Orwell’s advice as you write and edit your assignments!!!

George Orwell (1903-1950) in his essay Politics and the English Language (1947) says

that:

“A scrupulous writer in every sentence that he writes will ask himself at least four

questions: What am I trying to say? What words will express it? What image or idiom

will make it clearer? Is this image fresh enough to have an effect? And he will probably

ask himself two more: Could I put it more shortly? Have I said anything that is

avoidably ugly.”

COMS 1010 Aug 2009 57

2.9 A FEW POINTS TO REMEMBER

The English language is a versatile language. Learn how to use the different styles

and registers appropriately!

The English language is a rich language. Learn how to make full use of the

enormous vocabulary at your disposal!

The English language is capricious in its grammar. Learn to be grammatically

correct and grammatically judicious when speaking and writing (especially formal

writing)!

There are means and ways in which you can make your ideas flow and cohere.

Learn how to use these ways!

Writing for academic purposes requires learning a particular style of writing which

will make the difference between amateur writing and professional writing. Be

professional in your writing!

2.10 ANSWERS TO ACTIVITIES

Activity 4

Abatement/abate Drop/decrease

Absence of No, none

Accede to Allow, agree

accelerate Quicken

acknowledge Thank you for

aforesaid Earlier in this document

ascertain Find out

cognisant Aware

comprises Is made up of

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Due to the fact that Because

henceforth From now on

hereunder Below

In lieu of Instead

Notify Let us know

Activity 6

Passive Voice:

1. The scandal will be forgotten in time.

2. This piece of music was composed by Beethoven after he had become deaf.

3. Evil spirits are believed to cause illnesses

4. A lot of food is said to be found in the oceans

5. In some countries women are denied the right to vote.

6. It is feared that all the passengers in the ship drowned.

7. He was forced to act that way by circumstances.

8. Drastic changes are known to have been made in the Police.

Activity 7

PUNCTUATION

The abstract should be written concisely, in normal rather than highly abbreviated English.

The author should assume that the reader has some knowledge of the subject, but has not

read the paper. Thus, the abstract should be intelligible and complete in itself: particularly

it should not cite figures, tables, or sections of the paper. The opening sentence or two

should state the objectives of the investigation. It is also desirable to describe the

treatment by one or more such terms as brief, exhaustive, theoretical, experimental, and so

forth.

COMS 1010 Aug 2009 59

The body of the abstract should indicate newly observed facts and the conclusions of the

experiment or argument discussed in the paper. It should contain new numerical data

presented in the paper if space permits; otherwise, attention should be drawn to the nature

of the data. In the case of experimental results, the abstract should indicate methods used

in obtaining them. For new methods, the basic principle, range of operation and degree of

accuracy should be given. The abstract should be typed as one paragraph - its optimum

length will vary with the nature and extent of the paper- but it should not exceed 200

words.

Activity 8

CONVERSION OF SENTENCES

1a. It is likely that the experiment will fail

1b. The experiment may fail.

2a. He became manager after a year at the firm.

2b. He was promoted to manager after a year at the firm.

3a. He fired when he saw the signal.

3b. Seeing the signal, he fired.

4a. Although his mother disapproved of it, he became a singer.

4b. Despite his mother’s disapproval, he became a singer.

5a. Both experiments failed

5b. Neither experiment succeeded.

COMS 1010 Aug 2009 60

Activity 9

SYNTHESIS

‘The Black Death’ was the name given to the bubonic plague which raged in the Middle

Ages, carrying off thousands of the population and in some cases exterminating whole

towns and villages.

Fleet Street, once famous for its coffee houses where men prominent in the literary world

used to meet, and now with journalism and English national newspapers , takes its name

from the Fleet Stream, which used to run from Hampstead down into the Thames at

Blackfriars.

Activity 10

FORMAL/INFORMAL?

1. The project will be completed next year. (F)

1. I showed that his argument did not hold water. (I)

2. I wonder why he put up with those terrible conditions for so long. (I)

4. Five more tests will be necessary before the experiment can be conducted. (F)

6. It is possible to consider the results from a different view point. (F)

7. It has been proved that the arguments so far are without foundation. (F)

8. He’ll have to do another five tests before he can stop the experiment. (I)

9. It is not clear why results were obtained from the experiment. (F)

10. There are number of reasons why the questionnaire should be revised. (F)

11. We’ll finish the job next year. (I)

COMS 1010 Aug 2009 61

UNIT 3 WRITING SKILLS

Unit Structure

3.0 Overview

3.1 Learning Objectives

3.2 Introduction

3.3 Getting Started

3.3.1 The Task

3.3.2 Brainstorming

3.3.3 Finding Your Sources and Note-taking

3.4 Pre-writing

3.4.1 Your Audience

3.4.2 Organise Yourself

3.5 Writing up

3.5.1 Drafting

3.5.2 Paragraphing

3.5.3 Quoting and Referencing

3.5.4 Bibliography

3.6 Re-writing

3.7 Sub genres

3.7.1 Summary

3.7.2 Literature Review

3.8 A Few Points to Remember

COMS 1010 Aug 2009 62

3.0 OVERVIEW

At the end of Unit 2, we considered ‘English Usage and Academic Writing’. In this Unit,

we will look deeper into the skills needed to prepare and to write academic papers.

This Unit contains a project which you will have to submit to your tutor in Week 6

(session 4). The project consists of doing parts of an essay, the title of which you and

your tutor will agree on. You are required to word-process the assignment, using Font

Times New Roman, Size12, double-spacing and justifying. (The advantage with word-

processing is that you can use options like ‘Cut and Paste’ and the ‘thesaurus’ to re-write

your drafts).

The portfolio to be submitted will have to contain:

1. The title of your essay (Part 1)

2. The ideas that you generated from the brainstorming activity (Part 2)

3. One page of notes from your reading activity and the relevant referencing

(Part 3)

4. The organisation of the ideas for your essay (Part 4)

5. A bibliography (Part 6)

6. The essay of about 800 words (Part 5)

You will find, at the end of the relevant sections of the Unit, a reminder of what you have

to do for the assignment. They are NOT separate assignments but constitute the parts of

the project. Word-process each part and submit all the parts to your tutor in Week 6.

Note that some of the materials in this Unit have been borrowed from the

Communication Skills manual offered for the first time in January 1997. The manual

was developed by the following persons:

Mr K J Bheenick

Mrs P Hookoomsing

COMS 1010 Aug 2009 63

Miss R Kasenally

3.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After having completed this unit, you should be able to do the following:-

1. Understand any assignment given to you;

2. Generate your own ideas for an assignment;

3. Use outside sources to give weight to your assignment;

4. Organise the information gathered;

5. Revise your writing;

6. Write a bibliography;

7. Write different types of texts (summary, literature review).

3.2 INTRODUCTION

As a University student, you will be required to write academic papers – essays, reports,

dissertations. Writing for academic purposes will call for certain special skills.

Remember that sound academic writing is a mixture of:

1. clear objectives

2. identification of the central questions

3. a focus on the main issues

4. wide research and reading

5. a dose of originality

6. well-reasoned arguments

7. comprehensible, concise, grammatically correct English (which students will have

acquired in Unit 2)

8. competent and professional presentation.

COMS 1010 Aug 2009 64

3.3 GETTING STARTED

Any written assignment is a process that will take time and energy. Plan your work and

respect the deadline. Punctuality is crucial.

3.3.1 The Task

Before putting pen to paper, make sure that you understand what is required of you. Be

relevant; otherwise you will be penalised.

While reading the assignment/question, ask yourselves the following questions;

1. What are the key words/phrases? Do I understand their meanings?

2. Do I understand the meaning of the assignment/question?

3. What type of written submission is expected: an essay, report or case study?

4. What am I being asked to do: narrate, describe, define, discuss, compare or contrast?

Table 3.1 may help you approach your assignment/question. It contains signal terms often

found in assignments/questions.

Table 3.1. Commonly used terms in assignment questions

Analyse – divide, describe, discuss, examine, explain

Assess- decide the importance and give reasons

Comment - make critical observations, explain the importance of

Compare – describe similarities and differences, concentrating on similarities

Contrast – describe differences, concentrating on differences

Criticise - Discuss strong and weak points, giving the results of your own analysis.

Criticism does not have to be negative.

Define – state precisely the meaning of

COMS 1010 Aug 2009 65

Describe – say what something is like, do NOT explain or interpret.

Differentiate - Distinguish between two or more similar items, concepts, theories…

Discuss – consider something from different view points and then give your opinion

Enumerate - Provide a numbered list.

Evaluate - Present a judgement of an issue by stressing both strengths and advantages

AND weaknesses and limitations.

Examine critically - Appraise; act as a judge.

Explain - Interpret the facts along the lines of a particular topic. Do not be trapped into

describing events or merely summarising but give reasons for…

Illustrate – give examples to support what you are saying – can be in form of tables,

charts, diagrams…

Interpret - Explain the meaning of something and give your own judgement or a

situation.

List - Give an itemised series or tabulation; such answers should be concise.

Outline - , Give the main points and essential supplementary materials, but omit minor

details, in an organised and systematic way,

Prove - To confirm or verify. You should establish something with certainty by evaluating

and citing experimental evidence or by logical reasoning.

Relate - When showing relationships, your answer should emphasise connections and

associations in a descriptive manner.

Review - Re-examine, analyse and comment briefly (in an organised sequence) on the

major points of an issue.

Summarise - Paraphrase the main points briefly.

What is...? - Give a definition, explaining what the item in question is and how it differs

from other items of the same kind.

What is the significance of....? What is the importance of...? What impact/consequences

does this create?

COMS 1010 Aug 2009 66

Assignment Part 1: Choosing a Title for your Essay

Your tutor and you will agree on an essay title relevant to your field of study.

Look carefully at the question set to you, making sure you understand what it means.

Use this essay-title to carry out the parts of the assignment found in this Unit.

3.3.2 Brainstorming

Once you have understood the question, generate your own ideas to answer the

assignment/question.

Imagine you are on your own! Imagine that you are at an exam! Tell yourself that you do

not have any resource but yourself:

Record everything that comes to mind

Write quickly without stopping in note form

Do not judge your ideas

Do not worry about grammar, spelling or punctuation

Do not organise your ideas

Do not worry about the details, you will expand your main ideas later.

If you are in a group and have a question/assignment:

Ask each member, in rotation, for ideas

Record all your ideas

The brainstorming exercise will help you focus your forthcoming research work (reading,

collection of data…) on the question. When you start writing your essay, the ideas that

you would have generated from the brainstorming exercise will help you plan your essay.

COMS 1010 Aug 2009 67

Assignment Part 2: Brainstorming

Practise the brainstorming exercise on the essay-title your tutor and you have agreed on in

PART 1. The ideas that you will have generated will have to be submitted (word-

processed and in note-form) as part of your portfolio.

3.3.3 Finding your Sources and Note-taking

Writing at the level of university is very different from writing at SC or HSC level. The

ideas that you will generate will be far from sufficient for the assignment/question. You

will have to do as much reading as possible to broaden your knowledge.

Use the ideas that you have generated to search for reading materials:-

1. Look for books that are relevant. The table of contents and the index will help you

decide whether the books might be useful to you;

2. Use the card catalogues or the ‘electronic database’ to search for books on specific

subjects and topics;

3. Consult the journals that are available at the library to see if there is anything

relevant to the subject of your assignment/question. Enquire whether there is the

possibility of having an inter-library loan in case you might need a book available in

another library;

4. When you are reading a book/article and find an interesting reference, look at the

bibliography to find its original source. In certain cases, you might then find it

useful to chase up the original book or article;

5. A bibliography is also a mine full of information. The title of a book or article

mentioned in a bibliography can be a hint on whether the material found in it might

be of help to you;

6. The Internet is another source of information, although you should be careful when

using these materials which have not necessarily been edited in the same way as the

materials in books and articles have.

COMS 1010 Aug 2009 68

Once you have laid your hands on any reading material, skim reading will be invaluable as

it will help you decide whether the material is relevant to your task. You will, sometimes

unconsciously, classify your reading as:

(1) must be read thoroughly

(2) should be read

- portions which can be skimmed

- selected sections on which you should concentrate

(3) should only be skimmed

(4) should be discarded as inappropriate to the task

Note-taking is important when reading for assignments. Each individual has his own way

of taking notes and one way is as good as another so long as you feel comfortable with it.

However, you should bear a few things in mind when note-taking so as not to face

difficulties when you start writing your assignment.

1. Notes can be taken using various methods:

a. you can take one or more of the ideas found in the book/article you are reading,

that is, you use your own words and note down the main argument(s) of what you

are reading;

b. you can summarise the argument(s) of the reading materials;

c. you can copy directly from what you are reading.

2. When you are reading a book/article, write down its full bibliography the very moment

you start taking notes from that book/article.

3. While writing, note down the page(s) you are borrowing materials from.

Note: In the three cases mentioned above, you will need to formally acknowledge

that you have borrowed someone else’s idea, so as not to be accused of

PLAGIARISM. Using the ideas or words of others without giving proper credit to

the authors is a serious offence in academic writing. Use the quoting and

referencing techniques discussed in Sections 3. 5. 3 and 3. 5. 4.

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Note that written materials are not the only source of information. Interviewing people in

the relevant sector or collecting data through experiments/questionnaires/interviews may

also prove to be very useful for certain kinds of assignments.

Assignment Part 3: Reading, Note-taking and Referencing

At this point in your on-going assignment, you will have to do some reading relevant to

your essay title. As you read the materials, you should:

Prepare a page of notes taken from one of the books/articles you would have read

including

- a direct quote from the text

- a paraphrase

- a summary of the article/book/ argument (Use guidelines in Section

3.7.1

You will be expected to produce the page of notes as part of your portfolio. Do not

forget to keep the full bibliography of the book/article you have read (Refer to Section 3.

5. 4)

3.4 PRE-WRITING

You have your ideas from your Brainstorming exercise in front of you!

You have all the reading you have done in your mind…somewhere!!

You have your notes at hand for you to use when you need them!!!

Before you actually start writing, there are still a few more things to do in terms of

planning…

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3.4.1 Your Audience

As you write your assignment, bear in mind that you have different potential readers:

You are writing your assignment for yourself. Academic writing is a special

learning experience as the knowledge you gain from actually writing what you

know or/and have learnt is deeper and more lasting than the knowledge that comes

from listening to a lecture or reading a book or studying for a test. It is a very

personal experience. Use the assignment and the writing-up as a learning

experience.

You are writing for your tutor - he/she is your primary audience. Show your tutor

that you have understood the topic and that you can focus on it in an intelligent

manner.

You are writing for a wider audience as your paper should potentially interest a

wider audience. Make your writing as simple and comprehensible as possible.

3.4.2 Organise Yourself

Organising your ideas is the key to effective writing. Develop a method to suit your own

style because no two persons’ style will be the same. Here are some suggestions:

Identify the main ideas

Select the main ideas from your notes. Write each idea on individual sheets of paper.

Less important ideas could be discarded if you go over the word limit.

Group the ideas from the brainstorming activity

Put similar ideas together so as not to duplicate materials when writing your assignment.

COMS 1010 Aug 2009 71

References

If you have any references that will be useful for any of the points you have noted, record

them on the relevant sheet.

Identify and order main ideas

Put your ideas in a logical way, with headings which may or may not be removed later on.

This order will provide an outline for your writing. Each sheet of paper (with the main

idea and the relevant references) will develop into a sub-section or a paragraph.

Ensure that all key points are covered – keep in mind the main theme or the

objective for your assignment

At this stage you must return to the question, its key words and points. Ensure that all of

these are covered. Sometimes, the question itself may impose a certain structure on your

outline.

After the organising stage, you have a full set of well thought out notes which should

enable you to write up your assignment quickly and easily. In other words, your draft

should be well on the way of being written now.

COMS 1010 Aug 2009 72

Assignment Part 4: Organisation of Ideas

In Section 3. 3. 2, you generated ideas for your essay.

Now is the time to organise these ideas following the guidelines in the above section. In

other words, plan your essay.

Include this plan (word-processed) in your portfolio.

3.5 WRITING UP

3.5.1 Drafting

Writers have different approaches to writing: some will begin by writing the introduction

and then write the rest, while others will keep the writing of the introduction as the last

item on their list. Whatever you do, it is important that you choose a method that you feel

comfortable with. As you start writing, make the purpose of your writing clear to yourself

by writing it down on a sheet of paper. This exercise will help you avoid irrelevance.

The following notes may be of assistance, although they are by no means exhaustive:

The draft

You have your pages of notes and references in front of you, you can now start

writing your draft.

Begin where you like – You do not have to start by writing your introduction.

Some people feel that writing the introduction later is easier. Follow your instinct!

COMS 1010 Aug 2009 73

Work from your outline – Use your notes and references to write a paragraph or

sub-section from each page of notes that you have gathered.

Write – Write quickly, let your pen follow your thoughts. Resist the temptation of

rereading or editing while writing as this will interrupt your flow of ideas and your

style will suffer.

Use quotes and expert summaries to support your own ideas and

explanations - Quotes and references must support your writing, but should never

replace or be used instead of your own thoughts.

Acknowledge all sources - All sources must be properly cited, preferably by using

the Harvard system. It is extremely important that the citation (reference) is

complete and accurate. You don’t want to be accused of plagiarism!

At the end of your first draft, you have different pages, each containing an idea that has

been developed using examples, quotations and references. Leave it as it is!!!

LET YOUR DRAFT REST

FRESH EYES WILL CLEAR YOUR PERSPECTIVE

COMS 1010 Aug 2009 74

3. 5.2 Paragraphing

Once you have slept a night or two over your first draft and have let your sub-conscious

organise your ideas, you should be ready to start reworking your draft to produce your

final essay.

As you start re-writing, bear in mind that any essay is usually divided into three basic

sections, each section having a specific function:

Introduction - You need to introduce the topic so that another reader can immediately

grasp the key ideas and direction of the essay

(a) Respond to the question asked; it is sometimes helpful to provide your

interpretation of the question.

(b) Outline the situation/your position.

(1) State the aim of the paper.

(2) Explain the limits of your discussion – say what ground you are NOT

going to cover so as not to be criticized for not covering it.

(c) Outline your approach and line of reasoning.

The Body

1. Order your ideas - The main body should be a logically presented, coherent

argument which develops and supports the introductory thesis statement

2. Each new idea or argument should be allocated its own paragraph. Each

paragraph should contain a topic sentence. The topic sentence is usually

found at the beginning of the paragraph, but can also be in the middle or at

the end of a paragraph. The sentences in the paragraph should expand upon

and explain the originating topic. They should provide materials gathered

through research, examples, expert opinion, data and discussion which

COMS 1010 Aug 2009 75

provide logic, evidence and rationale for the points being made. The body

of the essay should explain, analyse and critically evaluate the materials

used.

3. Include the appropriate summaries, ideas and citations, not forgetting to

add the source following the Harvard System (or any other referencing

system, so long as you are consistent) so as not to be accused of

plagiarism.

4. Linkages between ideas, paragraphs and sentences are important as they

give your essay coherence. Refer to the techniques mentioned in Section

2.7.

Conclusion

The conclusion is the end statement. It:

summarises the problem/statement,

reinforces and brings together the main components of the argument,

draws conclusions from your findings

closes the discussion

makes recommendations in case you are writing an assignment with

practical applications

articulates your own opinion based on the evidence gathered in your

assignment

suggests the possible direction of further research

No new material is introduced in the conclusion.

Paragraph length: rules cannot really be made about the length of paragraphs but a good

paragraph is usually 100-200 words long. A short paragraph can be effective when it

summarises a highly detailed previous paragraph or when it serves as a transition between

two complex paragraphs. Do not abuse of short paragraphs.

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You will also have to add the references as footnotes/endnotes and a bibliography when

writing academic papers.

3.5.3 Quoting and Referencing

When you are quoting from others, you are taking their ideas and sometimes their words.

Referencing means acknowledging the work or ideas of other people. You thus need to

document your source:

- to give credit where credit is due

- to inform readers of the materials you have used to develop and support your

ideas. Your readers can thus go to these materials if they need to do so.

Failure to reference sources of words or ideas is plagiarism and is unacceptable at

university level.

There is no universally accepted form of documentation. Different fields of study,

different institutions and even different instructors have their own preferences. Some

formats are:

- The MLA (Modern Language Association) format

- The APA (American Psychological Association) format

- The Harvard System

Before you submit your assignments, either find out from your tutor the appropriate

referencing system for your field of study, or look at the referencing system of books that

are written in your field.

It is important that you use only one system in a document. The preferred system in many

academic circles, including the University of Mauritius, is the Harvard system and

therefore this unit covers only this system of citation.

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Referencing consists of two components:

1. The citations in the text itself. Within your text, you need to acknowledge the

work of others as soon as you borrow somebody else’s idea.

2. The bibliographic details of the sources at the end of the document

(Bibliography and References). This list will consist of the sources which you

mentioned in your text as well as all the works that were used in the

preparation of the document, although not necessarily cited.

COMS 1010 Aug 2009 78

Table 3.5 shows one example of the rules and provides examples for in-text references.

Table 3.5: Rules for In-text References Using the Harvard System

RULES EXAMPLE

Direct quotations:

Copy exactly and enclose in quotation marks.

Ensure author, year and page number are provided.

A more recent study (Carlson 1991, p16) found that “the workgroups

disliked autonomy”.

OR

Carlson states that “workgroups disliked autonomy” (1991, p. 16).

OR

In 1991, a study by Carlson found that “workgroups disliked autonomy”

(p. 16).

COMS 1010 Aug 2009 79

Words added to a quote should be enclosed in square brackets.

Quotes must be exact even if errors exist. Note errors by [sic].

When the quote is longer than 40 words, start a new line; omit

the quotation marks; indent the quote 1 cm from both right and

left and use italicised font.

Carlson states that “workgroups [vehemently] disliked autonomy” (1991,

p. 16).

Carlson states that “worlgroups [sic] preferred direction” (1991, p. 16).

This quote is at least 40 words but I am not going to type it

up... three full stop marks indicate that some words were

omitted.

RULES EXAMPLE

Paraphrasing/ summarising another author or using ideas/

concepts from others (The most common form of citation):

Quotation marks are not necessary but the author and year of

publication must be included.

If appropriate (rarely), page numbers should also be included.

Carlson (1991) developed ideas related to workgroups...

OR

In 1991, Carlson obtained interesting results from...

Results from a recent study (Carlson 1991 pp. 261-8).....

COMS 1010 Aug 2009 80

Personal communication:

Name year, pers. comm., date

These citations are not included in the reference list. (limit these

as far as possible).

Certain aspects of the theory are still being investigated (Williams, K. P.

1993, pers. comm., 2 April).

Secondary sources:

Avoid if possible.

Both references must be provided.

This expression was used by Williams (1992, p. 27) quoted in (Carlson

1991, p. 16).

COMS 1010 Aug 2009 81

Quote coherently – in all cases you must make sure that the quotations that

you are inserting make sense within the sentence in which you have

incorporated them. Your sentence, including the quoted matter, must

absolutely read coherently.

Example:

Wrong: Visiting the school, Yeats meets “A kind old nun in a white hood replies”.

Right: Visiting the school, Yeats meets “A kind old nun in a white hood” who answers

his questions.

Limit the number of quotations – quotations should not be used too

frequently. The aim of writing an assignment is to give your analysis and

comments on a topic. Other people’s research and ideas are secondary to your

own. Be careful to quote reasonably.

Some of the ways for you to introduce quotations are:

According to x…

As has often been pointed out (cite authors)…

As has been argued by x/ As x has argued

As x has observed/pointed out/ put it/ said/ shown/suggested/contended/called it/

concluded…

Considering the following description of …(quotation)

Few/Many share X’s view that…

In (x book) y author suggested that…

In his article (cite article) y argued that…

In x’s words: It is usually asserted that…

Some authorities have implied that….

X has gone so far as to speak of …

In a seminal article written in …

This thesis was extended by …

X may be regarded as the founder of…

COMS 1010 Aug 2009 82

3.5.4 Bibliography

At the end of your document, you will be expected to have bibliographic details of

the sources (Bibliography and References). This list will consist of the sources which

you mentioned in your text as well as all the works that were used in the preparation of

the document although not necessarily cited.

COMS 1010 Aug 2009 83

Table 3.6 shows the rule and examples for the compiling of the Reference List and Bibliography.

Table 3.6: Rules for Compiling the Reference List and Bibliography Using the Harvard System

RULES EXAMPLE

General sequence of listing:

Single author entries precede multiple author entries.

Multiple articles from the same author- initially by year;

or by suffix a, b, c etc. if more than one per year.

(These are arranged alphabetically by title)

Anderson, P.M. ...

Anderson, P.M. & Lynch, J. R. ...

Carlson, P.M. 1986 ...

Carlson, P.M. 1991 ...

Carlson, P.M. 1992a, Early ...

Carlson, P.M. 1992b, Practices ...

Books:

Author year of publication, title (in italics or underlined),

publisher, place of publication

Evan, W. M. 1993, Organisation Theory: Research and Design,

Macmillan, USA.

COMS 1010 Aug 2009 84

Edited book -add (ed.) or (eds.) after the author(s).

Multiple edition book - add the edition after the name of the

book. Brackets are not required.

Smith, B. (ed.) 1992, Management Development in Australia,

Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, NSW, Australia.

Abrol, Y. P., Gadgil, S. & Pant, G. B. (eds.), 1996, Climate variability

and Agriculture, Narosa Publishing House, New Delhi, India

Wexley, K. N. & Latham, G. P. 1991, Developing & Training Human

Resources in Organisations, 2nd edn, Harper Collins, USA.

Journal articles:

Author year, title of article, name of journal (in italics or

underlined), volume, no. or issue, pp. (inclusive pages of the

article).

The name of the article should be written exactly as it appears in

the journal.

Fitzgerald, W. 1992, ‘Training Versus Development’, Training &

Development, May, pp. 81-4.

Badham, R. & Mathews, J. 1989, ‘The New Production Systems

Debate’, Labour & Industry, vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 194-246.

Chapter in an edited book:

As for journal article, but publication details are in book format.

Delahaye, L. 1992, ‘Action Learning’, in Management Development in

Australia, ed. B. Smith, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Australia.

pp 275 - 285

COMS 1010 Aug 2009 85

Burton, C. 1986, ‘Equal employment opportunity programmes: Issues

in implementation’, in Australian Women: New Feminist Perspectives,

eds. N. Grieve & A Burns, Oxford University Press, Melbourne, pp.

292-304.

Subject Book or Subject Guide:

As for books.

Fastenau, M. 1993, GBU3312 Personnel Management Subject Book,

Monash Distance Education Centre, Australia.

Newspaper articles:

As for journal articles.

Brandis, G. 1987, ‘The Liberals: Just who is forgetting whom?’,

Weekend Australian, 24-25 Jan., p. 19.

Government publications:

Use procedure for books if author(s) are provided. If not arrange

by department/Ministry title.

Ministry for Civil Service Affairs & Employment 1999, Annual Report

1998-99, Government Printing Office, Port Louis.

Film, video or cassette:

[Film] or [Video] or [Cassette] is included after the title.

Maas, J. B. (Producer), & Gluck, D. H. (Director) 1979, Deeper into

Hypnosis [Film], Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, USA.

COMS 1010 Aug 2009 86

Journal Article on the WWW

Author Year, ‘Article title’, Journal Title, volume, issue, viewed Day Month Year, <URL>.

Full-text journal article in an electronic database, such as EBSCO or J-Store

Author Year, Journal Title, volume, issue, paging if given or indication of

length, viewed Day Month Year, Name of database service, Name of database,

item number (if applicable).

Griffith, A.I. 1995, ‘Coordinating family and school: mothering for schooling’,

Education Policy Analysis Archives, vol. 3, no. 1, viewed 12 February 1997,

http://olam.ed.asu.edu/epaa/.

Rasid, Z.M. & Parish, T.S. 1998, ‘The effects of two types of relaxation training on

students’ levels of anxiety’, Adolescence, vol. 33, no. 129, p. 99, viewed 23

September 1998, EBSCOhost database Academic Search Premier, item: AN589758.

Unit 9 87

Abbreviations which may be used in The Harvard system are:

c., ca. about, use with approx. dates e.g., c. 1880

ch. Chapter

ed., eds. editor(s)

edn, edns edition(s)

et al. and others (persons)

et seq. and on following pages, chapters etc.

l., ll. line(s)

n. d. no date

no., nos. number(s)

p., pp. page(s)

pers. comm. personal communication

rev. revised, reviser

[sic] thus, so [used to indicate that despite

appearances, the quoted text is exact e.g., with

incorrect spellings, dates etc.]

trans. translator(s)

vol., vols. volume(s)

An Example of a Reference List in the Harvard System

Badham, R. & Mathews, J. 1989, ‘The New Production Systems Debate’, Labour &

Industry, vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 194-246.

Cacioppe, R., Warren-Langford, P. & Bell, L. 1990, ‘Trends in Human Resource

Development and Training’, Asia Pacific Human Resource Management, May, pp. 56-72.

Unit 9 88

Fairfield-Sonn, J. W. 1987, ‘A Strategic Model for Small Business Training and

Development’, Journal of Small Business Management, January, pp. 12-18.

Hill, C. & Jones, G. 1992, Strategic Management Theory, 2nd edn, Houghton Mifflin,

USA.

Mortensen, W. & Foley, P. 1991, Measuring the Costs and Benefits of Training, Paper

presented at the 1991 Industry Training Conference, Melbourne, 23-24 November.

Rosow, J. R. & Zager, R. 1988, Training - The Competitive Edge, Jossey-Bass, USA.

NOTE: In Reference Lists, the second and following lines of each reference

are often indented. This is useful as it serves to emphasise.

Always be consistent in your referencing. Stick to one system only!!!

Assignment Part 6: Bibliography

(You will notice that Part 6 appears before Part 5, this is because when you submit your

portfolio, the bibliography should appear last).

Prepare a bibliography containing at least 5 books/articles relevant to the topic of your

mock essay, using the above format.

Unit 9 89

3.6 RE-WRITING

Once you have written your rough draft, you have to find ways of improving and refining

it. Rewriting your draft immediately or soon after having written it can be a waste as you

will not be able to see inconsistencies, irrelevance and ungrammaticality. Give yourself

and your mind time to rest, then come back to your work to correct it with a critical eye.

When you come back to your assignment, be ready to read it at least 3 more times and be

prepared to delete and/or rewrite complete sections and paragraphs.

While re-writing and revising your text, consider the following which might be of

assistance to you:

Content

- Have you addressed the question?

- Are you relevant in your approach?

- Is your argument logical and clear?

- Are your arguments connected?

- Is there the required evidence to support what you are claiming?

Structure

- Are there at least 3 paragraphs in your assignment?

- Have you limited yourself to one main idea per paragraph?

- Is there a logic in the way you have organised your paragraphs?

Paragraphs

- Is your topic sentence clearly articulated?

- Do you have enough evidence/examples to support your topic

sentence?

Sentences (Refer to Unit 2)

- Are your sentence structures varied? (Section 2.7)

- Are they grammatically correct? (Section 2.6)

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- Did you use formal language as appropriate for academic writing?

(Section 2.8)

Vocabulary (Refer to Unit 2, Section 2.5 )

- Did you use appropriate, correct, clear and concise vocabulary?

- Did you avoid repetitions (use synonyms – the thesaurus on your

computer can be of some use)?

Carefully check

-Spelling and homonyms (Use the spell check on the computer)

-Punctuation (Section 2.6.4)

-Total length is within limits

Accurate referencing (Unit 3, Section 3.5.3 & 3.5.4)

-Citations

-References

-Bibliographic and reference details

-Attachments

Presentation

-Title page

-Page numbering

-List of tables, figures, illustrations, diagrams, graphs

-Numbering system

-Lists

-White space and margins

-Visuals (graphs, tables, diagrams)

-Typography (font type, size, style, bolding, highlighting)

-Headings and sub-headings (if you have any)

- are you consistent throughout your assignment?

- Is it appealing to the reader?

Unit 9 91

Note: You might find it useful to ask an unbiased colleague or fellow student to review

your work. Make it clear that you expect critical feedback. If possible, choose

somebody who is pedantic about structure and grammar. You yourself should

proof-read, that is read all words one by one, before handing in your assignment.

Assignment Part 5: 800 words Essay

3.7 SUB-GENRES

In this section we will consider two types, or genres, of writing, which are often used in

academic writing: Summary and Literature Review

3.7.1 Summary

The ability to write an accurate, clear and intelligible summary is central to much academic

work: for taking notes when reading, for laboratory reports, for book reviews.

Summaries are also used in professional life: academics write abstracts, lawyers write

briefs and business executives always reduce long memoranda and reports to their

essential points.

There are certain principles that govern the act of writing summaries:

1. A summary is briefer than the original text it aims at summarising. A summary is

the condensation of the materials you are summarising. A summary is NOT a

paraphrase, it is NOT the word to word paraphrase of someone’s work in your

own words –

Unit 9 92

2. A summary concentrates only on the essential elements of the original text. It

omits all the details and all the examples found in the text.

3. A summary is accurate, it has to be true to the original text. It does NOT include

your opinions as it is factual and not judgmental.

4. A summary does not need to be in the same order or style as the original. It can

rearrange the arguments of the original text so long as it is coherent. Your style

will inevitably pervade the text you are writing.

5. A summary is usually in the present tense.

As a student, you will feel the need to summarise paragraphs, articles, chapters or/and

books either when note-taking or when you are required to do so as part of your course.

Before you start writing a summary, you must read the text you are meant to summarise

and get the gist of what you are reading. Make sure that you understand what is being

said; misunderstanding might be the source of trouble.

You must then read carefully each paragraph and note what its main point is. A paragraph

has a topic sentence, this is what you need to record. A very long paragraph might require

two sentences while a series of paragraphs discussing the same point can be summed up in

one sentence only.

Sometimes, you will not be required to summarise a text, but an aspect of a text. In this

case, you will have to be selective in the materials you select from the original text. It

might be helpful for you to work in a methodical and orderly way so as to avoid straying:

1. Read through the passage to grasp its meaning

2. Before your second reading, put the aspect of the text you have been asked to

summarise in front of you so as to focus on relevant material when taking notes.

3. During the second reading, jot down the author’s ideas which are relevant to you.

4. Check through your notes and check against the original to verify whether you

have correctly captured the meaning

Unit 9 93

5. Check that nothing important has been left out.

6. Do not include unnecessary detail, figures of speech (for instance, metaphor),

examples or anecdotes

7. Prepare a rough draft: use only your notes to ensure that you use your own

words.

a. Do NOT paraphrase sentences from the original text

b. Do NOT select sentences here and there in the original text and compile

them.

8. Check the draft against the original , make sure you have not added anything

9. Your summary should flow – use techniques given in Section 2.7 to make the

paragraph coherent.

10. Keep within the word limit

a. If you have more words than necessary:

i. prune the unessential

ii. Use more economical language

3.7.2 Literature Review

You will notice that in many dissertations or academic articles, there is a section called

‘Literature Review’. What is Literature Review and what is its aim in academic writing?

When you are working on an academic paper, it is very unlikely that you are writing

something 100% original. What you are investigating and writing about is in the context

of previous research carried out in the given field. What you then do is either:

1. extend or challenge current knowledge, theories or assumptions in the field; or

2. identify a research gap which you will then go on to exploit and fill in with your

own work

You will therefore need to place your research in the context of previous research,

underlining your connections and debts to already published materials in that area. You

Unit 9 94

will also need to demonstrate your awareness of other published work in the area. This

can be done by reviewing existing literature in the field and by using citations and

references.

Such a review will be descriptive and neutral in tone. You need to acknowledge the

methodology of other pieces of research and point out the findings, which your paper will

either confirm or challenge.

You can ask for an example of a literature review from your tutor.

3.8 A FEW POINTS TO REMEMBER

When writing an academic paper, there are a few things that you have to remember:

Make sure you understand the question/assignment/task given to you.

Generate your own ideas before consulting any outside materials

Use outside sources to support what you believe, say and argue

Spend time in organising your ideas as you have to be coherent in the presentation

of your ideas

Write your first draft quickly, letting your ideas guide you

Edit you first draft as many times as you deem necessary, verifying for

o relevance and coherence in presentation of ideas

o appropriate academic style

o grammaticality

o mistakes which come from word-processing

Write a full bibliography, consistently following a particular model

Use your skills at summarising when writing academic papers

Unit 9 95

UNIT 4 NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION

Unit Structure

4.0 Overview

4.1 Learning Objectives

4.2 Nonverbal Communication: Importance and Functions

4.3 Nonverbal Codes

4.3.1 Kinesics

4.3.2 Proxemics

4.3.3 Paralinguistics or Paralinguistic Features

4.3.4 Clothing and Artefacts (Personal Appearance)

4.3.5 Haptics (Use of Touch)

4.3.6 Chronemics (Use of Time)

4.4 Difficulties in Interpreting Nonverbal Communication

4.4.1 Contradiction

4.4.2 Confusion or Multiplicity of Meaning

4.4.3 Multiplicity of Cues and Expectations

4.4.4 Cultural Difference

4.5 A Few Points to Remember

4.0 OVERVIEW

In this Unit, we define nonverbal communication, discuss different types of nonverbal

codes and identify their role in communication. We also discuss some of the pitfalls of

nonverbal communication.

Unit 9 96

4.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After having completed this unit, you should be able to do the following:-

1. Define non-verbal communication

2. Describe different nonverbal codes (or different categories of nonverbal

communication)

3. Discuss the functions and importance of different nonverbal codes in communication

4. Identify pitfalls and barriers in nonverbal communication

5. Assess your own use of nonverbal cues

6. Prepare and rehearse your oral presentation (Assignment 2) by making use of

appropriate and effective nonverbal cues.

4.2 NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION: IMPORTANCE AND FUNCTIONS

When we communicate orally with one another - whether we are conscious of it or not -

we use both verbal communication (words) and nonverbal communication (e.g. facial

expressions and gestures).

Nonverbal communication usually refers to human communication that is not written or

spoken, or rather, forms or means of communication other than words. Nonverbal

communication includes a variety of cues or signs: a smile, a nod, a wave of the hand, a

bow, slouching on a chair, touching someone on the shoulder, being on time for an

appointment, the jewellery worn.

We acquire nonverbal language since we are born and this process is an on-going one. The

nonverbal language of an individual is the result of a number of factors such as one’s

family environment, social and cultural context, education, exposure to media, as well as

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the immediate context of communication and the audience/other persons involved in the

communication situation.

Nonverbal communication (nonverbal behaviour, nonverbal cues or signs) plays an

important role in communication among human beings.

- We convey meaning to others, intentionally or not, consciously or unconsciously,

through our nonverbal behaviour;

- We interpret meaning from the nonverbal cues conveyed by the ‘sender’ or

perceived by us as ‘receivers’.

Verbal and Nonverbal communication usually work together to convey messages and

meanings. Observe the persons around you, observe yourself; they (or you) do not speak

only with words, but with different parts of the body [Note: The term ‘body language” is

often used as a synonym for nonverbal language or communication].

In face-to-face communication, communicators can observe each other, and they

sometimes gather more meaning from the nonverbal behaviour than from the verbal

messages. Even when communicators are not in each other’s presence (for example a

telephone conversation), nonverbal communication can play a role. For instance, the tone

of one’s voice or, rate at which one speaks, contributes to the meaning conveyed by the

verbal messages.

Verbal communication primarily (but not exclusively) conveys content information:

e.g. “Meet me at the bus station at 10 a.m. tomorrow morning”.

Nonverbal communication generally conveys information about the relationship

between/among the communicators, or the context in which the communication takes

place.

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For instance, we do not use the same tone, facial expressions and gestures when saying:

“Meet me at the bus station at 10 a.m. tomorrow morning” in the different situations

below:

(1) giving an order

(2) making a polite request

(3) urging a friend to be present at that place and time

Activity 1

Say the sentence above in the different situations (1) to (3), using a realistic tone (and

making use of variations in tonal accent if necessary).

Nonverbal communication can:

- add to, reinforce or emphasise verbal messages. Consider the message “You will

place the chest here;” the tone of voice when saying “here” or the use of one’s

hands and body to indicate the exact location in the room, adds emphasis to the

verbal message, and helps to better capture the attention of the one being

addressed

- replace verbal messages. For example, in a meeting, the chairperson raises his or

her hand to signify “wait” to a person who is trying to speak before the

chairperson has finished speaking.

- contradict the verbal message. For instance, the frown on your best friend’s face is

clear to you that (s)he is annoyed even though (s)he denies it verbally. (Research

tends to show that nonverbal cues are more credible or more readily believed than

verbal ones.)

Activity 2

List five examples of non-verbal communication which you often use or see around you.

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We shall now discuss three nonverbal codes: Kinesics, Proxemics, Paralinguistics, in some

detail, and then provide a brief overview of three other non-verbal codes: Clothing and

Artefacts, Haptics, Chronemics.

4.3 NONVERBAL CODES

4.3.1 Kinesics

The term ‘Kinesics’ comes from the same family of words as ‘Kinetic’ (cf Kinetic energy

in Physics) which refers to the idea of movement. Thus, Kinesics deals with movements of

parts or the whole of the human body in communication.

The term ‘Kinesics’ refers to nonverbal behaviour involving the body, facial expressions,

eye contact, gestures, posture, body movement.

Facial Expressions

“Facial Expressions” include movements or expressions of any part of the face such as the

eyes, eyelids, eyebrows, nose, mouth and cheek. Examples of facial expressions are:

smiling, frowning, raising an eyebrow, pursing of the lips.

In certain cultures, the face is the most expressive part of the body. It communicates the

emotional state of a person, his/her reactions to the other’s communication/messages. (For

some people, their face acts as a barometer to their feelings!)

Eye Contact

Eye contact refers to sustained and meaningful contact with the eyes, with the person or

persons you are addressing. Eye contact is a less universal convention than other

expressions of the face. In traditional African or Asian Cultures, dropping your eyes in

conversation with an elder or a superior is regarded as a sign of respect. In Western

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cultures, little or no eye contact is regarded as unusual or inadequate behaviour, and can

be interpreted as a lack of interest or attention.

In the specific setting of public-speaking, eye contact is said to reveal a speaker’s honesty

and sincerity towards the audience, as well as his/her self-assurance. It helps to improve

the speaker’s credibility. It is advised to establish eye contact right from the beginning of a

speech. Eye contact serves as a visual bonding between a speaker and the audience. The

public speaker who rarely or never looks at the audience may appear disinterested in the

audience; the speaker who looks over the heads of audience members, or scans members

so quickly that eye contact is not established, may appear to be intimidated by the

audience. Some authors also argue that too much eye contact can be “too much of a good

thing”. We must remember that the way the speaker interacts with, the audience may

determine how the audience reacts to the speech.

(Note: The term ‘Oculesics’ refers to the use of the eye in communication. It constitutes a

nonverbal code in itself, and is studied as such in certain books and courses).

Gestures

The term “gesture” generally refers to movements of the hands, arms, shoulders, head,

feet of the communicator/sender of messages. The use and amount of gesture are usually

determined by the personality of the speaker, the subject-matter, the situation, context,

culture and the audience/receiver.

Gestures convey ideas, feelings and emotions. However, overuse of gesture can distract

the attention of the audience.

Posture

Posture refers to the way we hold our body, the way we sit, stand, slump, or slouch.

Posture can give information about the person involved in communication: the status, the

self-image, the attitude, the emotional state, gender (there can be a lot of differentiation in

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gender behaviour and posture in certain societies), social roles, the communicator’s

perceived relationship with the others.

Examples of posture are:

- sitting with your head in your hands (this may indicate a low emotional state)

- sitting with one’s feet on the desk (this may indicate familiarity, a feeling of

superiority…)

A speaker’s posture, like his/her facial expressions and gestures, should fit the context and

the occasion.

Body Movements

Other movements of the body that do not appear under the above categories can be

classified as body movements. For instance, the way a person walks can be an indicator of

how the person is feeling or the way a person walks beside another one can be an indicator

of the relationship or closeness between the two.

It seems that our ability to interpret a speaker’s meaning is increased when we combine

the interpretation of both facial expressions and body movements.

4.3.2 Proxemics

Proxemics comes from the same family of words as approximate, proximity, etc.

Proxemics can be described as the use we make of space in communication (in personal,

social and formal situations). Examples of movements in space are walking a few steps to

and fro, moving closer to or further from the audience.

Researchers (like Hall) have shown that the way human beings arrange and make use of

space reveals information about themselves, their personality, their relationships and their

culture.

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However, just as for kinesics, we should not stick to fixed interpretations that can lead to

stereotyping. For instance, if it is true that some serious students tend to choose a seat

near the front of the class or near the teacher, this is not true of all serious students who

may prefer to sit further from the front or the teacher.

In the public-speaking context, movement in space can help maintain the attention of the

audience, especially in long speeches. A short speech without movement tends to be less

difficult for both the speaker and the audience than a very long speech without movement.

A speaker may use space to stress an idea, to indicate a change in topic or mark a

transition. Sometimes, the use of movements is limited by the physical setting: e.g. the use

of a fixed microphone on a lectern or desk, the use of an overhead projector, or a

computer for a PowerPoint presentation, the smallness of a room, the seating

arrangement.

Inappropriate and purposeless movements are to be avoided. For instance, if the speaker

moves like a caged lion, pacing back and forth or sideways, this can give the impression

that the speaker is nervous.

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Activity 3

(Read through the whole exercise before attempting) Observe two or three persons interacting in any informal situation for a few minutes. You must be close enough to observe their facial expressions, and hear the verbal exchange. You must not participate or obstruct in the interaction. Observe discreetly. (1) Note the nonverbal aspects listed below (2) Compare the verbal and nonverbal signs and messages. Does the nonverbal aspect

reinforce, replace or contradict the verbal message(s)?

Person n0 1 Person n0 2 Person n0 3

- eye contact (very little – average – a lot)

- facial expressions (describe)

- gestures (describe)

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- use of space (describe)

- Functions of nonverbal signs or behaviour

4.3.3 Paralinguistics or Paralinguistic Features (other terms used are

“paralanguage”, or “vocal aspects of speech delivery”, or “nonverbal oral

cues”.)

The prefix “para” means alongside or parallel to. Paralinguistic features are sounds and

their variations that are made by the vocal chords, but which are not words. They exist

alongside words or verbal language.

Some paralinguistic features are:

Volume

Pitch

Rate

Pauses

Pronunciation and Articulation

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Volume

The volume of the voice has to do with its relative loudness.

To be effective in our communication, we must speak in order to be heard by the persons

we are addressing. Although this may sound elementary, many speakers (in a class, in a

meeting,….) forget or neglect to speak loudly enough for all participants in the

communication situation to hear.

Usually, variations in volume help to lay stress on ideas and points, and can convey

additional meaning such as emotion, or level or degree of importance.

Voice Pitch

Voice pitch is defined as the highness or lowness of the voice. An example might help to

understand what is meant by pitch: Compare the “ah!” you utter in reaction to sudden pain

with the “ah!” uttered when you see someone very attractive going by!

Generally, in the first case, the pitch is high, and in the second case, it is a low one.

As a speaker, you should avoid either the same pitch all along which can result in a

monotonous delivery, or too many changes in pitch that can result in a singsong delivery

or a delivery that can sound artificial.

Some uses or effects of voice pitch are:

- The pitch of the voice can make a speaker sound lively, or, on the contrary, listless and

monotonous

- Changes in pitch can be used to lay stress on words and ideas, and consequently help

an audience remember information

- Changes in pitch can indicate meaning: they can, for instance, indicate whether the

words are a statement, a question or an exclamation, or whether the speaker is

expressing doubt, disgust, anger, surprise or determination

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Pitch control is important in communication because sometimes we sound angry when we

do not intend to; or we may sound opposed to an idea when, in fact, we are only

expressing surprise.

Rate (or pace) of speech

Rate refers to how fast or how slowly someone speaks. Just as for pitch and volume,

variations in the speech rate can help to stress an idea, or to maintain the interest of the

audience.

The rate of delivery depends on such factors as:

- The individual speaker (how fast the person normally speaks)

- The situation

- The audience (for instance, reading a story to a small child generally requires a slow

rate or pace)

- The topic or subject treated especially in relation to the audience (for instance,

whether the audience is familiar or not with the topic).

Usually, the bigger the audience in a face-to-face situation, the more complex and serious

the content of the topic, the slower the rate of speech.

Pauses (or sounds and silence)

Pauses break words and sentences into meaningful units. Pauses can be used to emphasise

ideas, to mark transitions, to ask rhetorical questions, to maintain attention or to create

suspense.

As we pause and search for the next words of our delivery, we often use vocalised pauses

i.e., sound like “uh”, “um”, “you know”, “well”, “right”. Unfilled pauses are silent pauses

that often last hardly a few seconds and which interrupt the flow of speech in a natural

manner.

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Overuse of filled or vocalised pauses can cause interference in communication and can

distract listeners. Overuse of vocalised pauses also seems to affect negatively an

audience’s perception of the speaker’s competence and dynamism.

Pronunciation and Articulation

Pronunciation refers to the way we utter words especially with reference to a standard

that is generally accepted or understood. For example, the 'g' in "gemini" is pronounced

like the soft 'j' in "junk", but we must produce a more harsh and guttural sound when we

are pronouncing the 'g' in "ground". People who are learning English as a second language

sometimes have tremendous difficulty with the pronunciation of words. Also, some words

are pronounced differently according to the English used (e.g. British vs.

American).

Sometimes a difference in pronunciation conveys difference in meanings and may even

lead to misunderstanding.

Note: If you are not sure about how to pronounce a word, you may look it up in the

dictionary. The phonetic transcription (sound form) is often inserted between

brackets. A phonetic alphabet is also available at the beginning of the dictionary as

a guide for pronunciation.]

Articulation refers to whether the speaker/sender clearly separates the parts / syllables of

the word or verbal message being uttered (e.g. de-part-ment). In informal spoken English,

we tend not to articulate correctly. For example, we sometimes merge syllables in oral

expressions such as "I wanna go home" (instead of "I want to go home").

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Activity 4

With the help of your tutor, say the following sentence for each of the different

circumstances listed underneath:

- “Ladies and gentlemen, I would like to thank you for being with us today”

(1) The opening at a circus

(2) At a funeral service

(3) A social function such as a wedding party

What lessons do you learn?

4.3.4 Clothing and Artefacts (Personal Appearance)

This category includes the general appearance of the communicator: clothing, hairstyle,

make-up, perfume, use of jewellery, shoes and other objects like a handbag, a watch,

glasses.

Although we know the saying “Clothes do not make the man” (a French equivalent:

“l’habit ne fait pas le moine”), our perception of a person is often influenced by the

clothing and other artefacts worn, carried by or accompanying that person. Likewise, our

general appearance conveys meanings to others.

What is appropriate for the occasion will depend on different factors such as the context -

cultural and social - the other person(s)’ views and values. We need to be aware of what is

considered fit for different situations or contexts. For example, if you are going for a job

interview, you will necessary dress up like you would be expected to do if you were

already on the job, and not, as you would do for example to attend a wedding.

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4.3.5 Haptics (Use of Touch)

Haptics, or tactile communication, refers to the use of touch in communication. It varies

from one culture to another, and also depends on one’s status, role(s), profession, gender.`

Referring to Western cultures (though this is true in other cultures as well), Pearson and

Nelson (1994, p. 124) note that: “The president might pat you on the back for a job well

done, but, in our society, you don’t pat back.”

We know that the same applies for our society, for instance, if your boss or superior pats

you on the back, you don’t pat back!

4.3.6 Chronemics (Use of Time)

Chronemics is concerned with the use of time in encounters and relationships. Time can

influence the way we interpret messages and behaviour. For example, you are late each

time you have a meeting with your colleagues. You may have genuine reasons to justify

your lateness but your systematic lateness may be interpreted as a lack of interest or lack

of co-operation.

We know also that different cultures and societies have different attitudes to time: some

are very rigid (9 a.m. means 9 a.m.!), while others are more flexible with time.

Misunderstandings can occur between partners of different cultures/countries who have

different conceptions of time.

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Activity 5

Explain how you personally convey and interpret meaning using

i. touch

ii. time

iii. clothing and artefact.

Can you think of instances where your notion of these nonverbal codes was not shared by

another person, and led to misunderstanding or conflict?

4.4 DIFFICULTIES IN INTERPRETING NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION

Nonverbal communication provides the basis for much of the misunderstanding

that occurs in communication.

[Pearson & Nelson, 1994, p. 116]

Nonverbal messages are more ambiguous than verbal messages. Nonverbal messages can

indeed be confusing, tricky, and can lead to misunderstandings or conflicts.

Difficulties in interpreting nonverbal communication or messages are due to different

factors. Some of the factors are:

Contradiction

Confusion (or multiplicity of meaning)

Multiplicity of cues and expectations

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Cultural Difference

4.4.1 Contradiction

When we communicate, our nonverbal signs or messages generally confirm or add to our

verbal messages. Sometimes, however, the nonverbal messages seem to contradict the

verbal messages they accompany. Someone tells you: “Don’t hesitate to ask if you need

anything”, but the tone or facial expression do not seem to be saying the same thing. The

non-verbal message seems to contradict the ‘help offered’ in/by the verbal message. You

are left to wonder: is the person offering help merely to be polite? Yet, the verbal

message may be genuine, but the person, preoccupied with some other thought, does not

express or show the enthusiasm (s)he would have shown in normal circumstances.

4.4.2 Confusion or Multiplicity of Meaning

Even within the same culture, the same nonverbal cues may have different meanings, and

the difficulty in deciding which meaning is conveyed can create confusion. For example,

when waving the hand from a distance, the meaning intended may be, for instance:

Calling someone

Or, saying goodbye

Or, showing something.

The following situation has probably happened to all of us at one time or another: we part

with someone, and as we move away in the car or bus which is driving off, the person

gestures with the hand, and we are left wondering whether it was to say goodbye, to point

at something, to call us back to say something important.

Another tricky situation can happen to drivers at a busy crossroads where a traffic /police

officer, who uses only nonverbal code, is directing the traffic flow. Sometimes the gesture

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or hand sign is not clear and a driver finds himself or herself in a difficult situation: did the

officer signal me “go” or “wait”, or even did the officer signal me, or the car beside me?

4.4.3 Multiplicity of Cues and Expectations

An example of a variety of nonverbal cues communicating the same meaning

would be the many nonverbal ways adults have to express love or affection.

[Pearson & Nelson, 1994, p. 116]

Because of a person’s expectations, (s)he may be tempted to doubt another person’s

affection because for instance, “that person takes no special care in dressing when we go

out together!” Although the other person is always very considerate, speaks softly, is on

time for a date (all of which are normally considered to be indicators of affection), the first

one tends to doubt the affection of the other, instead of considering the other cues or signs

of affection.

4.4.4 Cultural Difference

From one culture to another, the same nonverbal cues may mean different things, just as

the same meaning may be conveyed by different nonverbal cues. It is therefore essential to

understand not only the verbal code, but also the nonverbal one, when communicating

with someone from a different culture, or co-culture (different groups living in the same

country). Misinterpretation of nonverbal communication across cultures, especially when

combined with stereotyping and other prejudices, can have serious consequences.

Activity 6

Describe situations in which you were involved, or which you witnessed, and that illustrate

the difficulties in interpretation, identified in Section 4.4 of Unit Four.

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4.5 A FEW POINTS TO REMEMBER

Communication is concerned not only with verbal messages but with nonverbal

ones as well; most often, verbal and nonverbal messages operate simultaneously.

We need to be aware of how nonverbal communication functions, the different

types of nonverbal codes and their characteristics.

Communication is not just about sending, but also about receiving messages;

hence, improving our nonverbal skills involves conveying and interpreting

nonverbal signs or cues, more effectively.

We must pay sufficient attention to our nonverbal language, and be open to

feedback from others. For example, if people frequently misunderstand our

messages or meanings, it may be because of our nonverbal behaviour.

We must be receptive to other people’s nonverbal cues: remember that nonverbal

cues and meanings can vary from one person to another, from one context or

situation to another. “Interpreting the meaning of nonverbal communication is

partly a matter of assessing the other person’s unique behaviour and considering

the context. You don’t just “read” another person’s body language; instead, you

observe, analyse, and interpret before you decide the probable meaning.” [Pearson

and Nelson, p. 118]

“Wrong” interpretation of nonverbal language or meaning can cause

misunderstanding or conflict.

Nonverbal language, even more than verbal language, is not universal.

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UNIT 5 INFORMATIVE SPEECHES; SPEECHES ON/FOR SPECIAL OCCASION

Unit Structure

5.0 Overview

5.1 Learning Objectives

5.2 What is Speech Communication?

5.3 The Informative Speech

5.3.1 Aims of the Informative Speech

5.3.2 Audience, Topic, Content

5.4 Techniques of Informative Speeches

5.4.1 Definition

5.4.2 Description

5.4.3 Demonstration and/or Instruction

5.4.4 Explanation

5.5 Speech Designs or Organisational Patterns of Speech

5.5.1 Chronological

5.5.2 Topical

5.5.3 Spatial

5.5.4 Sequential

5.5.5 Problem-and-Solution

5.5.6 Causal, or Cause-and-Effect

5.6 Speeches on/for Special Occasion

5.6.1 Speech of Introduction

5.6.2 Speech of Welcome

5.6.3 Speech to Present an Award

5.6.4 Speech of Response or Acceptance

5.6.5 Speech of Tribute

5.7 A Few Points to Remember

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5.0 OVERVIEW

In this Unit, we introduce Speech Communication, and focus on Informative Speech. We

present a few techniques of Informative Speeches, as well as a few Speech Designs. The

Unit also discusses another type of speech: Speech on/for special occasions.

There are no activities in this unit but when going through this unit, you should identify

how to apply the skills and knowledge discussed here for Assignment 2.

5.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After having completed this unit, you should be able to do the following:-

1. Define Speech Communication.

2. Identify the specificity and characteristics of an Informative Speech.

3. List a few techniques used in Informative Speech.

4. Describe a few Speech Designs (or Organisational Patterns of Speech)

5. Deliver a Speech on/for a special occasion (Assignment 2)

6. Prepare and present an informative speech (combining knowledge gained in this unit

and in preceding units: English usage, nonverbal communication, etc.) – Refer to

Assignment 3 in Assignment file.

5.2 WHAT IS SPEECH COMMUNICATION?

Speech communication is used in different communication settings. Although it refers

more often to the public speaking setting, speech communication can take place in small-

group or interpersonal settings.

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Examples of Speech Communication are:

- A public lecture given by a visiting academic in the Paul Octave Wiehe Auditorium

(public speaking context)

- One person makes a speech to explain the purpose of the workshop being held and the

topics to be discussed (small-group communication)

- A teacher explaining a lesson to one student or discussing a particular difficulty

encountered by the student (interpersonal communication)

- Speech communication through radio and television (mass media)

Difference between “speeches” and any other oral encounter:

Speech communication is an intentional, purposeful, usually planned, oral delivery of a

content or information to an audience.

Intentional

The term “intentional” implies that the speaker has an intent; the speaker has a topic to

talk about, intends to convey specific information, ideas, opinions and meaning.

Purposeful

Generally, the speaker’s aim is to inform and/or persuade and/or entertain an audience.

Planned

The speaker researches and/or organises the content of his/her speech, plans the use of

presentation aids, decides on the verbal, and sometimes nonverbal forms and messages to

be used, in order to achieve his/her purpose.

In whatever context or setting Speech communication takes place, the roles are relatively

well defined. In this usually planned communication encounter, the speaker and the

audience or listener(s) are clearly identified. In this situation, feedback is mainly nonverbal

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(in the case of speech using mass media like television, immediate feedback is most often

nonexistent).

A speech is organised into a beginning, a body and a conclusion (like an essay, which was

discussed in Unit 3). It can be supported or illustrated by means of presentation aids

(Discussed in Unit 5). The style is conversational and sounds natural, although the text of

the speech may be written.

Three main types of speeches are generally identified, depending on the purpose and

nature of the speech occasion.

One same speech can sometimes have more than one of the following purposes, but for

presentation purposes, we shall deal with each separately:

1. Speeches to inform or Informative Speeches (Studied in this unit).

2. Speeches on/ for Special Occasions (Studied in this Unit).

3. Speeches to persuade or Persuasive Speeches (Studied in Unit 7).

For ethical purposes, it is important to distinguish between the informative speeches and

the persuasive speeches we deliver. Also, as audience/citizens, we are more and more

exposed to speeches that mix both information and persuasion. It is essential for us to

recognise the different forms of speeches, and the techniques used for information, and

for persuasion.

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5.3 THE INFORMATIVE SPEECH

5.3.1 Aims of the Informative Speech

Informative Speaking or the Informative Speech aims at sharing knowledge and creating

understanding with others.

The Informative Speech can communicate information that is totally new or increase

knowledge about something: e.g. a speech on an illness that the audience has never heard

of, or a speech to increase knowledge about an illness, its causes, prevention and cure.

Throughout our life, we have been exposed to Informative Speeches. In class, teachers

make informative speeches to impart knowledge. Religious talks are Informative

Speeches, but can be persuasive too! The mass media of radio and television air a variety

of informative speeches.

We ourselves engage in informative speaking; for example, when we explain or teach

something to a child or another person, when we give a talk on our profession or job to a

school audience, or when we make a presentation in class on a specific topic.

An informative speech is to be predominantly informative; that is, most of

the content of the speech should focus on increasing audience knowledge

and clarifying concepts for greater understanding.

[Pearson & Nelson, 1994, p. 384]

Informative speeches are meant to give objective, factual, balanced and complete

information on a topic. Unlike the persuasive speech (discussed in Unit 7), the

informative speech does not attempt to influence people’s beliefs, attitudes and

behaviour. However, since the Informative Speech can shape perceptions and can

determine attitudes, beliefs and behaviour, this kind of speech should provide the audience

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with all relevant or necessary information, revealing or clarifying the audience’s options or

possible choices. The audience is then left to make its own choice, a reasoned and

informed one.

For example, if one has to make an informative speech on electric showers to help the

audience make its own choice, one might include such information as:

- The types of showers that exist, and that are available on the local market

- The different brands and prices

- The different types or brands appropriate for different locations, type of housing,

water pressure and supply.

After the speech, or after the information is acquired, the individual makes his/her own

choice based on personal preferences, requirements and means.

5.3.2 Audience, Topic, Content

The Audience

It is essential to know for what audience the speech is intended. The audience determines

what you talk about, the content and level of difficulty of your speech, and how you talk

about the subject, e.g. the speech technique(s) to be used (See section 5.4), or even the

Speech Designs that are most appropriate (section 5.5).

We know that the same topic, subject and message content cannot be communicated (not

to say “thrown at”) different audiences in the same way. Therefore, the informative

speaker must prepare a speech appropriate for the audience. The appropriate speech is

determined by such factors as the audience’s age, background or instruction, prior

knowledge of the topic dealt with, and language comprehension.

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Sometimes, informative speeches are addressed to a “mixed” or varied audience. The

speaker must, in this case, be even more careful in the choice of the content and message,

and find ways to convey information and knowledge to a maximum number of people, in

an effective manner.

The speaker must try to attend to the needs or desires of the audience. It would not serve

the purpose of informative speaking if the speaker conveys information or knowledge

which does not at all interest the audience, or is too far from its experiences or needs. For

example, explaining to a Mauritian audience the precautions to take with garden plants

under freezing weather conditions!

To catch and maintain the audience’s interests, the speaker can relate the knowledge to be

shared or imparted, with the audience’s experiences, context and needs.

The Topic

For an informative speech, we often have to narrow a topic or subject. Not all topics are

appropriate for informative speeches. Also, not all topics are appropriate for any audience.

As mentioned previously, topics have to be relevant to the needs, or interests of the

audience.

The Content

After the general topic has been chosen (e.g. tropical diseases), the approach that the

speaker chooses, and the information/content included in the speech will be related to the

speaker’s goal or intent, and to the audience. For example, the speaker (a medical doctor)

intends to inform the audience (lower secondary school students) on ways to prevent

specific tropical diseases that are likely to affect the given audience (and their family) if

certain precautions/measures are not taken.

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A speech to introduce a piece of new knowledge will not include the same information as

one which aims at increasing the understanding of an audience already familiar with the

topic. The speaker must also avoid information overload: the Informative Speech must not

provide information in quantity or complexity that cannot be handled by the audience. For

instance, one would not deliver the same speech on tropical diseases to school children

and doctors!

The following ways and means can be used to make the content more interesting, clearer,

easier to remember, and to hold the audience’s attention:

- Use of examples, illustrations, comparisons,

- Going from the known (knowledge that the audience already possesses) to the

unknown (what the speaker wants the audience to learn)

- Use of different types or forms of messages

- Use of visual or other presentation aids, or use of different channels or medium/media

of communication

Unit 9 122

Activity 1

By now, you should have read through Assignment 3. If you have not done so, refer to it

now and then proceed with the rest of this unit.

The first step of Assignment 3 requires you to choose a topic for your informative

speech/oral presentation. If you have made your choice, fill in Row 1 of the table below.

If you have not made up your mind on a final topic, fill in Rows 1-3 the two or three

topics over which you are hesitating. You will make your choice a little later, once you’ve

investigated the scope of your topic and the sources of information.

Topic Content (write a sentence

outline)

Sources of Information

Example Solar Energy To explain what solar

energy is, how it

functions, its advantages

and limits

- interview with two

specialists, Mr. X and

Ms. Y

- Books listed

1

2

3

5.4 TECHNIQUES OF INFORMATIVE SPEECHES

The Informative Speech can use different forms, ways or techniques to convey

information. The choice of these techniques is usually determined by the audience, its level

of knowledge, and the topic itself. For instance, the speaker should ask the following

questions: is the topic a simple, a complex, or a controversial one? What are the speaker’s

skills and mastery of the subject?

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The goal of the informative speaker is to make it easy for the listeners to understand, and

to retain, the information imparted. Some techniques that can help to achieve this goal are:

- definition

- description

- explanation

- demonstration

Although for convenience sake, we present the different forms or techniques separately,

we must remember that more than one form or technique can be used in one same speech.

For example, we can define and describe the object or process being talked about.

5.4.1 Definition

Definition is used to reveal the meaning of a term, idea, concept or process. For example,

in a speech on a given instrument or equipment, the definition will tell the audience what

the instrument or equipment is, and what it is used for. Some useful methods of defining

are the use of comparison, contrast, synonyms and etymology (the origin or history of a

word).

Definition can be used in different kinds of speeches, especially when the audience is not

familiar with the subject or topic being talked about. Definitions can also be used at

different moments of a speech when there is a need to define a term or idea that the

audience may not know.

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5.4.2 Description

Description tells the audience what the object, instrument or process is like: what it looks,

sounds, feels or smells like. If an object or instrument can be shown, then the speaker can

use both description and demonstration (explained in section 5.4.3). Sometimes, it is not

practical or possible to carry the object or instrument or machine (e.g. a tractor), to the

place where the speech is being delivered. In the case of an informative speech over radio,

the medium does not allow the audience to see the object. The speaker and audience must

depend on description alone. The speaker has to rely on the use of descriptive language to

convey a clear picture: the size, form, weight, colour, and use as reference, the basic

questions often used by journalists: the “Who? What? Where? When? Why? How?”

questions.

5.4.3 Demonstration and/or Instruction

Demonstration is used, whenever possible or desirable, to show, to the audience an object,

a process, a way of doing something: for example, demonstrating how to assemble a kit.

Demonstrations are often accompanied by instructions to show or instruct on how

something is done or made: e.g. how to use a grinder to grind spices.

Demonstrations often follow a step-by-step sequence. Recipe demonstrations on television

constitute a genre we are all familiar with.

Demonstrations need to be clear and simple so as to enable the audience to reproduce the

different steps afterwards.

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5.4.4 Explanation

An explanation is a means of idea development, an alternative way of

stating an idea or concept.

[Pearson & Nelson, 1994, p. 398]

Explanation uses words or terms the audience already knows to increase or provide more

in-depth information about relatively abstract concepts, ideas and beliefs. For example, if

you are to make a speech on “ideology” or “religion” to secondary school students, you

would probably define the term first and then “explain”.

Explanation is used to increase the understanding or appreciation of a field of knowledge

or of a concept. It is a speech technique often used by teachers in science. For example, in

class, the teacher explains a mathematical formula; the science teacher explains how a

specific chemical process takes place, after having defined what a chemical process is, the

preceding week.

Note: More than one speech technique may be used in one speech. The different

techniques are not necessary or appropriate for all speeches.

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Activity 2

Refer to the table below and fill in columns 1-5.

1

Topic

2

Content

(Sentence

Outline)

3

Sources of

Information

4

Content

(Outline of

points to be

discussed)

5

Speech

Techniques

to be used

6

Speech

Designs to

be used

5.5 SPEECH DESIGNS OR ORGANISATIONAL PATTERNS OF SPEECH

The terms “Speech Designs” or “Patterns of Speech” refer to the type of arrangement

used to organise or structure content or information, in a speech. It is the order, sequence

or pattern in which ideas are outlined and/or developed.

We shall consider a few types of “speech designs” that can be used individually, or

combined, in a speech, depending upon the needs or the purpose of the speech. The choice

of a speech design (s) is determined by a number of factors: the nature and purpose of the

speech, the information gathered or available, the audience.

1. Chronological

2. Topical

3. Spatial

4. Sequential

5. Problem-and-Solution

6. Causal, or cause and effect

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5.5.1 Chronological

The Chronological design is also called the narrative design, or the time-sequence pattern.

This pattern, commonly used in informative speeches, can be used in speeches that deal

with some event, idea, practice or issue, over time. In other words, it can be used for

subjects that have to do with the past, present and/or future.

For example, if we want to talk about the development of television in Mauritius over the

past few decades, we shall find this pattern quite appropriate. Or, if we have to talk of the

present situation concerning stillborn babies, we may choose to consider the situation in

the forties, in the sixties, in the eighties, and at the end of the twentieth/beginning of

twenty-first centuries, to show that there has been a decrease in stillbirths until the 1980s,

before showing that there has been a rise in the last twenty years. Then we may proceed

by giving advice on preventive measures to today’s parents. (This example is purely

fictitious and is not based on facts).

The arrangement in a time sequence can be from the least recent to the most recent, or

vice versa.

5.5.2 Topical

The Topical design or topical pattern is a highly versatile pattern that has to do with the

subject matter. Divisions that have become standardised, or new classifications, are used

to organise the information to be imparted so that the audience can easily grasp the

content.

Remember our earlier example concerning a speech on electric showers. For such a

speech, the speaker may choose to talk about the different types of electric shower, the

advantages and disadvantages of each, the brands and prices, the qualities of each.

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Another example: If a radio or television programme wants to talk about the different

plants one can grow in the garden, the information may be classified and presented in the

following ways: plants to grow in winter or summer, small and big plants and trees,

indigenous and “imported” plants.

5.5.3 Spatial

The Spatial design or Spatial pattern organises information in terms of physical or

geographical location or proximity.

For example, in a biology lecture, the “heart” may be explained in terms of its place in the

structure of the body, in terms of its functions and relation with other parts of the body

such as the brain, the lungs, the liver.

Another example is a speech in which one has to present the better-equipped football

stadiums on the African continent: one may choose to talk about the stadiums in the

northern countries of Africa, then move on to other regions, East-African region or

countries, West-African region or countries, southern region or countries.

5.5.4 Sequential

The Sequential pattern or design is a highly versatile pattern; it can be used to outline the

steps to be followed in a process, to give instructions that have to be carried out in a

systematic way, one after the other.

For example, the sequential pattern can be used to demonstrate the assembling of a kit;

first, you assemble these two pieces, then you add the four legs, then you place the four

rubber pieces …

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Or, when sharing a recipe, this pattern proves helpful and a sure way to obtain a specific

cake or dish.

You may have noticed that the speech techniques “demonstration” and “the sequential

pattern” are a bit alike.

5.5.5 Problem-and-Solution

The Problem-and-Solution pattern is also called Problem-solving Design. In the case of an

informative speech, the speaker establishes that a problem exists, and then suggests a

possible solution or different solutions. (Note that this speech pattern is often used in

persuasive speeches, in which case the speaker, after establishing that a problem exists,

will provide the specific solution (s)he is advocating!)

For example, a problem-and-solution pattern can be used by a doctor giving a talk to a

group of people on how to heal heartburn. The doctor lists different solutions: change in

diet, stopping certain practices (such as heavy smoking), types of medication to be taken.

[In comparison, the persuasive speaker, (for example in a television commercial), will tell

the audience that the best solution for heartburns is “product VWX” that is being

advertised].

5.5.6 Causal, or Cause-and-Effect

In the causal pattern or design, ideas are developed in relation to each other: Present

situations or effects are shown as being results, or consequences of past actions or events.

Or, we are told that future consequences will result from today’s practices, actions,

decisions.

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For example, in a speech concerning the tourism industry, the speaker may tell the

audience that, if there is no regulation on accommodation services for tourists, then the

quality of service goes down and in the long run, the whole tourism industry of the

country will suffer.

Note: The cause-and-effect pattern is also frequently used in persuasive speeches.

Indeed, many commercials tell us that if we consume “product WXY”, then we

shall feel or look younger, better, stronger.

Activity 3

Refer to Table in Activity 2. Fill in the last column: “speech designs to be used” after you

have carried out research on you topic and gathered material. Go back to the other

columns and fill in with as much detail as you can.

5.6 SPEECHES ON/FOR SPECIAL OCCASION

We are all familiar with Speeches on Special Occasions or for ceremonies – for example,

on the occasion of a wedding, at a prize-giving ceremony or for Independence Day

celebrations.

These occasions can be either informal (e.g. at a wedding) or formal (e.g. the headmaster

of a primary school presenting or welcoming the guest speaker on the occasion of

Independence Day celebrations).

Speeches on Special Occasions can be informative, entertaining, or even persuasive.

Speeches on Special Occasions, like other types of speeches, must take into account the

Unit 9 131

context, the purpose and the audience being addressed. Compared to other types of

speeches, Speeches on Special Occasions have their specificity:

What’s special in this case is not the person doing the speaking but the

occasion that creates those expectations in your listeners

[Pearson & Nelson, 1994, p. 281].

And in this case one of the expectations of the listeners is to hear something profound or

memorable.

Below we discuss some categories of speeches on special occasions.

1. Speech of introduction

2. Speech of welcome

3. Speech to present an award

4. Speech of response or acceptance

5. Speech of tribute

5.6.1 Speech of Introduction

A Speech of Introduction usually serves to introduce the main speaker(s) to the audience,

and to motivate the audience to listen to the upcoming speaker/speech. The Speaker is

presented briefly (profile, accomplishments and standing in the field or subject to be talked

about) and the audience is told about the subject and its significance.

The Speech of Introduction does not cover the main speaker’s subject; it only serves to

arouse the audience’s interest and curiosity to hear the main speech. For example, the

person making the Speech of Introduction can say something like: “Our guest speaker is

going to talk about a nuisance that we all suffer from: Pollution, in its different forms”.

Unit 9 132

The Speech of Introduction needs to build up the speaker’s identity (what the speaker

knows or has achieved) and not praise his/her abilities as speaker. Remember that the

Speech of Introduction must be brief (the audience is here to listen to the speaker, not to

you!); therefore, do not dwell too lengthily on the speaker’s biography. Often, the more

famous the guest speaker you are introducing, the shorter the introduction.

Activity 4

Here is an abridged CV of Ms L. Wong. Due to time constraints, you will not have the

chance to speak to her before she delivers her speech on “Media coverage of child Abuse

cases”. Prepare a brief and interesting Speech to introduce her to your classmates.

Abridged Version of Curriculum Vitae

Name: L. Wong

Date of Birth:

Nationality:

Marital Status: Married [Five adopted children, 12 grand children]

Education

1980 – 1984 PhD in Psychology University (Post-graduate)

1973 – 1976 B.A in Psychology, Sussex University (Undergraduate)

1960 – 1973 Convent of Jesus and Mary.

Employment Record

1998 – Present Professor of Psychology,

1995 – 1998 Project Director for “Child Protection Issues”,

1993 – 1995 Visiting Fellow, University of Cambridge,

1990 – 1992 Senior Lecturer in Psychology,

1986 – 1989 Lecturer in Psychology,

1980 – 1985 Research Assistant, Department of Psychology,

1976 – 1980 Teacher at Rosedale (School).

Unit 9 133

Research Experience in the field or related fields of

“Child Protection” and “Child Abuse”.

Study of young patients in the hospital environment. Unpublished.

Methods of observation and interview of abused children of 5-10 years old. [Co-

authored] in Journal of Psychology.

“Analysis of family structures of battered Women and Children”, UNICEF

publication, Autumn 1986.

Report on Police Training in handling child abuse cases, commissioned by Ministry

of Health, UK.

Changes in policies for the care and protection of children: a comparative study

between UK and France. Funded by Université de L’Europe, and published in its

academic journal.

Analysis of juvenile delinquency schemes in the West Indies. Ongoing research.

Forms of Childhood Abuse and adult types.

Method: Interview, and analysis of biographical materials.

Financial Support: National Prisons Department, UK.

Awards and Honours

1994: Chair, Psychological Research Committee, Carribean Academy of Social Sciences.

1990: The Piaget Award for contributions to studies on Childhood Development.

Publication (about 25 publications in Journals and Books)

- Co-authored Book: “Psychology of Crime”

Other

- Producer of the Series of Monthly Talks on Radio Four on “Psychology and

Protection”. Now running into its fourth year.

5.6.2 Speech of Welcome

Unit 9 134

The speech of welcome usually applies to situations where we have to welcome or

introduce guests or visitors other than speakers. The purpose of this kind of speech is to

introduce newcomers, guests, visitors to the existing group, and to make them feel more

comfortable.

There are numerous occasions for Speeches of Welcome. Some examples are to

introduce a new recruit to the rest of the staff, to greet a visitor to your local music group,

to welcome a team of players which has arrived for a match with the national or local

team, to introduce a foreign professor who will be teaching a few sessions to your group.

Activity 5

Speech of welcome

Ayanda is a visiting student from the University of Zambia, and she will be staying for a

month. In a short speech, welcome her to your class. Invent any details you deem

necessary and interesting.

5.6.3 Speech to Present an Award

This Speech of Presentation generally informs the audience about the award, the present

recipient of the award and his/her achievements. The speech can also give such

information as a brief history of the award, the standing of the award and past recipients.

The Speech of Presentation of the award contributes to the atmosphere of dignity and

status that this type of situation usually commands.

Unit 9 135

]

Activity 6

You have been invited by the Head of the secondary school where you studied to present

the Award of "Best Performer at the last HSC examination." Present the award to the

winner. Invent any details you deem necessary and interesting.

5.6.4 Speech of Response or Acceptance

Responding to a Welcome

A guest or visitor responds to a speech of welcome to thank the group or organisation for

its welcome, and to express appreciation for being invited or accepted.

Acceptance

The person who, as individual or representative of an organisation, receives an award,

usually acknowledges the award by means of a speech of acceptance.

The Speaker who receives the award on behalf of a group or organisation, thanks the

other persons involved. A few words can also be said to acknowledge the importance of

the award and the activity being recognised.

Activity 7

a) You are a visiting student to the Namibia Polytechnic. You have just been

introduced and welcomed by one lecturer. Respond to the welcome. Invent any

details you deem necessary and interesting.

b) The University of Mauritius has created this year an award for "best behaved class"

on campus. Your class has won the award and you have been chosen by your class

to receive the award. Prepare a speech of acceptance for the occasion. Invent any

details you deem necessary and interesting.

Unit 9 136

5.6.5 Speech of Tribute

A Speech of Tribute often recognises and celebrates the accomplishments of persons and

sometimes the significance of events.

The Speech of Tribute should sketch the relevant achievements and consequences,

without exaggeration.

5.7 A FEW POINTS TO REMEMBER

Speech communication is an intentional interaction between a speaker and an

audience where the speaker purposefully, through premeditated verbal and non-

verbal messages, informs and/or persuades and/or entertains an audience within a

specific communication.

While the speech is being delivered, direct feedback from the audience is mainly

non-verbal.

The goal of the speech, the audience, the subject matter and context are some of

the main factors that influence/determine the content of the speech, the techniques

used to convey information and organisational patterns.

Speeches on /for special occasions are of different types. They must suit the

specific occasion or situation.

Unit 9 137

UNIT 6 MODES OF SPEECH DELIVERY; PRESENTATION AIDS

Unit Structure

6.0 Overview

6.1 Learning Objectives

6.2 Modes of Speech Delivery

6.2.1 Memorised Mode (or Memorised Speaking)

6.2.2 Manuscript Mode (or Manuscript Speaking)

6.2.3 Extemporaneous Mode (or Extemporaneous Speaking)

6.2.4 Impromptu Mode (or Impromptu Speaking)

6.3 Presentation Aids

6.3.1 Functions of Presentation Aids

6.3.2 Why Use Visual Aids?

6.3.3 How to Optimise the Use of Aids

6.3.4 Varieties of Presentation Aids

6.3.4.1 Board

6.3.4.2 Overhead Projector

6.3.4.3 Slide Projector

6.3.4.4 Audio and Video Tapes

6.3.4.5 Multimedia Presentations

6.3.4.6 Hand-outs

6.3.5 Preparing Data for Presentation

6.3.5.1 Designing Visual Aids

6.4 A Few Points to Remember

Unit 9 138

6.0 OVERVIEW

In this Unit, we learn about different methods of presentation of speeches. This unit also

discusses the use of presentation aids to optimise oral communication.

Note: For Assignment 3, you will be required to use the extemporaneous mode and

appropriate presentation aid(s).

6.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After having completed this unit, you should be able to do the following:

1. Describe the different modes of speech delivery;

2. Compare and contrast the different modes of speech delivery;

3. Describe the functions of presentation aids;

4. Identify the various media that can be used to support the presentation of information;

5. Present visual data effectively;

6. Give an effective oral presentation supported by appropriate aids (see Assignment 3).

6.2 MODES OF SPEECH DELIVERY

Modes of Speech Delivery are methods of presentation of a speech.

Four main modes are commonly identified:

- Memorised mode

- Manuscript mode

- Extemporaneous mode

Unit 9 139

- Impromptu mode

The mode you choose should be appropriate for the message, the audience, and

the occasion.

[Pearson & Nelson, 1994]

6.2.1 Memorised Mode (or Memorised Speaking)

With this mode, a speaker delivers a speech after memorising every word in the speech.

Certain situations call for the memorised mode, e.g. acting in a play, reciting a poem you

or other people have written.

Some Advantages of Memorised Speaking:

- The speaker is in total control of the wording which has been decided and learnt

beforehand.

- The speaker can plan for, or fit into, an exact timing.

- The speaker can use nonverbal language quite amply with this mode of delivery since

he/she will have no paper to hold or handle.

Some Disadvantages of Memorised Speaking:

- Time is required for memorisation, and there is the risk of forgetting part of the speech

during delivery.

- There is the risk that during delivery, the speaker forgets part of the speech which may

contain important information or the speaker may ‘go blank’ in the middle of the

speech, and consequently be at a loss for words and ways to finish the speech.

- The speech can sound memorised and lack spontaneity, reducing the speaker’s

effectiveness.

Unit 9 140

- Since the speech is totally prepared in advance and memorised, the speaker cannot

respond to the audience/feedback. For instance, when more appropriate words or

explanation are needed, the speaker will not be able to react and adapt to the situation.

6.2.2 Manuscript Mode (or Manuscript Speaking)

As the name implies, the manuscript mode is a speech delivered with a script

of the exact words to be used.

[Pearson & Nelson, 1994]

In the manuscript mode, the speaker reads out the speech. Indeed, the manuscript contains

the fully written speech, word for word. This mode is commonly adopted in symposia

where research papers are delivered. Politicians, or speakers making important

announcements and who are likely to be quoted, may also prefer this mode.

Some Advantages of Manuscript Speaking:

- The speech can be free of mistakes and error (facts, wording, style) since it is wholly

written beforehand.

- The speaker is never at a loss for words because (s)he reads from the manuscript.

- Timing can be controlled if planned in advance.

- Copies of the speech can be made available to journalists to avoid being misquoted.

Some Disadvantages of Manuscript Speaking:

- The speaker tends to pay more attention to the script than to the audience, and to have

little eye contact with the audience.

- The manuscript speech restricts the movements and gestures of the speaker who has to

read from the script.

- The speech may sound “written” and not spontaneous.

Unit 9 141

- Reading a written “speech”, word for word, makes it very difficult to respond to

feedback and adapt to the audience.

Unit 9 142

6.2.3 Extemporaneous Mode (or Extemporaneous Speaking)

The extemporaneous mode is carefully prepared and practised, but it is delivered

conversationally without heavy dependence on notes.

[Pearson & Nelson, 1994]

The speaker will have prepared, organised and rehearsed the speech, but the speech must

be delivered in a conversational tone, appearing and sounding spontaneous.

A written script is used which can include the outline, key words, quotations and figures.

But the wording is created as the speaker delivers the speech. The speaker focuses on the

ideas, messages or meanings to be conveyed.

Advantages of Extemporaneous Speaking:

- The extemporaneous speech allows considerable eye-contact and nonverbal

expression.

- The speaker can respond to feedback from the audience, and use wording as well as

nonverbal expression that are felt to be more effective and appropriate for the

situation.

- Since the speech is largely spontaneous, it is easy to speak in a conversational tone

and, to be and sound natural.

Disadvantages of Extemporaneous Speaking:

- An inexperienced speaker may search for words or use weak, inappropriate, or

ineffective language.

- Without proper preparation and practice, a speaker may appear to be giving an

impromptu speech, or may overuse notes.

- It may be difficult to stick to a specific time frame, since the wording is created

progressively as the speech is delivered. The speaker may spend more time on an idea

or aspect than intended or necessary.

Unit 9 143

In spite of certain disadvantages, the extemporaneous mode is usually recommended when

learning public speaking because it teaches good preparation, focuses on the message and

allows one to adapt to the audience.

6.2.4 Impromptu Mode (or Impromptu Speaking)

An impromptu speech is delivered on the spur of the moment, with no or hardly any time

to prepare. For example, if in the middle of an event or meeting, you are asked to make a

speech, then you have no choice but to “speak off the cuff”; or, fifteen minutes before an

opening ceremony, you are asked to deliver the welcoming speech because the speaker of

the day has been taken ill suddenly. In such circumstances, you only have a few minutes to

prepare, to jot down a few main ideas on a piece of paper.

There is hardly any advantage in an impromptu speech, because of the range of

difficulties involved.

However, you can still find yourself having to give an impromptu speech. Knowing the

disadvantages of such a situation can help reduce the unpredictability of the result.

Disadvantages of Impromptu Speaking

- The speaker must rely solely on previous knowledge and skills, and (s)he has no time

to carry out research, to prepare or to practise.

- Since the language can only be spontaneous, there is no careful choice of words:

Words which do not quite convey the speaker’s messages or intention, may be uttered.

Therefore, impromptu speaking can produce very unpredictable outcomes.

- There is the risk of unnecessary repetition, and/or rambling and omission of important

or relevant ideas.

Unit 9 144

Although we said earlier that the mode of speech should be appropriate for the message

the purpose, the audience, the setting or context, and the occasion, we must bear in mind

that:

- Different speakers may be more or less comfortable or effective with different modes

of delivery.

- Although delivery is an important feature of public speaking, its influence on audience

comprehension should not be overrated or overestimated. Comparing the relative

importance of delivery and content, certain researchers have found that “there is

reason to believe, that content may be more important than delivery”. [Pearson and

Nelson, 1994].

- In Assignment 3, you are required to deliver an extemporaneous speech with

appropriate presentation aids.

We are now going to discuss the various presentation aids that may be used for your

speech assignment.

6.3 PRESENTATION AIDS

6.3.1 Functions of Presentation Aids

‘Presentation aids’ is the generic term for various equipment that can be used to help us

communicate more effectively. They include devices such as the white or blackboard,

overhead projector, slide projector, audio and video equipment.

Various studies have shown that, after listening to a speech conducted without visual aids,

people retain only about 20 percent of what they hear. However, if visual items are used

to support speech, retention of data increases to approximately 50 percent.

Presentation aids are meant to complement, illustrate, and reinforce what we say.

Unit 9 145

6.3.2 Why Use Visual Aids?

They help portray vividly and instantly things that may take time to say. They save

time for the speaker and may also operate as ‘aide-mémoire’ for the latter.

They can enhance understanding of the topic for the audience.

They add authenticity to the speech. As goes the saying, "seeing is believing"!

They add variety in a presentation as they provide the audience with visual items to

focus on other that the speaker. Visual materials create interest and thus prevent

boredom.

They help the speech have lasting impact. Visual anchors help the audience remember

some key points.

They give the communicator a physical thing to do, which is sometimes helpful in case

of nervousness.

However, when using presentation aids, you should bear in mind a few possible problems.

For instance, visual aids are meant to be used as ‘aids’, i.e. as supporting material for your

speech; they should not dominate the presentation. Many people get so engrossed in the

possibilities offered by technology that they allow it to take over, or they are so nervous

that they are happy to hide behind their aids. Presentation aids can also take the audience’s

attention away from the speech specially if the material carries too much information. It is

thus important to choose the right kind of visual and to keep the text to a minimum.

6.3.3 How to Optimise the Use of Aids

Before the Speech

Take the time to prepare the data that you are going to use on visual aids. Outline

your speech and jot down main ideas that can be summed up and used as key

points on the material.

Unit 9 146

Make sure that your material is neat and clear. Avoid cluttering your aids with too

much data. Remember that the purpose of your presentation is to communicate

ideas and information, not to dazzle people with fancy graphics.

Test your aids beforehand. Make sure that the equipment you are going to use is

functioning properly and that you know how to handle it.

The use of presentation aids requires good co-ordination skills. If you are unsure

of yourself, take the time to practise your presentation with your visual aids. Make

sure the visual aids are integrated and relevant to your speech. If you are using

transparency sheets, number them to avoid confusion.

Ask yourself how you would react to the material if you were a member of the

audience.

Be ready to deliver your speech without visual aids as the equipment may be

subject to last minute failures.

During the Speech

Remember that you must create a rapport with your audience before making use of

visual aids. Try to keep talking while pointing to your visual material so that you

do not lose your audience's attention. Do not read the text from the visual.

Make sure that the audience can see your material from any angle. Do not stand in

front of your material.

Look at your listeners, not your material. It is fine to glance at the material, but get

your eyes back on the people in the room as quickly as you can. Your connection

with them is the most powerful presentation tool you have.

6.3.4 Varieties of Presentation Aids

There are several types of presentation aids that can be used to support speech. A few of

the most commonly used are introduced in this section.

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6.3.4.1 Board

If the only equipment available for a presentation is a white or black board (or a flip

board), the following points need to be considered:

Boards are most effective when used for very simple visuals, a few keywords or simple

diagrams.

When you are writing or drawing on a board, you are very often turning your back to

the audience. You may thus need to raise your voice and keep eye contact from time

to time.

Some areas of the board may not be visible from certain angles. Make sure that

everyone in the audience can see clearly what you are writing or drawing on the board.

Use big, legible handwriting.

Keep the board uncluttered by erasing unneeded material that may distract the

audience from new topics.

6.3.4.2 Overhead Projector

Overhead projectors (OHP) project images through transparent material on to a white

screen or board. This type of equipment allows the speaker to face the audience and thus

retain eye contact. Also, since the material to be projected is prepared beforehand, the

speaker saves time and there is less risk of confusion and fumbling.

You may draw or write directly on the transparency sheet using a special pen or marker.

You may also prepare your transparency by photocopying from any existing printed

document or material prepared by yourself on special software (e.g. Powerpoint).

However, make sure that you use special photocopy film as write-on films may damage

the photocopy machine or may themselves be damaged by heat when photocopying on

them.

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Do not overload your transparency sheets and make sure you use big typeface for textual

data (>30 points). A good transparency sheet contains not more than six lines of text with

not more that six words per line.

Before the presentation starts, adjust the focus of projecting lens so that the image is sharp

enough. Also, if there is too much light in a room, the projected image will lose definition

and look blurred. You may thus need to dim or switch off the light in the room.

During the presentation, switch off the equipment if you are not using it as it may distract

the audience's attention.

6.3.4.3 Slide Projector

This is a more sophisticated piece of equipment which projects pictures from a special

format called 'slide' ('diapositive' in French). It requires a completely darkened room,

which makes note-taking difficult.

Slides offer excellent reproduction of colour pictures. They can be prepared using special

35 mm film and camera. These are, however, quite expensive and require good

photographic skills.

6.3.4.4 Audio and Video Tapes

For your presentations, you may wish to play an audio tape or an extract of a TV

programme or film. This can be easily done by using, in the first case, an audio or, in the

second case, a video cassette to record the programme.

If you are planning to do either, make sure that you play only a short extract which really

fits in with your presentation. Do not let the audio tape or film play for too long as you

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may lose contact with your audience and have difficulty in switching their attention back

to your topic.

Also make sure that the standards you use for video recording are appropriate for the

equipment you will use for presentation (e.g. PAL, SECAM, MESECAM, NTSC).

6.3.4.5 Multimedia Presentations

Multimedia presentations require sophisticated equipment like a computer or a laptop and

a special type of projector sometimes called RGB (for Red, Green and Blue, colours used

by the projector to reproduce an infinite number of colours on the screen).

Powerpoint shows can be used to support speech with special animation effects, such as

text and visuals running across the screen and transition effects. However, this type of

equipment often requires a technician to operate the equipment. Also, it is imperative that

these presentations are rehearsed well in advance as technical problems happen regularly.

6.3.4.6 Hand-outs

Hand-outs can be given to the audience when there is too much data to present during the

time allocated or to give listeners a summary of the main points presented by the speaker.

Unless hand-outs are designed to be used as supporting material for the audience to follow

the points raised, it may be advisable to distribute hand-outs after the speech. This will

avoid the risk of listeners not focusing their attention on your presentation.

In any case, do not distribute materials during your speech as you lose time and may cause

some chaos within the audience.

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6.3.5 Preparing Data for Presentation Aids

Whilst preparing presentation aids, you may use various types of data such as text,

illustrations, pictures, diagrams, charts, graphs, curves, tables, etc. Your choice of data

format will depend largely on the topic presented and on the points that are discussed.

6.3.5.1 Designing Visual Aids

To construct effective visual aids, a few rules of good design should be followed:

KISS or Keep It Simple Stupid - Do not overload your material with data. Eliminate

words rather than reduce type size or line spacing to "fit everything in". Use concise

words.

Visibility - Use big font size and leave enough white space for the data to 'breathe'.

Balance - Make sure that the material presented is visually balanced and pleasing to

the eye. For example, in the case of transparency sheets, do not fill in the sheets with

text from margin to margin.

Sobriety - Colour adds impact to the meaning of speech. But you must be sober in

your use of colours if you are using more than one. Sometimes two colours are more

than enough! Remember that black also counts as a colour… Also, use a few

typefaces well. Do not use more than two typefaces and avoid overkill (e.g. using

'bold + italics + underlined').

Unity - Use white space, type and colours consistently throughout your material. Use

the same layout with same margins on all sheets.

Emphasis - Restrict emphasis to that which is truly important. Avoid paragraphs with

too many words set in bold-faced text for instance.

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Activity 1

The Marketing Officer of an IT company submitted a report on sales results to his

manager and was asked to give a 10-minute presentation to management in one week's

time.

On being given this assignment, he arranged for an overhead projector to be installed in

the conference room of the company. As he had some complex data to present, he

prepared a score of transparencies with graphs, charts and tables.

On the set date, he arrived in the conference room right on time. He felt confident that the

presentation would be successful as he had carefully rehearsed his speech.

After a short introduction, he opened his file, took out his transparencies and put the first

one on the projector. He realised that the device was not working. Fortunately, an

attendant quickly helped him by immediately replacing the equipment.

The Marketing Officer then carried on with his presentation and ran rapidly through all the

transparencies. In the end, he was satisfied that he had not exceeded the time allocated and

that he had succeeded in presenting all the visual data.

According to you, how successful has the Marketing Officer been in his use of

presentation aids?

* NB

Work out this activity before turning the page.

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Answer to Activity 1

The Marketing Officer made a few mistakes in his presentation:

He prepared too many transparencies for the time allocated (20 transparencies for

10 minutes). There is a risk that his visual aids were therefore the core of the

presentation. They were not used as a supporting tool for the speech.

He did not familiarise himself with the equipment beforehand such that time was

wasted for the replacement of the material. He should have arrived in the

conference room well before the time scheduled (not 'right on time') to be able to

test the material and the visual aids.

As a result of this technical problem, he had to run though the transparencies

rapidly and most probably adopted a pace that was too 'rapid'. Instead, it may have

been advisable to skip some of the less important transparencies to keep a good

rate of speech. This is typically someone who was overwhelmed by the visual data!

6.4 A FEW POINTS TO REMEMBER

Presentation aids are meant to be used as tools that support, not replace speech.

You should therefore plan what you wish to say first so that your aids will

complement your words.

They require planning and forethought. The typographic and visual design, the

technicalities involved in the use of the visual aids, their integration into the

presentation are some of the important aspects to be considered.

A dull speech will still be dull even if there are attractive visuals!

UNIT 7 PERSUASIVE SPEECHES

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Unit Structure

7.0 Overview

7.1 Learning Objectives

7.2 Persuasion

7.2.1 Persuasion in Contemporary Society

7.2.2 Two Conceptions of Persuasion

7.2.2.1 Persuasion as Manipulation

7.2.2.2 Persuasion as the Art of Speaking

7.3 The Persuasive Speech

7.3.1 Differences between the Persuasive Speech and the Informative

Speech

7.3.2 Ethics in Persuasive Speeches

7.4 Two Models of Persuasion

7.4.1 The AIDA Principle

7.4.2 Rank’s Model or the Intensification-Downplay Model

7.5 A Few Points to Remember

7.0 OVERVIEW

This Unit introduces two conceptions of persuasion in contemporary society, and deals

with Persuasive Speeches. Two models of persuasion are presented.

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7.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After having completed this unit, you should be able to do the following:-

2. Describe the notion of persuasion in contemporary societies.

3. Distinguish between Informative and Persuasive Speeches.

4. Explain the ethical considerations in Persuasive Speeches.

5. Identify two models of Persuasion.

7.2 PERSUASION

The following is a working definition of persuasion:

Persuasion is a dynamic, ongoing process which purposefully, through verbal and

nonverbal messages, aims at shaping, maintaining, reinforcing and/or changing the

audience’s beliefs, attitudes and behaviour.

If, on the spot, we may be persuaded to accompany our friend to the nearest bookshop,

our beliefs and attitudes are not always subject to persuasion as rapidly as that. Often, we

are persuaded to adopt certain beliefs, attitudes or behaviour only after a succession of

persuasive efforts or messages, from the same source or different sources (e.g., television,

commercials, advertisement in newspapers). However, a single persuasive message or

speech can be the start of the adoption of, or a change in, belief or attitude.

7.2.1 Persuasion in Contemporary Society

Persuasion and resisting persuasion are part of our daily communication experiences.

Even in the intrapersonal setting, persuasion takes place. Sometimes, we have to persuade

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ourselves to get up and go to work or to class. We persuade ourselves to weed the

garden or to complete the long-awaiting repairs in the house, on our day off. Or, after

weighing the pros and cons of different standpoints, we persuade ourselves that we should

take a stand in favour of abortion and join the public demonstration the coming Saturday.

Persuasion pervades the different communication contexts, and the forms it takes are

many and varied. Certain instances of persuasion are easy to recognise; for example when

the lawyer is trying to persuade the jurors that the client cannot be proved guilty beyond

reasonable doubt.

There are other instances when people are subject to persuasion without being conscious

of the fact; for instance, when we see a poster inviting us to the big sales of a particular

chain of supermarkets or stores, or when a child persuades its parent to buy the latest

game or toy, or when someone insists that we join him/her for a drink, although we are

quite busy.

We too, use persuasion continuously; for example, when we bargain with a seller for the

article we wish to buy. Or, when we try to get the officer at the post-office to sell us

some stamps when the post-office is closing, or when we try to persuade the lecturer/tutor

not to give the class test scheduled for the day.

Persuasion in the few examples above is taken in the sense of conscious or unconscious,

verbal and nonverbal, messages that attempt to persuade towards a certain behaviour or

attitude but which is not imposed by force on people.

As citizens in today’s world, we are exposed to all kinds of information and persuasion.

We should be able to distinguish between information and persuasion. We must be able to

recognise the techniques used by persuaders in different instances. These instances range

from seduction or subtle manipulation (as applied in advertisement, or Public Relations,

and which constitute prominent forms of persuasion in modern societies), to group

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lobbying (e.g. a group of companies trying to secure special treatment or condition from a

government) or even psychological pressure exercised by individuals/groups over others.

We can also mention instances of persuasion at international level, e.g economic/financial

pressure exercised by some nations over others.

Activity 1

List at least two persuasive communication situations you were involved in (as persuader

or persuadee) during the last 24 hours.

7.2.2 Two Conceptions of Persuasion

Different people, as well as authors, have different conceptions of persuasion. Below we

explain two different conceptions of persuasion. One conception views persuasion as

manipulation to get people to do things against their will. The other conception views

persuasion as rhetoric and the art of effective speaking.

7.2.2.1 Persuasion as Manipulation

Persuasion is viewed as exercising some kind of influence or pressure to bring people to

believe or do things they would not otherwise believe or do.

In this case, there are different forms of persuasion which can be distinguished from one

another on the basis of:

- The amount of influence or power that the persuader (the person attempting to

persuade) can exercise over the persuadee (the person exposed or subject to

persuasion)

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- The amount of choice the persuadee has in the persuasion process.

Different forms of persuasion can be identified; however it is not always easy to draw the

line between one form and another.

Some main forms of persuasion commonly identified are:-

- Education Education is viewed as a soft form of persuasion. It

is closer to information in the sense that knowledge

and a variety of options are presented to the

learners, who exercise their own free will in making

choices or decisions. However, education is often a

powerful source of influence in society, whether we

are aware of it or not. A number of values and

beliefs we acquire through education become

ingrained and contribute to our personal ideology.

- Seduction Some people will classify commercials and

advertisements in this category, although others may

classify them in the next category, manipulation. As

in the case of education, seduction can be classified

as soft persuasion since it is not very constraining.

It does not really impose anything on the individual.

It uses words, pictures, colours and representations,

like in advertisements or political speeches, to

seduce the public either to buy a product or to adopt

a voting behaviour.

- Manipulation Manipulation occurs when the persuader succeeds in

getting the persuadee to adopt a belief, an attitude

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or a behaviour against his/her own best interests.

Manipulation is seduction in a way, but with a

heavier negative connotation implying use of more

deceitful ways and means.

- Sanction Sanction has persuasive power. For example, law

and regulations usually include sanctions or certain

types of punishment (fines, imprisonment, being

denied certain rights) which can act as deterrent, or

which encourage or “persuade” many of us to act in

a certain way. Sanction does not carry negative

connotations like other forms of persuasion.

- Propaganda The term propaganda generally refers to the use of

psychological techniques to attempt to influence a

group’s (rather than an individual’s) behaviour or

belief.

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- Indoctrination or Brainwashing Indoctrination and Brainwashing have roughly the

same meaning: Some authors argue that

brainwashing is “indoctrination taken a step further”.

Indoctrination refers to the process of instilling

certain ideas, beliefs or information in a persuadee

(or group) while retaining or hiding all opposing or

alternative information from that persuadee.

Brainwashing is used when the process of

indoctrination takes place in a totally controlled

situation or environment, e.g., in certain prisons, or

training camps in dictatorial regimes or in certain

sects cut off from the rest of society.

7.2.2.2 Persuasion as the Art of Speaking

In this case, persuasion is viewed as a

noble pursuit of the best ideas, most workable solutions, and greater

support for an idea by the people through effective speaking

[Pearson & Nelson, 1994, p. 410]

This conception of persuasion is in line with a long tradition, which dates back to the

Ancient Greeks of the fourth and fifth centuries B.C., when rhetoric or the art of speaking

was taught and practised as an academic discipline. It was also considered as a necessary

tool for the proper functioning of a democracy. The use of rhetoric meant arguing both

sides of a case, presenting evidence, and using a line of reasoning which leads to a logical

conclusion or “the truth”. From this tradition, persuasion has been understood as the art of

effective speaking.

We can consider different instances where this conception of persuasion applies:-

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a campaign that calls on the general public to care more and better for its elders.

a speech that aims at persuading women above a certain age to undergo certain

medical tests for preventive purposes.

an opinion leader, social worker or politician who persuades the public to take a

certain stand for society’s good and not for his/her personal ambitions.

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Activity 2

List five other examples, real or fictitious, which according to you, pertain to the same

conception of persuasion as in 7.2.2.2, i.e., persuasion for a noble cause.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

THE PERSUASIVE SPEECH

7.3.1 Differences between the Persuasive Speech and the Informative Speech

The Persuasive Speaker attempts to shape, reinforce or change the audience’s or

receivers’ attitudes, beliefs or behaviour. The Persuasive Speaker aims at persuading the

audience to support or reject a certain proposition (e.g. you should vote for, or against,

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Capital Punishment; the audience or receiver(s) is/are asked to choose one from a number

of alternatives, e.g., buy this brand of toothpaste, and not the others).

The Informative Speaker or Speech aims at sharing knowledge and understanding with the

audience, without attempting to influence the audience or receiver to choose any option.

Informative Speeches only reveal and clarify arguments for or against. The audience is left

to make its own “reasoned” choice(s).

Persuasive Speakers have the role of leaders or opinion leaders while Informative

Speakers act more like teachers.

Persuasive Speaking requires more commitment (taking sides) than Informative Speaking.

Because persuasive speeches attempt to influence people’s beliefs, attitudes or behaviour,

they entail greater responsibilities and ethical obligations on the part of the speaker than

informative speeches.

7.3.2 Ethics in Persuasive Speeches

Ethics or standards of moral conduct are written and unwritten rules of

conduct

[Pearson & Nelson, 1994, p. 422].

If slandering or libel is punishable by law, many techniques of persuasion are not. Yet,

persuasive communication, in attempting to influence people’s beliefs, attitudes or

behaviour can sometimes affect people’s lives negatively.

Persuasive speakers should be aware of their responsibilities, and should observe certain

basic ethical standards: in fact, learning about persuasive communication or persuasive

speeches implies taking into consideration this ethical aspect too.

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We must, however, remember that it is not easy to deal with ethics: ethics can be a very

subjective appreciation of goodness or badness of an idea or a practice. Different

individuals may have different values and opinions about such questions as:

- Is it ethical to make use of persuasion at all?

- Which techniques and means are ethical and which are not?

- Where do we draw the line between information and persuasion? For example, some

people are of the opinion that an advertisement concerning the upcoming sales at a

specific store informs them of this fact while others may view the advertisement as a

means to merely persuade a maximum of customers to come to the store; still others

may consider the advertisement as having both an informative and a persuasive value.

Persuasion can be used by both scrupulous and unscrupulous speakers. The choice of

ethical or unethical methods, for ethical or unethical purposes, depends on the persuader

and his/her ethics.

Also, as persuadees, we need to be on our guard against unethical means and objectives.

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7.4 TWO MODELS OF PERSUASION

We have chosen to present two models of persuasion which can be useful when preparing

and presenting a persuasive speech but which can also help us as critical receivers or

recipients of persuasive messages.

7.4.1 The AIDA Principle

The AIDA principle is an acronym made up of the first letter of the following words:

Attention – Interest – Desire – Action. These four words represent, respectively, the

different steps of persuasive messages.

Attention First, the recipient or potential persuadee’s attention has to be

caught.

Interest The attention of the recipient is transformed or changed to interest,

e.g., by using testimony of people who have already been convinced

about a product or a stance.

Desire Next, a need or desire is aroused within the recipient (e.g. when the

audience is told that a given brand of shampoo makes the hair look

beautiful and shiny, or, when the desire is aroused in 18-year olds

to register in order to be able to vote and thus have a say in matters

concerning their future and their country).

Action The recipients become persuadees when they actually adopt the

attitude or behaviour indicated by the persuader (e.g. buying the

shampoo advertised, voting for the candidate or cause requested).

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Activity 3

Using the AIDA principle, design and write a short advertisement for a new product or

service.

Hints: a) Identify your product or service.

b) Briefly outline your approach.

c) Choose between text/audio/visual.

7.4.2 Rank’s Model or the Intensification-Downplay Model

Rank’s model of persuasion, also known as the Intensification-Downplay model brings out

two series/lines of strategies: the Intensification Process or Scheme, and the Downplay

Process or scheme.

1. The Intensification process or scheme:-

This process, scheme or line of strategy involves, intensifying the persuader’s good

points and/or intensifying the opposing position’s bad points.

Three tactics commonly used are:

(i) Repetition

(ii) Association

(iii) Composition

(i) Repetition

A message is repeated a number of times by the persuader in order to intensify it and in the

hope that the recipient or receiver will remember it afterwards. This tactic is often used in

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commercials or advertisements where names of products, aspects or qualities of a product

through slogans, and/or accompanied by jingles, are often repeated.

(ii) Association

A product, a cause, a candidate or an ideology is associated with a person or thing that is

already liked/disliked, accepted/rejected. For example, a brand of drink is associated in an

advertisement with a famous artist or football player. In the case of countries or places

where comparison with another brand or a competitor is allowed within advertisements,

the competing brand or competitor can be associated with a shameful event or person.

(iii) Composition

Composition refers to the nonverbal aspects of the message; it also shows visually how the

object or person being advertised is associated with a positive figure. For example, in an

advertisement in the newspaper, the composition would refer to such elements as how the

advertisement is presented visually and graphically, the layout, colour, or size, or the

perspective of the product advertised in relation to the background.

In the case of a political candidate, the composition would include such elements as the

physical setting in which the candidate is speaking, and the candidate’s nonverbal

behaviour or messages.

2. The Downplay Process or Scheme

This line of strategy or scheme involves downplaying the persuader’s bad points or

weakness and/or downplaying the opposing position’s good points.

The three tactics used in the downplay process or scheme are:

(i) Omission

(ii) Diversion

(iii) Confusion

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(i) Omission

This tactic omits information about the persuader’s bad points, and about the opposing

position’s good points. For example, an advertisement tells us that this electric shower is

cheaper than others, but it does not tell us that an additional apparatus must also be

purchased in cases where the water pressure is not strong enough. Or an advertisement

tells us about the weaknesses of the competing product but omits to tell us that the

competing product is cheaper.

(ii) Diversion

One tactic used by persuaders is to divert attention of the audience from their weak points

by making use of humour or by subtly evading the polemical issues or questions raised.

The same tactic is also used to divert attention from the strong points of the competitor.

This tactic is quite popular with politicians, especially in debates. For example, a

candidate or persuader attacks the other’s personality instead of responding to, or

tackling, the issue raised about the national education system or public health services.

(iii) Confusion

This tactic confuses the recipients, for instance by making use of jargon or technical terms,

faulty logic and explanations. Riddles are also used to downplay the persuader’s weak

points and/or the competitor’s strong points.

Rank’s model of persuasion does not tell us all that happens in the persuasive process, but

it does indicate or reveal certain tactics often used in persuasive messages (such as

advertisements) that pervade everyday life.

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Activity 4

Using Rank’s model, briefly outline a speech on one of the following topics for a

Persuasive Speech:

(a) More young people should be encouraged to embrace a career in teaching.

(b) We should not ask what our country can do for us, but what we can do for our

country.

Note to tutors: you may provide additional topics.

7.5 A FEW POINTS TO REMEMBER

It is important to distinguish between information and persuasion, or between

informative speeches and persuasive speeches.

There are different notions, concepts and degrees of persuasion.

As receivers or recipients of messages, we must be able to identify persuasive

techniques and methods used by persuaders.

Persuasion can be used for good, moral, ethical causes and reasons as well as for less

good, less moral and less ethical ones.

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UNIT 8 PERCEPTION AND LISTENING SKILLS

Unit Structure

8.0 Overview

8.1 Learning Objectives

8.2 What is Perception?

8.2.1 Definitions: How Does Communication Involve Perception?

8.2.2 Differences in Perception

8.3 The Perceptual Process

8.3.1 Selection

8.3.1.1 Selective Exposure or Selective Attention

8.3.1.2 Selective Retention

8.3.2 Organisation

8.3.2.1 Figure and Ground

8.3.2.2 Closure

8.3.2.3 Proximity

8.3.2.4 Similarity

8.3.3 Interpretation

8.4 Improving Perceptual Accuracy

8.5 Listening Skills

8.5.1 Importance of Listening

8.5.2 Techniques for Effective Listening

8.6 A Few Points to Remember

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8.0 OVERVIEW

This Unit examines how perception functions, and presents ways in which perception can

be improved. The Unit also discusses an important component of communication skills,

Listening Skills, and outlines a few techniques for effective listening.

8.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After having completed this unit, you should be able to do the following:-

1. Define perception.

2. Describe the perception process.

3. Assess the importance of, and differences in perception from one human being to

another.

4. Identify factors that can improve perception.

5. Explain the importance of listening in communication.

6. List a few aids to effective listening.

8.2 WHAT IS PERCEPTION?

8.2.1 Definitions: How Does Communication Involve Perception?

Here are a few working definitions of perception:

- Perception is the mental process through which we interpret that which we sense.

[Pearson and Nelson, 1994, p. 24]

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- Perception is about the way we see, hear, feel, taste and smell specific stimuli around

us and the meaning that we give to these stimuli.

- Perception is the process of gathering sensory information and assigning meaning to it.

- Perception is a personal process, a subjective understanding and interpretation of

either another person or a situation or event.

The following definition illustrates or establishes the close link between Communication

and Perception:

Perception is the process by which we come to understand ourselves and

others, and understanding is an activity basic to communication

[Pearson & Nelson, 1994, p. 35].

Perception is an integral part of communication; our self-concept and our perception of

others influence or determine our communication and our relationships.

Our Self-Concept

The term ‘self-concept’ refers to the way we view ourselves as a person and the way we

see ourselves in relationship to others. Our self-concept influences our reactions to other

people, and determine how and what we say.

Our Perception of others

Our perception of others determines if we communicate, how we

communicate, and how we feel about the experience before, during, and

after the event

[Pearson & Nelson, 1994, p. 24].

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Depending on whether we perceive a person to be arrogant and self-centred, or rather

friendly and outgoing, our communication will not be the same. For instance, we may

decide to engage or not to engage in a conversation with someone we know, depending

on whether we perceive the person as looking very outgoing or a bit aloof at a given

moment. If we are meeting a person for the first time, our first impressions of that person

often determine or influence whether, and how, we talk to that person.

Even before a person utters a word, a number of non-verbal signs influence our

perception/first impressions of that person: his/her physical appearance, the way (s)he

walks into the room and sits down, the look on his/her face.

Role of Perception in Communication

Perception plays an important role in communication; wrong or inaccurate perceptions can

cause problems and can sometimes result in serious conflicts.

Perception and communication can be improved if we:

know the factors that determine or influence individual perception(subsection 8.2.2).

understand what occurs in the perceptual process (section 8.3).

identify elements that can contribute to greater accuracy of our perceptions

(section 8.4).

8.2.2 Differences in Perception

Perceptions are personal constructs of the perceiver

[Pearson & Nelson, 1994, p. 22]

Each individual sees or understands the world and others in his/her own unique

perspective; perceptions of other people and events differ from one person to another.

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Why do we see the world differently? Why do differences in perception occur?

Two main sets of factors or reasons can be identified for the differences in individual

perception:-

(i) Personal History

(ii) Present Situation.

Though we classify the factors into two main groups for the sake of explanation, there is

necessarily some overlapping between them.

(i) Personal History

By personal history, we mean all that we have acquired, or all that we have become, as a

result of our past experiences, environment, education, family background, social, cultural,

ethnic, gender, occupational and other identities. Certain physical or physiological

attributes or features (our height, our impaired hearing or vision) can also affect the way

we view others and the world around us.

Our social roles also determine or influence our perception. For instance, if you are a

parent, you perceive your child’s friends or peer group differently from the perception that

(s)he has. Another example is of a person who feels that it is perfectly normal to joke and

laugh with colleagues of the opposite sex. But the partner/spouse/fiancé(e) may think that

this person is being too friendly or familiar!

(ii) Present Situation

By the present situation, we mean the immediate situation or context in which perception

occurs. The present situation refers to two types of factors: (a) our inner state, (b) the

external factors and circumstances around us.

Unit 9 174

a) Our inner state

“Inner state” refers to an individual’s mood, state of mind, physical or

physiological states (e.g.. hunger, cold, feeling of depression, pain). For instance, if

you are suffering from a bad toothache, your perception of yourself might be “I’m

looking dreadful today”, and your perceptions of others might be: “The

tutor/lecturer is very demanding today”.

b) The external factors

External factors include elements of the immediate environment that can affect a

person’s perception. Some examples of external factors are:-

- The communication setting (few or many people).

- An intimate/friendly surrounding, or a new/unknown/threatening surrounding.

- The place where we are sitting (e.g., near the door from where we can view a

distracting scene outside).

- The view we have of the other people involved in the communication situation.

- Physical noise.

Given the various factors that shape our perception, perception cannot but be unique to

each individual: no two individuals will sense or understand or perceive the same events in

quite the same way.

Unit 9 175

8.3 THE PERCEPTUAL PROCESS

The Perception Process is said to occur in three phases, all taking place quickly, almost

simultaneously, and unconsciously. The three phases are:

1. Selection

2. Organisation

3. Interpretation

8.3.1 Selection

There are multiple sensory stimuli around us all the time in the form of sight, sound, smell

and texture. Yet we focus on only a few stimuli and we neglect many others. For example,

in class, you concentrate on what the tutor/lecturer is saying, and it is only when your

concentration lapses that you hear the traffic or other noise on campus. Also, you become

so excited on hearing that there may be an examination question on Unit x (your

favourite!) that you do not “hear” when the tutor adds that Unit y is also quite important

for the examination.

Two factors are said to influence the selection process:

(i) selective exposure/attention

(ii) selective retention

8.3.1.1 Selective Exposure or Selective Attention

We are not open to all the stimuli and experiences that continually compete for our

attention. We are selective in the way we attend to stimuli, as well as the extent to which

we attend to them. In the class situation, we generally choose - consciously or

Unit 9 176

unconsciously - to focus on what the tutor is saying because this might be useful for the

assignments or examination. But when the teacher is responding to a classmate’s question,

we tend to “relax”. At other times, our attention lapses due to different reasons: lack of

concentration, tiredness or because we pay attention to other stimuli, e.g. your classmate

who has fallen asleep and is starting to snore!

Another example of selective attention is when we do not notice a friend waving to us

while we are driving, as we are giving our full attention to the big vehicle coming in the

opposite direction.

Thus, Selective Exposure or Selective Attention implies that we focus on certain cues and

ignore others. It also refers to the fact that we tend to select content or information that

reaffirms our opinions, beliefs and values, while we neglect others. This is why, for

example, many people attend political rallies by politicians or parties that they already

support or favour. Also, studies have shown that many people – when a real choice exists-

read and/or buy newspapers that tend to confirm their political views (in the wide sense of

the term).

In our communication encounters too, we constantly, often unconsciously, pick and

choose certain information or stimuli, from all that we receive, leaving out others. For

example, during a meeting held by the Human Resource Manager, those working in a

given department tend to pay more attention to the changes announced for their

department.

Limiting our attention or exposure to only part of the information or message(s) can

create inaccurate perceptions, and consequently, serious misunderstandings. For example,

you heard your friend say that (s)he will definitely be present at your party, but you left

out the part where (s)he added: “If I have to drop my brother at the airport, I might be

quite late though”.

Unit 9 177

8.3.1.2 Selective Retention

From the information/stimuli we attend to/or select, we recall only part, and “forget” the

rest. What is the information you recall from the last news bulletin you heard or listened

to? You may find for instance, that you recall “the new fees to be applied by University of

Mauritius”, and the results of the match involving your favourite team, but that you do not

remember much else. This situation occurs because our needs and interests usually

influence what we recall or remember.

For example, the driver of the car in which you are travelling has to be careful not to miss

‘the fourth road on the left after the round-about’; as a passenger, you may not know, if

asked, at what point the car turned left, or even whether it turned left or right. But you

might remember what the driver did not even notice: the huge poster advertising a new

block of apartments, and which naturally enough, caught your attention and remained in

your memory as you are actively looking for a new place to live.

Selective Exposure/Attention and Selective Retention occur continuously, simultaneously

and unconsciously.

8.3.2 Organisation

We tend to organise information (that we have selected and retained) in ways or patterns

that are meaningful to us, to our frame of reference and our understanding of the world.

Some of the ways in which we organise stimuli or information are:

(i) figure and ground

(ii) closure

(iii) proximity

(iv) similarity

Unit 9 178

8.3.2.1 Figure and Ground

Figure 8.1

Activity 1

What do you see Figure 8.1?

In Figure 8.1, if we focus on the black portions, these constitute the foreground or figure

and the white portions become the background. Alternatively, if we see the white portions

as constituting the figure, the black parts constitute the background. If we go on looking

at the figure, we usually experience a switching mechanism between white figure and black

background, and black figure and white background. We may also perceive the figure as

an octagon with four blank portions and four white portions. Therefore, Figure 8.1 is not

Unit 9 179

clear or unambiguous. Yet we tend to perceive one of the two situations above with a

sense of certainty.

We can draw an analogy with the way we organise information in communication

situations. The stimuli/aspect on which we focus is the figure, and the rest or other stimuli

become background information to us.

For example, the tutor, when giving feedback on the test, talked about your strengths and

weaknesses; but you tended to listen to, or “hear”, only the weaknesses. The weaknesses

became “figure” and the strengths faded into “ground”.

Because of who and what we are and because of our own unique

perceptual process, our attention focuses and fades, and we choose the

figure or ground of what we see, hear, smell, touch, and taste

[Pearson & Nelson, 1994, p. 31]

Sometimes, different stimuli compete as “figure” for our attention. For example, although

we would normally pay attention to the boss’ instructions as “figure”, the insect crawling

up his/her sleeve seriously competes with our attention as figure.

Unit 9 180

8.3.2.2 Closure

Activity 2

How would you describe the following figures?

(a) (b)

In Figures 8.2a and 8.2b, we tend to see an “incomplete circle” and “incomplete

“rectangle” respectively, rather than an inverted curve and short lines. We resort to visual

or perceptual closure. Our expectations and our desire to form a whole image drive us to

fill in information that we do not have.

Closure or Perceptual Closure is another way in which we organise information or stimuli.

This same phenomenon of closure (visual, perceptual or mental) occurs in our daily

encounters: we tend to “fill in” the meaning of what we see, hear or sense.

For example, we see two classmates coming and leaving together before and after class,

and we assume that they are very close friends. The real reason for them to come and

leave together can be because they are neighbours and live quite far, and they have

decided to travel in one car to come to class.

Figure 8.2a Figure 8.2b

Unit 9 181

8.3.2.3 Proximity

Activity 3

How would you describe what you see below? Write down your answer before reading

on.

0 0 ** 0** * * * * * 12121121 122

0 * 0 ** ** * * * 21 1 21222

* 00* ** 0* * * ** * 11 21 1 1 1

000*0*** *** **** 222 11 21

Figure 8.3

Many of us tend to perceive three sets of elements: One set of “zeros” and “stars”, one set

of stars, and one set comprising the figures “one” and “two”. This is because we tend to

organise stimuli/information according to proximity or nearness.

For example, you see two of your classmates sitting together since the first day of class,

and you infer that they knew each other before joining university. Or, when your tutor

enters the class and says: “One of you has badly failed the test”, and just afterwards tells

you: “Could I see you outside for a minute?”, you infer that you are the one who has badly

failed. In fact, you are called outside to be shown the tutor’s car parked across the lawn,

from which to fetch the tutor’s manual.

Sometimes, we are right in our inference based on proximity, but not always.

Unit 9 182

8.3.2.4 Similarity

We also organise information according to similarity; we tend to group elements together

because they resemble each other or one another in size, colour, shape or other such

criteria.

Similarly, we tend to organise people according to similarity instead of seeing them as

individuals in their own rights with their rich variety of differences and attributes.

Classifying people in groups according to colour, race, religion, income and other

attributes amounts to stereotyping.

8.3.3 Interpretation

Interpretation, or perceptual interpretation, is the perceptual phase in which we give

meaning to stimuli. After sensory stimuli have been selected and organised, we assign

meaning to them in the light of our personality, personal history, past experiences, frame

of reference, present circumstances and state of mind.

Because each individual is unique, each is unlikely to select the same stimuli or organise

them in the same way. Even if two individuals were to select and organise certain stimuli

in the same way, their interpretation would still be quite different, depending on who they

are and their current state or feelings. Consequently, each individual has his/her own

interpretation of things or people.

Interpretation of stimuli is also determined, influenced, and/or helped by the context of

perception. However, context can also be misleading or insufficient to interpret stimuli.

For example, you “see” a coarse and heavy rock in a nature collection but when you touch

it, it proves to be a light synthetic “rock” made of soft material!

Unit 9 183

8.4 IMPROVING PERCEPTUAL ACCURACY

It would help our communication and relationships if we improved our perceptual

accuracy and interpretation of people and situations.

Here are a few ways or techniques that can help reduce inaccuracies in perception:

- We should question the accuracy of our perception and make a conscious effort to pay

attention to all that is happening, and to our selection, organisation and interpretation

of these stimuli.

- We should avoid bias, prejudice and stereotyping, and avoid filtering out information,

to be able to increase the probability of more accurate perceptions. For example, in a

meeting, rather than being only in favour of what our friend is saying and disregarding

others’ ideas and suggestions, we need to listen to everyone and treat all ideas fairly.

- We must remember that first impressions are not always correct and need to be

revised. Moreover, our perceptions need to change over time, because other people

change, and we change too. (Often, we tend to stick to original or old perceptions, and

expectations!)

- We should beware of the “halo effect” which refers to our perception of a person

based only on one characteristic or opinion. For example, if we have been told that the

tutor is a rather warm, or rather cold, person, our perception is sometimes conditioned

by what we have been told in spite of what the person says or does, we still tend to see

the person as we have been told the person is.

Unit 9 184

- We must be careful not to let the “present situation”, our present state of mind and

physical state influence our perception. We must remember that when we are feeling

low or irritable, our perception of others can be more negative than usual.

- Comparing our interpretation with others’ interpretation of the same person or event

can reduce inaccuracies in perception. However the other person might be mistaken in

his/her perception, too!

- Multisensory cross-check can also be used to reduce perceptual inaccuracy. Our

perception is often based on information or stimuli received through only one sense

(hear, see, feel, smell or taste). But we can confirm our perception by cross-checking

through another sense. For example, the amber liquid you “see” in a glass may prove

to be juice instead of an alcoholic drink, after you smell and/or taste it.

- We can also use verbal check to improve our perceptions. For instance, if you think

that somebody has used a sharp tone of voice, instead of assuming that the person is

annoyed with you, you may ask the person something like: “You sound annoyed. Have

I said or done anything to annoy you?”. It may be better to clear misunderstandings

and wrong perceptions early in communication situations to prevent further

misunderstandings and inaccurate perceptions from cropping up.

Activity 4

Think of one example involving you and another person, where each one of you had a

different perception and interpretation of ONE SAME situation. Try to analyse what

happened, and what could have been done to reduce the inaccuracies that occurred.

Unit 9 185

8.5 LISTENING SKILLS

The reason why we have two ears and only one mouth is that we may listen

the more and talk the less.

Note: Listening should be understood in the wide sense of the term: listening with the

ears, but also the eyes and other senses.

8.5.1 Importance of Listening

By now, you will have learnt in the manual, that communication is not only about sending

messages, but is about receiving messages as well.

Listening is a fundamental component of communication: the ability to listen effectively is

an essential communication skill and is as important as speaking well.

Listening is perhaps the most challenging among communication skills.

How do we acquire listening skills?

In school, while we are formally taught how to read, write, speak, we are not taught to

listen. Yet, we spend a great deal of time engaged in the activity of listening; some studies

have shown that listening accounts for more than half of our communicative time. Also,

listening is a most valuable skill which we need to develop.

“Listening” is not “Hearing”.

Hearing is simply the act of receiving sounds; the physiological process of receiving sound

waves.

Unit 9 186

Listening is a psychological process by which we seek to comprehend and interpret aural

and visual stimuli.

Note: Hearing is merely the first step in the listening process. We hear with our ears; we

listen with our brain.

8.5.2 Techniques for Effective Listening

A few aids to effective listening.

- Learn to listen and not just to hear.

- It is not enough to just listen; we need to listen actively, i.e., intently, analytically, with

concentration, and empathy.

- The active/effective listener pays attention to verbal as well as nonverbal messages or

signs.

It is a listening skill to acknowledge the person who is talking.

The listener acknowledges the speaker, using mainly nonverbal signs, to show that (s)he is

listening and is interested to go on listening. Examples of nonverbal signs that show one’s

interest and active listening: leaning forward, keeping an alert posture, an expressive face,

maintaining eye contact, frowns, nods, smiles.

Of course one should not be too deliberate. If one ends up looking like a

nodding toy dog with a daft smile on one’s face then this is as

disconcerting as showing nothing at all.

(Dimbleby & Burton, p. 72)

Unit 9 187

Verbal signs are also used, but they are usually “brief”; e.g., words such as “Right”,

“Yes”, “I see” “hm”.

Acknowledging a speaker does not mean approval or agreement with all that is being said.

The listener encourages the speaker to talk; it shows his/her participation in the

communication encounter.

- The listener tries to be objective and non-judgemental, instead of having

preconceptions and thinking that (s)he already knows what the speaker will say, or

thinking that what is being said is not interesting or important. The listener must try to

keep an open mind.

- The active listener provides feedback, checking whether (s)he has understood, by

either summarising, or asking questions for clarification or precision. However, the

listener does not interrupt the flow of the speech. Questions or verbal responses are

formulated only when necessary and appropriate.

- We listen not only to ‘what is said’ verbally and nonverbally, but also to ‘what is not

said’, e.g., the fact that the speaker talks about the advantages of a product but not at

all about its disadvantages.

Activity 5

Try the activity described below, and write down your observations, before reading on.

In an encounter with a friend (but not a classmate who is also taking COMS 1010!) or a

relative, stop responding to that person. What do you notice? What responses do you get

from the other person?

In the above activity, the reaction of your friend or relative is probably one or more of

these: annoyance, anger, confusion. Hence, we note that certain behaviour on the part of

the listener or “receiver” can easily discourage the speaker, because they seem to convey

Unit 9 188

disinterest, or boredom (e.g., glancing at a watch or out of the window, observing an

insect or other distraction, glancing away all the time so that no eye contact is

established).

8.6 A FEW POINTS TO REMEMBER

Our perception does not necessarily provide an accurate view of people or events.

Yet, we tend to take our perceptions for granted, without questioning whether

they are correct or not.

The differences that exist in perception between individuals invite conflict.

Sometimes, the level of inaccuracy in our perception is insignificant but sometimes,

our view of people or situations can be totally distorted, thus giving rise to serious

misunderstandings.

An awareness of how inaccuracies in our perception occur can help to improve our

relationships and communication.

A good and effective listener acknowledges the speaker, and makes the speaker

feel comfortable.

The listener sends and interprets nonverbal signs.

Listening skills can be improved by being aware of the importance of listening, and

by applying a few listening techniques.

Unit 9 189

UNIT 9 BUSINESS AND TECHNICAL WRITING

Unit Structure

9.0 Overview

9.1 Learning Objectives

9.2 Curriculum Vitae

9.3 Letters

9.3.1 Convention and Layout

9.3.2 Applying for a Job

9.3.3 Request and Enquiry

9.3.4 Complaints

9.4 Business Writing

9.4.1 Memorandum

9.4.2 Agenda and Minutes of Meeting

9.5 Reports

9.5.1 Business Reports

9.5.2 Laboratory Reports

9.5.3 Progress Reports

9.6 A Few Points to Remember

9.0 OVERVIEW

This unit introduces business and technical writing, skills that will be useful to you as a

student now and when you join the labour market. If you join a firm, you will have to learn

what the house style is and it might differ from what is discussed in this Unit. The given

examples in this Unit are to be used as guides, rather than prescriptive templates, to

writing letters and reports.

Business or technical letters/reports are of course word-processed.

Unit 9 190

9.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After having completed the Unit, you should be able to do the following:-

1. Write a Curriculum Vitae;

2. Format a formal letter in an acceptable form;

3. Compose certain formal letters that are useful to you as a student and citizen;

4. Write certain types of business letters and reports;

5. Present a memorandum, an agenda and minutes of meeting.

9.2 CURRICULUM VITAE

When you leave University, some of you will be decide to pursue further studies, others

will go out searching for work. In both cases, you will face the need to send your CV

(Curriculum Vitae = an account of your life) to universities you might want to join or

prospective employers. A CV is the first impression that you will give of yourself.

Neatness, correctness, precision will be to your advantage.

A CV is often the document that employers use to decide whether to interview you for a

job, or to decide whether you are qualified for the job. Therefore, you should highlight

your best attributes.

People usually read CV’s very quickly. For this reason;

- get to the point immediately

- include personal information that is necessary for the job: do not include

information like religion;

- format it so that your strengths are quickly seen: do not confess your

shortcomings

Unit 9 191

- do not misrepresent yourself: erroneous information will lead to dismissal as

soon as it is discovered

- vertical lists are better than paragraphs

- commit no mistake: grammatical, spelling or punctuation

- include your interests and hobbies only when they are related to the job you are

applying for

- customise your CV for each job emphasising on work experience that is

relevant to what you are applying for

- Put yourself in the shoes of the receiver. He/she may receive hundreds of CV’s

for a job applied in the newspaper. Be clear and concise!

An example of a CV follows:

Unit 9 192

John Peter WILSON 16 Royal Road, Phoenix

Telephone: 345 1678, Mobile: 735 4548, E-mail:John@intent.mu Employment 2006 - 2008 Department of Social Studies, University of Mauritius

Research Assistant

Collected quantitative data from a sample of teenagers on alcohol consumption amongst secondary school students

Analysed the data using SPSS

2004 Loreto Convent Mahebourg Replacement Teacher of Sociology

Taught Social Studies at Form 3 level Taught Sociology at Form 5 level

Education 2002 - 2005 Department of Social Studies, University of Mauritius

BA (Hons) Sociology, Upper Second Class

1994 - 2001 Loreto Convent Mahebourg Cambridge Higher School Certificate Exams Main Subjects:

English: B Sociology: B Mathematics: A

Subsidiary Subjects: General Paper: B French: C

Other Skills Computer literate: good knowledge of Word, Excel and SPSS Fluent in English and French Practical knowledge of Hindi Personal Details Date of Birth 14 March 1973 Nationality Mauritian Gender Male Identity Card Number W14031973152688709 Referees Dr T. M. Hosenie Mr Max Poulle Department of Sociology Rector Faculty of Social Studies Loreto Convent Mahebourg University Of Mauritius Telephone: 456 6689 Telephone: 454 1041

Unit 9 193

If you are applying to a university for further studies, both referees can be academic referees. But if you are applying for a job, an academic referee and a referee who will be able to comment on any work you might have done part-time or full-time would be better.

Note:

1. Some people prefer to give their list of schools, qualifications and experience

starting from the most recent one and working backwards.

2. There may be other headings that you might find useful to add, but it all depends

on the reader of your CV.

3. Skills: for certain jobs, and increasingly so nowadays, it may be necessary to show

that you are computer literate.

4. Your presentation must be as neat as possible. Typing or word-processing it is a

must.

5. Your CV should usually appear on ONE page only. Arrange the material that you

have in such a way that it is clear, and at the same time, appears on a single page.

Activity 1

Using the format provided write your own Curriculum Vitae.

9.3 LETTERS

We all write letters. There is, however, a difference between the casualness with which we

write an informal letter to a relative or friend and the seriousness with which we should

write formal letters when we are doing any type of transaction.

This style of formal business letters that is now current is much less rigid and old

fashioned that it used to be. This section looks at different types of formal letters that you

might find useful now and when you leave University.

Unit 9 194

International business correspondence can take various forms: by correspondence, we

mean letters, and also fax, e-mail and teletex which are becoming more and more popular.

However, in this Unit we will focus on formal business letters only (information can be

obtained from templates in the Word Program).

The letter types and the letter formats that we consider in the coming pages are not

exhaustible. You can view other formats in “Word”. Different companies have different

conventions about business writing. You will be expected to adapt the skills mentioned in

this unit to your context.

9.3.1 Conventions and Layout

There is no fixed and rigid format for business letters. Different companies have their own

ways and traditions – they have their own ‘house style’. But a typical business letter in

English will consist of those parts;

1. Letterhead

2. Date

3. Receiver’s name and address

4. Attention line

5. Salutation

6. Subject line

7. Body of the Letter

8. Complimentary close

9. Signature

10. Name and title of sender

11. Copy Notation

1. Letterhead -

a. Most firms use paper on which is already printed a letterhead, including the

name, address and telephone number of the company.

Unit 9 195

b. However, when you are writing, you will need to include your address, that

is, the sender’s address –in the top right-hand corner

34, Traditional Way, This was the old way of writing addresses.

Quatre- Bornes, Nowadays, commas are not commonly used at the

Mauritius. end of each line.

Note: include country only if sending the letter

abroad.

34 Traditional Way This is the preferred format nowadays.

Quatre-Bornes

Mauritius

2. Date – on the right but could be after the Receiver’s address

The Date includes the day, month (written in full, not abbreviated or represented

by figures) and year. The following two styles are acceptable:

a. February 14, 1996

b. 14 February 1996 (seems to be more popular in Mauritius, probably

because it is more British than the former, which appears more American)

3. Receiver’s name and address

The name and address of the person to whom you are writing are placed at the top

left of the page if the paper has a letter head.

Mr George James Managing Director Alan & James Ltd Quality House 98 Rose Street Moka Mauritius

Unit 9 196

4. Attention line

If you have not included the name of the Receiver yet in your letter, this is where you

might want to do so: include an attention line to attract the attention of someone in

particular:

For the attention of Mr George James

ATTENTION: Mr George James

ATTENTION: Managing Director

Attention of the Managing Director

5. Salutation

You must use the appropriate salutation.

If you are writing to a company, it would be:

- Ladies and Gentleman

If you are writing to a person:

- Dear Mr. James

- Dear Sir In case you know the sex of your addressee, but not

- Dear Madam his/her name.

- Dear Madam or Sir (if you do not know the sex of your receiver)

6. Subject Line

A subject line is usually included in a business letter as it gives the reader an idea of the

content of the letter. You may type the word ‘subject’ if you wish, but it can just as

well be omitted:

SUBJECT: Sale on Cars

SALE ON CARS

Unit 9 197

7. Body of the letter

The content of the letter will obviously depend on who your reader is and your purpose in

writing to him/her. We will look at a few possibilities later on in his unit.

8. Complimentary close

The complimentary close used to be typed on the bottom right hand side of the letter, but

it has now become common practice to align the complimentary close on the bottom left

hand side of the letter. The tone of the close will depend on the tone of the message and

your relationship with the receiver:

Sincerely, Sincerely yours, Respectfully yours,

Cordially, Cordially yours, Your very truly,

(Sincerely is more formal than Sincerely yours, for instance)

9. Signature

You sign the letter, using a pen. It gives a personal touch to a type-written letter.

10. Name and title of sender

You then put your full name and a title if you have one:

Ms Anne Parker (ACCA, ATII, FTII)

Dr Ram Pillay

11. Copy Notation

When you send a letter to one receiver, you send the original copy. But sometimes

you will need to send the letter to a receiver and a copy of the letter to someone else.

In this case, you photocopy the original letter and send one copy to the receiver and

another copy to the other person, keeping the original to yourself. The way to

indicate that copies have been sent to someone other than the receiver is by typing the

following after the name and title of sender:

Unit 9 198

cc: Mrs Claude Frill

or

Copies to: Mrs Claude Frill

Mr Yogesh Purrun

Unit 9 199

MODEL

34 Traditional Way

Quatre-Bornes

Mauritius

14 February xxxx

Ms Anne Parker

Manager

Bank Mauricienne Interrégionale

Royal Road

St Denis

Reunion Island

Dear Ms Parker

Tax Refund

Thank you for your letter dated……………………………………………………………

……….it.

At that time,……………………………………………………………………….…bank.

Sincerely yours,

Dr Raj Pillay

Gynecologist

Victoria Hospital

cc: Commissioner of Income Tax

Unit 9 200

9.3.2 Applying for a Job

For certain jobs that are advertised, companies/institutions request you to fill in an

application form. Instead of sending the application form only, you may decide to send a

covering letter and your CV. In this case, your letter will have to be brief and direct, as the

application form and your CV contain all the required information. Below is an example of

a covering letter that you could send with the application form and your CV:

Unit 9 201

MODEL

34 Traditional Way Quatre-Bornes Mauritius 14 February xxxx

The Personnel Manager SITEC Co. Ltd Royal Road Vacoas

Dear Sir, Vacancy for an Electrical Engineer I have much pleasure in applying for the above post. I enclose with my application form a copy of my curriculum vitae and copies of my:

1. Birth certificate 2. Cambridge Higher School Certificate 3. Degree certificate.

I will be happy to attend an interview at any time convenient to you.

Yours sincerely,

(Signature)

(Type you name)

Unit 9 202

Many people, when they start looking for jobs, write letters to various companies,

informing the Personnel Manager or Director that they are available for a job, should the

opportunity arise. In this case, the letter that you will send will be different from the

covering letter mentioned earlier. In this case, there are no jobs available yet and, there

are no application forms. You are taking the initiative. Your letter and your approach

will be quite different.

Such a letter will usually be addressed to the Personnel Manager (sometimes, the Director,

or Manager) as he/she is the one responsible for recruiting staff members.

Your letter should be short and will usually be divided into 4 parts:

1st paragraph: Introduce yourself and state which position you wish to be

considered for.

2nd paragraph: Detail what experience you have that will benefit the firm

3rd paragraph: Enumerate the documents you are enclosing

Final paragraph: Specifically request an interview including when and where you

can be joined.

Unit 9 203

MODEL

34 Traditional Way Quatre-Bornes Mauritius 14 February 2007

The Rector Loreto Convent Mahebourg Avenue Dupre Mahebourg Dear Sir/Madam,

Application for a job as teacher of English I am presently looking for a job as teacher of English. Please find attached a copy of my CV. In addition to my BA (Hons) English degree, I have some work experience. It includes

two months as replacement teacher of English in a private secondary school in 2005. This

has provided me the experience of dealing with adolescents in a difficult school. I have

also worked as a research assistant for four months, investigating the problem of alcohol

consumption among teenagers.

I would welcome the opportunity to discuss any job vacancy with you on the telephone or

at an interview. I can be contacted most easily in my mobile telephone or by e-mail.

Yours faithfully, (Signature) Kevina Rampersand

Unit 9 204

Activity 2

Look for an advertisement in the newspaper that might appear interesting to you. Write a

covering letter to a prospective employer.

9.3.3 Request and Enquiry

The purpose of a request/enquiry letter is to ask for/about something, for instance, asking

information about a product or service, or enquiring about a sales promotion.

Before putting pen to paper, you must identify clearly what you are after so that early in

your letter, you can state it. In business letters, you have to go directly to the point and

avoid unnecessary details, without however being rude and forward.

Note down the number of questions you want to ask in order to cover all the points you

want to raise. If you are asking for several items, you can number them in your letter to

give clarity to your letter. When requesting for something, make sure that your

understanding of the product or service is the same as that of the addressee. Be very

precise in the way you word your sentence. If, for instance you are after a catalogue,

specify clearly which catalogue you require, as there might be several catalogues in

circulation in the given company.

When you are asking for free materials or information, it is good to be reasonable. Do not

be greedy. Be selective in what you ask for. You do not want to project a negative image

of yourself. For instance, you would write:

Please send me a copy of Pass your GCE Olevels in 3 Months , the free booklet

mentioned in the advertisement of the Le Mauricien 15 June.

Unit 9 205

This example shows how you can be direct, clear, concise, to the point and courteous at

the same time.

When you are enquiring about something, explain in a simple way WHAT you want and

WHY you want it. In this case, it is polite to send a stamped and self-addressed envelope

to facilitate the task of the receiver. For example, let us say that you want to know what

the percentage pass for boys and girls at SC level has been for years 1998 to 2001. Write a

letter to the Mauritius Examination Syndicate (MES) and enquire whether you can have

this information:

I am presently writing my Masters dissertation on a comparison of the

performance of boys and girls at SC level in Mauritius. I would be grateful if you

could send me the compilation of the results for the years 1998 to 2001 for the

following subjects: English, French and Mathematics.

Finally, end your letter on an appreciative tone, although it is best to avoid formulae like

“Thank you in advance” as it gives the impression that the reader is being pressurised into

answering your request.

9.3.4 Complaints

We often face situations when we are dissatisfied with a product we bought or a service

we obtained. In certain countries, like England for example, complaint letters are current

as consumers are aware of their rights as consumer. Displeased consumers will write

complaint letters and when demands are reasonable, refunds are made because the

company has a reputation to keep. Complaint letters are less popular in Mauritius but they

are slowly becoming part of the culture.

Unit 9 206

Although you are probably very angry when you write a letter of complaint, bear the

following in mind:

1. Assume that the receiver will be sympathetic to your plight.

2. Do not assume that the receiver is to be blamed.

3. Confine yourself to facts (and not emotions) when describing your misadventure.

4. Do not suggest how the mistakes might have occurred or how they may be

avoided, this is the duty of the receiver.

5. Avoid being rude.

Here is an example of a letter sent to a restaurant where, according to the customer, the

service and food were below standard:

34 Traditional Way Quatre-Bornes Mauritius 7th January xxxx

The Personnel Manager Restaurant Les Floriolis Route des Bougainvilleas Flic-en-Flac Dear Madam or Sir, On 31 December xxxx, I took my family to your restaurant for dinner on New Year’s Eve. Although I had reserved a table the week before, on arriving, we were told that all the tables were already booked and busy. We were made to wait for three quarters of an hour, after which we were shown to a table which was very near to the kitchens. After another forty minutes’ wait, dinner was served and even then, the meat of the steak was barely cooked. I enclose the receipt of the bill which amounted to Rs 2341.50.

It is hardly acceptable that a restaurant of your calibre offers such deplorable services. Before contacting the ICP, it seemed fair to me to ask for a full refund. Yours faithfully,

Samir Bolacky

Unit 9 207

This letter clearly shows that the writer is frustrated with the service and food the obtained

on New Year’s Eve. It contains all the necessary details relating to his misadventure told

in a direct as well as critical manner. The final paragraph contains an implicit threat and

the closing salutation is the colder “Yours faithfully” instead of the warm “Yours

sincerely”.

Activity 3

You have recently flown from Mauritius to Reunion Island, where you were supposed to

take a connecting flight to Madagascar. There were technical problems with the flight

Mauritius-Reunion and you were not informed. You thus missed your flight for

Madagascar as well as failed to make necessary arrangements for another flight to

Madagascar. Write a letter of complaint to Air Mauritius.

9.4 BUSINESS WRITING

9.4.1 Precis of Correspondence

Memo or memos are the words people usually use instead of memorandum (Singular) and

memoranda (Plural).

A memo is an internal letter/short message, sent by one person to someone else in the

same establishment, and it is less formal than a report. A memo, unlike a report, is

unsolicited and is written by a person because he/she has a message to pass on. A report,

on the other hand, is a response to a request or to instructions given.

Unit 9 208

Memos are used to make requests and announcements for instance, to announce staff

meetings, employee promotions or vacation schedules. When writing a memo, you have

to go directly to the point in the first sentence. The personal pronoun “I” is quite

acceptable in a memo. Furthermore, a memo can be in note form, so long as the message

is clear to the reader.

For example, at the University, which is a big company, the way in which information is

circulated within and across faculties is by using the memo.

Unlike letters, salutation and complimentary close are not included in a memo. But there

is always a heading to the memo indicating the names of the sender and the receiver, as

well as indicating the subject of the memo. A memo is usually not signed, but some

people do sign their memos.

Certain firms have headed paper, and some firms might expect you to use plain paper. In

either case, it is a good idea to have the name of the firm and the department you are

writing from if it is relevant. Following that would be the words “MEMO” or

“INTEROFFICE MEMORANDUM”

The format for a memo follows and the example of the University of Mauritius is taken:

Unit 9 209

UNIVERSITY OF MAURITIUS

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

MEMO

TO: The Dean

FROM: Dr. Jonathan, Unit Co-ordinator

DATE: 21 March xxxx

SUBJECT: External Examiners

This is to inform you that the external examiner will visit the Faculty from 4 May to 17

May xxxx. All arrangements concerning accommodation and transportation have been

made.

A welcome lunch has been organised for the 5 May xxxx at the University canteen at

noon. We hope you will be able to attend it.

M. Jonathan

………………………………………………………………………………………………

When you are writing a memo, similar factors that determine letter-writing apply. You

can also consider the following;

1. Exercise Judgement: be careful when you write your memo especially if

you using electronic mail, where hurry, impulsiveness, and carelessness are

easy traps to fall into.

Unit 9 210

2. Do not assume that your audience knows everything you will say. Think

about how much they can be expected to know, and build from there. If

you want to remind them of something, use a phrase such as "As you

know....." or "You may already be aware that..."

3. Consider who you are addressing the memo to, as it will determine the tone

of your message,

1. Stick to the subject you mentioned under the ‘SUBJECT’ heading.

2. Go directly to the point in the first paragraph. A memo is about telling the

essential. As you are sending the memo to people you know and will meet

the same day or week, you do not need to include the usual formalities and

polite forms. This does not mean that you can afford to make mistakes.

Write complete sentences and edit for grammar and punctuation.

3. Be careful when saying things that can infuriate people or make them feel

insulted: the same things can be said in more positive ways. Consider these

examples:

Negative Positive

You didn't notice May I point out that

You neglected to mention We can also consider

You overlooked the fact One additional fact is

You missed the point From another perspective

If you persist in If you choose to

I see no alternative but Our clear plan of action

You're wrong That turns out not to be the case

Unit 9 211

Activity 4

Write a memo to your Programme Co-ordinator or class representative, reminding him/her

to make the necessary arrangements for your Information Technology class. In your

memo, you should consider the following items:

(1) classroom allocation for tutorials,

(2) laboratory allocation for practical sessions,

(3) frequency and duration of contact sessions,

(4) name of your tutor.

9.4.2 Agenda and Minutes of Meeting

In all companies and for all associations (like the Association of Chartered Accountants or

the Government Teachers’ Union), meetings are held to discuss current issues. An

invitation to those meetings will usually be circulated to members – within companies,

memos will be utilised. In the invitation letter/memo, there will be an agenda, which is an

outline of the matters that will be raised and discussed in the meeting. As shown in the

example, the agenda is very brief and mentions the topics that will be raised in the

meeting. The AOB (Any Other Business) gives the opportunity to raise other issues but it

is usually understood that the main focus will be on the topics mentioned.

Unit 9 212

UNIVERSITY OF MAURITIUS

FACULTY OF SCIENCE

MEMO

28 February xxxx

TO : All Members of the Faculty

FROM : The Dean

Faculty Meeting

A Faculty meeting will be held on Wednesday 4 March xxxx at noon, in the Conference

Room of the Faculty.

Agenda

1. Approval of Minutes

2. Matters Arising

3. Semester 2 Exams

4. Final Year Dissertations

5. AOB

Minutes of meetings have to be kept:

1. for records: it is crucial to be able to show in writing what was discussed in a

meeting. That is why there is the approval of the minutes of the previous meeting

at the beginning of each meeting. This approval of minutes ensures that the

people present agree that those were the issues that were discussed and that those

were the decisions that were taken in the previous meeting.

2. to circulate among members who were unable to attend the meeting.

Unit 9 213

MODEL

UNIVERSITY OF MAURITIUS

FACULTY OF SCIENCE

Minutes of Meeting

A Faculty meeting was held on Wednesday 4 March xxxx at noon, in the Conference

Room of the Faculty.

Chairperson : Prof. M. Chan

Members present : Dr. A. Afres.

Mr. F. Grandcourt

Mrs. G. Killet

Dr. Suraj

Apologies : Dr. J. Khutna

Mrs. H. Zulfi.

1. Approval of Minutes

The Minutes for the Faculty Meeting held on 13 January xxxx were approved.

2. Semester 2 Exams

Semester 2 exams will start on 13 May xxxx and will end on 3 June xxxx. All scripts will

have to be marked and moderated by 15 July xxxx for external examiners to review

scripts. Faculty board of Examiners will begin on 2 August xxxx.

3. Final Year Dissertations

The deadline for submission of final year dissertations has been fixed for 28 April xxxx.

Border line cases will be read by external examiners.

Unit 9 214

4. AOB

The Faculty will organise a meeting with external examiners before their departure to

discuss possible links.

As shown in the above example, minutes of meeting are extremely concise. They disclose

only the essential materials that were discussed. They need to be precise and correct as

any mistake has the potential of creating problems in the future.

Activity 5

You were present at a Students’ Union Meeting. The University canteen was on the

agenda. Write the minutes of the meeting using the following notes:

- Quality of music canteen,

- Display of tables and chairs,

- Quality and price of the food served,

- Quality of service offered

Unit 9 215

9.5 REPORTS

9.4.3 Business Reports

Business reports often involve lengthy investigation and research and they sometimes end

up being bulky documents. The length of the report depends on the task but the purpose

of a report is to present in adequate form relevant factual information, sometimes

conclusions and recommendations.

There are two kinds of reports;

1. routine reports which deal with matter that occur regularly like periodical reports

of departmental managers on the work of their department.

2. special reports: reports which are submitted to provide information on something

specific on a “one off” basis.

Memos do not require much work to be written as they are used to transmit information

within a firm. Reports, on the contrary, are documents which demand a lot of preliminary

work in terms of;

- reading – ranging from books and articles to documents and files of

correspondence.

- Investigation – questionnaires, interviews and conversations with people who

are useful for the report.

- Observations – your own observations, tests and experiments.

Business Report writing bears strong resemblance to academic writing. You write a

report in the same manner, with the same rigour, as you write academic papers.

- The ideas for your report will have to be organised,

- You will write a first draft,

- You will then start editing the report (for coherence and grammatical

correctness) until you are satisfied with it.

Unit 9 216

- Your report will contain introduction, body (headings and sub-headings, charts

and diagrams) and conclusion.

The essential qualities of a report are;

Completeness: A report must be complete and accurate because it will be used

to reach a decision on something. To make the right decisions, all information

must be available. Clearly show the difference between fact and your opinion.

Make sure to base your conclusions and opinions on evidence that you would

have presented.

Clarity: Be clear in your writing as it reflects that your ideas are clear. Let this

clarity seep through the presentation and paragraphing of your report.

Conciseness: Write to the point. You must be able to give the relevant

information to the client without beating about the bush.

Reports will usually be divided in the following parts [If you are writing a short report,

you will use your judgement to exclude some of the parts mentioned below. For instance,

a short report will not require an abstract].

Unit 9 217

Example of a report framework

Title Page

To :

From :

Report Topic :

Date :

Table of contents

Abstract

Outline key attributes, findings and recommendations.

Terms of Reference

Place the report in the required framework, making clear who asked for an investigation

and a report.

Introduction

Subject matter (key issues/areas)

Rationale (why report focuses here)

Purpose (aims, objectives).

Analysis

Establish current situation

Identify and discuss key factors

Problems-causes and trends.

Unit 9 218

Investigation Procedure

clearly elaborate on the methods used to collect the materials needed.

Findings

an ojective analysis of the materials

Alternatives

Identify alternatives

Evaluate alternatives; provide justification.

Conclusions

Recommendations

Recommendations supporting conclusions

Strategy for implementation

Identify problems to be avoided.

References

Bibliography

Appendices

Examples: -financial and statistical information, diagrams, charts, maps schedules and

graphs. These must be clearly referenced within the report.

- Your signature and the date will usually appear at the end of the report.

Unit 9 219

Reports will appear in several forms and the two most common ones are:

1. Reports in letter form: You can include a report in a letter if it is a fairly short

report. In that case, the format for the report mentioned above is simply included

within the format of the letter.

2. Reports on their own: Reports are often written on their own, accompanied by a

covering letter, and they are very popular in companies and firms.

It is good to note that the framework suggested to you for the business report can be used

and adapted to any circumstance. Just remember what the background to your report is

and produce a report that is geared towards a specific audience.

9.4.4 Laboratory Reports

In your case, laboratory reports are written to communicate laboratory work to your

tutor. The common organisation for a laboratory report is:

1. Abstract: a synopsis of the experiment.

assumes that the reader has some knowledge of the subject but has not read the

report

does not cite figures, tables or sections of the report.

indicates newly observed facts and the conclusions of the experiment or argument

discussed in the report

2. Introduction

Identifies the experiment to be undertaken

Objectives of experiment

Importance of experiment

Theoretical predictions for what results should be

Unit 9 220

3. Procedures

How the experiment was carried out

include details in the method which you think might affect outcome of experiment

4. Results and Discussion

presentation of results

discussion of the results – analyse results and discuss implications of the results –

use graph

pay attention to the problems and limitations of the experiment – consider how

their origin and significance affect the reliability of the conclusions reached.

5. Appendices

information that is too detailed to be placed in the report itself

tangential information that does not directly concern the objectives of the

experiment

9.5.3 Progress Reports

Progress reports are reports that you will write to inform your tutor/employer of the

progress of your experiment, as the name suggests. Progress reports can take many forms

in firms: memo, letter, short report, formal report, presentation. Whatever form it takes,

there are certain prices of information that you will be expected to include:

1. Background of the project/experiment

2. Discussion of achievement since the last report

3. Discussion of problems that have arisen

4. Discussion of work that remains to be done

Unit 9 221

9.6 A FEW POINTS TO REMEMBER

Precision, conciseness and clarity are the major characteristics of business and

technical writing

One cannot write a formal letter like one writes an informal letter, there are certain

conventions to follow.

There are also conventions for business writing, however, some firms have their own

house-style.

The skills you will have developed for academic writing will be used when writing

reports, be they business, laboratory or progress reports.

Unit 9 222

REFERENCE LIST

Gronbeck, B.E., German, K., Ehninger, D., MONROE, A.H. (1997). Principles of Speech

Communication. USA: Addison Wesley Publishing Company.

Pearson, J.C. & Nelson, P.E. (1994). Understanding and Sharing. 6th Edition, William C.

Brown Publishers.

Unit 9 223

ASSIGNMENT FILE

Unit 9 224

ASSIGNMENT 1: WRITTEN ASSIGNMENT

Continuous assessment: 20 marks Due Session: 05

Unit 3 contains a project (portfolio), which you will have to submit to your tutor in Session 5. The project consists of doing parts of an essay. You are advised to read the whole Unit first, and then do the parts of the assignment in the order suggested to you in the Unit. The project to be submitted will contain ALL the worked-out activities found throughout Unit 3.

In Unit 3, you will find the list of activities/parts to be submitted.

Your tutor will discuss titles for Assignment 1 with you.

NB: The same topic and research for Assignment 1 can be used for

Assignment 3 (Informative Speech).

MARKING SCHEME FOR ASSIGNMENT 1

PART 1 Title -

PART 2 Brainstorming 2

PART 3 Reading, etc: i) Direct Quote

ii) Paraphrase

iii) Summary

(All with references)

3

PART 4 Organisation of ideas 3

PART 5 Essay of around 800 words 8

PART 6 Bibliography 4

20 marks

Unit 9 225

ASSIGNMENT 2: SPEECH ON/FOR A SPECIAL OCCASION

Continuous assessment: 10 marks Due Session: 7

Each student has to present in class one of the speeches from the “Activities” in Unit 5 (or

the tutor may assign other “speeches”).

Each speech should last between 2 and 3 minutes (maximum).

MARKING SCHEME FOR ASSIGNMENT 2

Over

Nonverbal language (whether effective and appropriate for the occasion) 3 marks

Verbal language (grammar, style, vocabulary…) 3 marks

Effective and appropriate content + original, creative, imaginative 4 marks

10 marks

Unit 9 226

ASSIGNMENT 3: INFORMATIVE SPEECH

Continuous assessment: 20 marks Due Session: 10/11

Assignment 3 is an Informative Speech (Dates of presentation will be confirmed by your respective tutor).

This Informative Speech can be based on your topic, and research carried out, for

Assignment 1.

General Instructions and Criteria for Assessment.

1. Your presentation must last between 4 and 5 minutes (maximum).

2. You are not expected to read to the audience but to use the extemporaneous mode

of speech delivery. You are expected to use information and hints provided in

Units 1 to 6. As such you have to understand your topic thoroughly.

3. The content of your speech must convey significant information.

4. You should use effective and appropriate verbal and nonverbal language.

5. You must make use of at least one presentation aid; (Objects, pictures/posters,

Overhead transparencies, etc. (You are not required to use powerpoint

presentation for this exercise).

6. Your informative speech must have

- an introduction (what you plan to talk about)

- a main body of discussion (the ‘meat’ of your talk)

- a summary/concluding statement(s)

Unit 9 227

The table that follows contains the criteria that are taken into consideration when

assessing your Informative Speech (Assignment 3):

Content (8 marks) Was the objective of the presentation made clear? Was the topic appropriate for the audience and context? Was the content relevant to the topic? Was the content interesting/informative?

Structure and Organisation of ideas (2 marks) Was there a clear, logical structure including effective introduction and conclusion? Was there a good flow of ideas (use of connectives)? Presentation aids (2 marks) Were there any visual/presentation aid(s)? Were the aids well integrated into the talk? Language, Grammar and Style (3 marks) Was there correct use of grammar and sentence structure? Was the language appropriate (register, style)? Non-verbal delivery (5 marks)

e was there sufficient eye contact with the audience? Was there effective use of facial expressions and gestures? Was there effective use of posture and space (e.g. does not stand in one spot only, does not 'dance')? Were the pronunciation, articulation, pace, volume and intonation clear and/ or appropriate? Was the time limit for the presentation observed?

Total Marks (over 20)

Unit 9 228

SAMPLE EXAMINATION PAPER- COMMUNICATION SKILLS - COMS 1010

SECTION A

Choose any THREE (3) questions from this section. Answers must be brief and

concise. Each question in this section carries 5 marks.

You are advised to spend not more than 30 minutes on this section.

Question 1

State and briefly explain four (4) speech designs.

(5 marks)

Question 2

Give two sources of noise and explain their impact on communication.

(5 marks)

Question 3

Explain two ways in which we organize stimuli or information that affect our

perception, giving at least one example for each.

(5 marks)

Question 4

Explain the differences between kinesics and chronemics.

(5 marks)

Question 5

Explain the role of paralanguage in communication.

(5 marks)

Unit 9 229

SECTION B

Choose ONE (1) question from this section. Use the appropriate format in presenting your answer. Each question in this section carries 15 marks. You are advised to spend not more than 40 minutes on this section.

Question 6

You have applied for a vacant post in a major company and a few days after

your application, you have been called for an interview. However, you will be

unable to attend the interview on the specified date and time due to a personal

problem. Write a letter to the Personnel Manager of the company, explaining the

nature of your problem and requesting that the interview be re-scheduled either

earlier or later.

(15 marks)

Question 7

You are presently working for a company and you have found after a few years’

of service to the company that the use of a software will be very helpful in the

department to which you are attached. You have contacted a software company

and the software is available.

Write a letter to your Director requesting the purchase of the software and

justifying your reasons for this request.

(15 marks)

Unit 9 230

SECTION C

Choose ONE (1) question. Each question in this section carries 20 marks.

You are advised to spend not more than 50 minutes on this section.

Question 8

Discuss the importance and limits of nonverbal communication at institutional

level.

(20 marks)

Question 9

Different municipalities have joined forces and are organising an important

campaign to prevent the resurgence of Chikungunya at the beginning of next

summer. The target audiences are mainly found in the suburban regions. You

have been assigned the task of drafting information and preparing presentation

aids to be used by trained officers who will be delivering talks in several

localities.

What elements will you take into consideration when drafting the information to

be imparted by the officers?

(12 marks)

What presentation aids will you use in this awareness campaign on

Chikungunya?

(8 marks)

END OF QUESTION PAPER