Computing in Business UGBS L100

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Instructor: Dzandu, Michael Dzigbordi (Micky) Email: [email protected]/ [email protected]/#:0244-715811/0264-715811 Course Purpose: To introduce students to the science and discipline of computing and its application in business and organizations. Course Structure Practical : 15% Assignment : 15% Exams : 70% Good Luck

Transcript of Computing in Business UGBS L100

Page 1: Computing in Business UGBS L100

Instructor: Dzandu, Michael Dzigbordi (Micky)

Email: [email protected]/ [email protected]/#:0244-715811/0264-715811

Course Purpose:

To introduce students to the science and discipline of computing and its application in business and organizations.

Course Structure

Practical : 15%

Assignment : 15%

Exams : 70%

Good Luck

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Basic Computing Terms Basic Computing Terms

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COMPUTERSWhat is a computer? It is a set of electronic device

that can systematically and sequentially follow a set of instructions called a program to perform high-speed arithmetic and logical operations on data.

A computer basically processes data to give information.

The main aim of using computers is to be more productive and efficient.

The areas of application of computers span almost every field of endeavour namely – manufacturing, commerce, business, engineering, records management, medicine, entertainment, military manoeuvring, finance, law and crime, banking, etc

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The need for ComputersWhy do we need computers?To increase speed of processing data/info and reduce errors

To eliminate duplication and repetitive tasks

To store, organise and retrieve large volumes of data/info.

Undertake complex activitiesTo enhance sharing/communication of data/information

To enhance security of data/infoInnovation – new way of life

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Advantages of ComputersAccuracySpeed (faster)-time saving Undertake complex processing Stores large volume of data/information and save storage space

Cheaper in terms of processing data compared with manual processing-saves cost from reduction in paper & stationery cost

Innovation – new ways of processing, storing and disseminating information

Improved administrative efficiency5Micky/DIS & OMIS (UG)

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Disadvantages of ComputersExpensive (cost of buying and maintenance)

Use of computers in business creates unemployment

Computers are human dependentComputers are also highly dependent on external power

Computing requires technical expertise/knowledge

Computers are associated with harmful effects e.g. radiation, stress, bad posture, isolation, etc

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Challenges in using ComputersComputer system breakdown and loss of electronic

informationStorage media instability-Frequent power outages and fluctuations Inadequate computer accessories Inadequate technical expertiseSecurity- computer fraud /hacking/viruses, etc.Computers are very dynamic

Assignment:

Discuss the role of computers in a named business endeavour (finance, marketing, accounting, human resource mgt, public administration, health services mgt, etc). (At least five points, typed and printed – no electronic copies).Date of submission : 31st March, 2011

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Input(Data)

Processing(Program)

Output(Information)

Functional Structure of Data Processing System (Computer)

•Data: is raw or unrelated facts or figures without meaning.•Information: is processed data with meaning.•Program: a set of instruction that the computer follows in order to perform its functions or operations. 8Micky/DIS & OMIS (UG)

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Six Basic Functions of a Computer1. Input – the process of sending data into the computer.

Computers were made to capture data for processing. Input is achieved by using input devices like mouse, keyboard, joystick, bar code reader, monitor, mouse , Scanner, Pen/Stylus, voice data entry (VDE)/microphone, etc

2. Processing – the changes or manipulation, or the transformation that data undergoes to become information. It simply the conversion of raw input into a form that is more meaningful to humans. This is achieved by using a computer program; and it is done in the systems unit (processor, memory, storage devices, ALU).

3. Output – is the result that comes out after processing of data- information; using devices like printers, speakers, plotters, monitor, etc. An output could be in two forms: softcopy output (onscreen output) or hardcopy output (printed output).

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4. Filing –Computers were made to store data/information. Computers store data or information using filenames and extension names. E.g. micky.doc, micky.xls, micky.html, etc

5. Sorting – Computers are capable of arranging files, data, and records in a predefined order. Computers sorts data/information during storage either by type, name, date, size, etc

6. Control – Computers have in-built systems for verifying all processes so that information that comes out will meet certain required specifications. Thus putting checks on processes to meet the criteria for evaluating operations. E.g. Spell and grammar checker, etc

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History of ComputersAlthough computational machines continued to evolve, the

invention of modern computers could not have come about until the supporting technologies of electrical switching devices were in place by 1937. The late 1930’s marked the beginning of the computing revolution. (Murdock, 1995)

The history of computers have been categorized under 4 generations ( sometimes 5) with respect to the major developments in computers over certain periods of time. These are the

1st Generation Computers (1950-1957)2nd Generation Computers (1958-1963)3rd Generation Computers (1964-1970)4th Generation Computers (1970-1990)*5th Generation Computers (1991-and beyond)

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1st Generation Computers (1950-1957)These were the earliest general purpose computers to be

developed. Input and output activities were carried out by the use of punched cards and magnetic tapes. The main memory of computers then were made up of hundreds of vacuum tubes. The computers were therefore somewhat unreliable because the vacuum tubes failed frequently (almost every 7 minutes).

The computers were slower, produced a lot of heat, and were very huge. They could run only one program at a time but were very expensive costing as much as $500,000 as at 1950. Examples of 1st generation computers include ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer) & UNIVAC (Universal Automatic Computer) (Hutchinson and Sawyer, 2000).

During the 1st generation, data processing was done on a time available basis (batches), and computers were programmed by direct input of machine language. General Electric was the first firm to take delivery of a commercial computer, the UNIVAC 1 (Murdock, 1995). 12Micky/DIS & OMIS (UG)

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2nd Generation Computers (1958-1963)This period was marked by the use of

transistors in developing computer circuits. A transistor is an electronic switch that alternately allows or does not allow electronic signals to pass through it. Computer circuits were thus made of strands of wires woven together. The main memory of the computers were made of magnetic cores and data storage was by means of removable magnetic cores. Second generation computer were relatively smaller, more reliable, and significantly faster than the 1st generation computers (Hutchinson and Sawyer, 2000).

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3rd Generation Computers (1964-1970)

This period was marked by the use of integrated circuit (IC) in developing computer circuits. An IC is a complete electronic circuit that packages transistors and other electronic components on a small silicon chip on a computers’ motherboard. This made computer development much more cost effective. Data storage was by the use of magnetic disks. During this period computers begun to support multiprogramming (processing several programs simultaneously) and timesharing (people using the same computer simultaneously). Prices of computer reduced drastically to about $18,000 as at 1970 (Hutchinson & Sawyer, 2000).

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4th Generation Computers (1970-1990)This period was marked by the use of large-scale integrated

(LSI) and very large scale integrated (VLSI) in developing computer circuits. The Integrated circuits contained hundreds to millions of transistors on a small chip. For example an Intel processor could have an entire CPU, complete with memory, logic and control circuits embedded onto a single chip (microprocessor ) on the motherboard. The microprocessor technology caused radical changes in computers- sizes became smaller, appearance changed, computers were now available commercially, and processing speeds and computer capabilities increased. Also computers memory capacity increased though its cost decreased. Software applications like word processors, electronic spreadsheet, database mgt systems, desktop publishing and many others became commercially available. This period marked an increase in the use of personal computers the world over. (Hutchinson and Sawyer, 2000). Laptops in particular were introduced in the year 1988 (Murdock, 1995). 15Micky/DIS & OMIS (UG)

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5th Generation Computers (1991-and beyond)

Our current generation or the era of 5th generation computers has been described as the ‘connected generation’ because of the industry’s massive effort to increase the connectivity of computers.

Its is characterized by the rapidly expanding Internet, World Wide Web, and intranets that have created an information superhighway for both computer professionals and home computer users to communicate with others across the globe (O’Leary and O’Leary, 2005). Typical of the 5th generation is computer online services, online shopping, e-commerce, telecommuting, home video computers, web TV, among others (Hutchinson and Sawyer, 2000).

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Classification of ComputersComputers can be classified in many ways. However, four main ways of classifying computers are by:

Technology (analog and digital)Speed (low, medium and high)Purpose (special and general)Size (super, mainframe, midrange and microcomputers).

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a) Computers by technologyAnalog computers : These were the earliest

computers in which data representation was by means of the movement of an object/signals over a distance/angle. Thus data was represented by a continuously varying signals in strength/quantity. Graphically, data representation in analog form looks like water waves.

Digital Computers: Modern day computers represents data by the use of binary digits (bits) using zeros and ones or digitize data. In simple terms you see what you press, for example you press “A”, you see “A”, etc. Graphically, digital data representation looks like adjoining mountains (1) & valleys (0)

1

0

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b) Computers by SpeedLow speed computers: Computers that have speeds of up

to 166 MHz, usually the Pentium I computers. They are slow, with small memory and low storage capacities.

Medium speed computers.: Computers with speeds between 200 MHz -1Ghz ( Pentium II & III). They have moderate processing moderate storage and memory capacities. Relatively faster than P I),

High speed computers : These are the Pentium IV and M’s, with speeds of at least 1.6 GHz, large memory, high processing speed, and large storage capacities. Support latest applications and systems S/W like Microsoft Vista, windows 7, and other peripheral devices like USB digital camera, pen drives, Bluetooth, wireless Internet connectivity etc.

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c) Computers by purposeSpecial purpose computers: These are computers

made for specific or specialize activities and therefore do not support generalize activities outside it domain. For example computers for aviation, mining, oil prospecting, etc can only be used for these activities. These computers cannot be use for general administrative or business functions.

General purpose computers: These are computers capable of supporting more than one specific activity. Most PC’s are general purpose computers capable of supporting different administrative, home, business and personal and organizational activities.

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d) Computers by sizes (Types of computers)Super computers – the largest, most powerful and most

expensive computers in the world, with high processing and storage capacity. They were first developed in the 1970s. Supercomputers are the fastest and highest-capacity computers. They may occupy special air-conditioned rooms and are often used for research. They are used by large organizations normally government sponsored organizations, for highly complex activities such as weather forecasting, space exploration, etc. Supercomputers have hundreds to thousands of processors and can perform trillions of calculations per second. They can cost up to $30million, and consumes electricity enough to power 100 homes.

Mainframe computers – This was the only computer available until the late 1960. They are less powerful than supercomputers but they are still fast, mid-to large-size or room-sized, large-capacity machines. They have many processors. Use by large organizations who handle large volumes of data – banks, universities, insurance companies etc. It normally supports database accessibility by mini/micro computers.

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Mini or Midrange computers – medium sized computers, about the size of a desk. They are mid-way in cost and capability between microcomputers and mainframes. They are used for large scale accounting purpose (Controller & Accountant General), designing and manufacturing activities ( Williams et al., 1999). Just like mainframes, they may be accessed by different users at the same time. They are generally limited to data processing and storage often for one department or for a small company.

Microcomputers – These are also known as personal computers. They are the smallest of the types of computers. Consist of microprocessor chip. There are two types, portable microcomputers (e.g. laptops, notebooks, palmtops, etc.), and Desktop (table top) small enough to fit unto a desk but large enough to be carried about (e.g. PC). Suited for offices and homes and come with interfaces that permit the use of peripherals-scanner, printer, speakers etc. or sharing of these facilities (Hutchinson & Sawyer, 2000).

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ELEMENTS OF COMPUTER SYSTEM

EDPTRIANGLE

Peopleware/Humanware (live ware)

Software Hardware

Peopleware: This is the most important element of the computer system. It consist of any computer literate person. This includes both end users (ordinary users without much technical expertise) and computer professionals (trained with technical expertise in computers)- coders, data entry clerks, programmers, system analysts, designers, operators, etc 23Micky/DIS & OMIS (UG)

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Some computer professionals/careersComputer programmer- creates/design the

programs (software) that processes the data in a computer system. They also design the user interface that enable users to interact with the software.

Computer technician: responsible for servicing and maintenance of computers. They also undertake troubleshooting and repair of non-functioning computer systems and peripherals and install systems and application software on computers.

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Web architect - specialist who designs complex websites for organizations including public websites for the Internet, internal websites (intranets) for organizations,, and private business-to-business websites (extranets).

Data entry clerks – personnel whose main job involves entering data into computers. They are found in large data processing companies , research organizations and institutions like, libraries, banks, universities, hospitals, insurance companies, etc.

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Database administrators- specialist in database technologies used to design and coordinate changes to corporate databases (Whitten, et al., 2004). They must have excellent communication skills because they work with users to solve problems related to organizational databases.

Computer Sales Person-these are people who work for computer hardware and software manufacturers. It is a technically skilled position which requires skills in sales and knowledge of the computers products.

Computer instructors – persons who teach users to use and maintain computer systems. Excellent verbal and written communications skills are required for teaching and writing of instructional manuals.

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Computer artist- people with specialized training in art and in the use of computers. They normally work in advertising agencies were they specialize in using computers to create high quality graphics for professional marketing documents such as magazines, newspapers, book publishers, etc (Graphic designers).

Customer Support Personnel-are often employed by manufacturers of computer hardware and software to provide information and advice to customers. They install new computers for customers, and provide after sales support services and sometimes training for customers’ employees. They have experience and training in systems analysis and design, and programming.

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Hardware: Is made up of the tangible parts of the computer system or the physical components of the computer system. This includes the monitor / visual display unit (VDU), keyboard, mouse, and the systems unit (central processing unit). The CPU is divided into three:

Memory, which is used for storing data, information and programs. There are two main types of memory: ROM (Read Only Memory) where permanent

information is stored. One can only read from ROM but cannot write to it and

RAM, the primary memory of the computer. The RAM stores data and information temporarily, it is said to be volatile. One can read from RAM as well as write to RAM.

Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): this is where arithmetic and logical operations take place.

Control Unit: controls and coordinates the activities of the other components of the computer system.

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Software: It is the program that facilitate the usage of the computer. It is the intangible part of the computer system.

There are three basic types of software: Systems Software: generalized programs that manages

the resources and the operations of the computer. Systems programs performs variety of tasks including:

Scheduling programs for execution, start execution and monitor execution in cases of errors

Determine the storage location of programs and data files, and the input and output devices to be used

Monitor data transfer between primary and secondary storage locations (Murdock (1995).

The most important kind of the system software is the Operating System (which manages and controls the activities of the computer and also enables us to run application programmes). Examples – windows ’95, windows ’98, Windows Me, Windows XP, Windows Ultimate, UNIX, OS/2, Linux, Windows 7, etc.

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Functions of O/SProvide interface for the user to communicate with

the computer – either command line or graphical user interface to support the use of the computer.

Manage the hardware devices on the computer – interpret commands to memory and keeps tracks of commands requiring the use of input-output devices.

Manage and maintain the disk file system – allows users to create files and store them on the computer. Thus O/S helps maintain a list of files created on the systems providing options for files to be organized into folders, by type, size, date, etc

Support other programs – O/S support the use and functioning of other application programs on the computer (Norton, 1995).

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Application Software : programs that perform specific tasks or functions. Type of application programs include:

Word Processors: used to manipulate text material to get documents such as letters, memos, reports, etc. Basically word processors are used to create, edit, format and print document. Examples include Ms Word, PS Write, Word Perfect, AmiPro, etc.

Electronic Spreadsheet: used to organize, manipulate and analyse numerical data. Examples – Excel, Quattro Pro, Lotus 1-2-3.

Database Managers: used to organize voluminous data for easy retrieval and manipulations. Examples include – Access, Oracle, FoxPro, Paradox, etc.

Communication Programs: enables connectivity between computers and the sharing of information resources. Examples include ProComm, SmartComm, Cross Talk, etc.

Desktop Publishing programs: use to create professional publications like newspapers, calendars, greeting cards, etc. E.g. Corel Draw, PageMaker, MS Publisher, etc.

Presentation Graphics: used to manipulate text, pictures and animate data for easier presentation and understanding. Examples include Ms PowerPoint, Micrografx, Harvard Graphics, etc. 31Micky/DIS & OMIS (UG)

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NB: Some authors also categorise application S/W into Entertainment S/W-computer games e.g..

Minesweeper, Pinball, etc Home/personal S/W- these are usually CD-ROM

based S/W for home activities like food recipe, home decoration, etc

Productivity S/W-Word processing, spreadsheet, database management, etc.

Specialty S/W – computer designing, painting, etc Educational/Reference S/W – also CD-ROM based

e.g. EncartaUtility Software: these are programs developed to solve

the problems encountered occasionally in using the computer. They perform routine or repetitive tasks. Examples include Antivirus programs, disk doctor, data recovery software like Ontrack, etc.

NB: Some authors consider utility s/w as systems software and rather consider programming languages as the third type of s/w.

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Office Automation Systems (OAS) – these are computer systems designed to increase the productivity of data and information workers.

OAS support the major activities performed in a typical office such as document management using word processors, desktop publishers and electronic filing systems; facilitating communication using emails, voice mail, videoconferencing, groupware, intranets, schedulers (electronic calendars), etc; and managing data using spreadsheets and databases.

Groupware: is a term used to describe software that provides functions for the use of collaborative work groups. It may have a scheduler, address book, to do list, public folders, conferencing, voting, messaging. Eg Lotus Notes, Microsoft Exchange. Ideal for groups that have important tasks and tight schedules.

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Storage devices / media

Computer related or dependent storage devices are used in storing data, information and programs from computer systems. There are two types:

Primary storage devices -stores data temporarily ( volatile). They are They can or usually store data/information only when the computer is in use or active. They are sometimes referred to as “online” storage devices. E.g.. RAM

Secondary storage devices like floppy disk, hard disk, compact disc, magnetic disk, DVD, stores data/information and programs permanently (non-volatile). They can store data outside the computer system, and are also called offline” or removable storage devices. The are also used to backup and transport files from one location to another (O’Leary & O’Leary, 2004).

NB: Storage devices are very delicate to handle and are easily destroyed by human hair, dust particles, fingerprints, smoke particles, magnetic fields, etc. (Williams & Sawyer, 2001). 34Micky/DIS & OMIS (UG)

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Data RepresentationData (alphabet, numbers, special characters) is represented in

the computer by the use of binary digits (bits) or codes ‘0’ and ‘1’ (Williams & Sawyer, 2001). Eight (8) bits makes a byte (which represents a character).

1000 (1024) bytes=1 kilobyte (1KB), 1000KB=1 Megabyte(1MB).1000MB=1 Gigabyte (1GB). 1000GB= 1 Terabyte (1 TB).1000TB = 1 Petabyte (1 PB).A bit – is defined as the smallest unaddressable or

unrepresentable unit of data (that is it is not large enough to represent a character). A bit is either a “0” or a “1”.

A byte – is defined as the smallest addressable or representable unit of data.

Usually a collection of bits (8 bits) gives a byte which is equivalent to or large enough to represent a character.

E.g.. A word like ACCRA – 5 bytes, but 5 * 8 = 40 bits. But a text like University of Ghana – 19 bytes (including the spaces).

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NB: Data representation in all computers particularly microcomputers is achieved by using a coding scheme known as ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange). There is also the EBCDIC (Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code) – the binary coding scheme used in large computers, e.g. Mainframes. There is also Unicode – which uses two bytes (16 bits) to represent a character. This allows for almost all written languages of the world to be represented using one character set (Williams & Sawyer, 2001).Data representation serves as the basis for determining the capacities of computer storage devices. The capacities are , however, approximated; e.g. 1024 bytes actually makes 1KB but it is approximated as 1000bytes. A storage device labeled as 40 GB, may display a capacity of 39.6 GB, usually the lost spaces are used up by the systems files that make it possible to use these devices on the computer.

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Computer FilesA computer file is the collection of data or information that is

treated as a unit by the computer. There are many kinds of computer files, but the two main types are program files and data files (Williams and Sawyer, 2001; O’Leary & O’Leary, 2005).

1.Program files- these are files containing S/W instructions. There are normally program installation files or perform specific functions associated with the installation of programs (e.g. Setup.exe also called executable files). Program files are created by the software developers as part of the S/W package. Without the program files and especially the executable file, it will be impossible to install and use both systems and applications S/W on computers. The program files usually have standard names e.g. the applications programs such as Microsoft Word, Excel, Access, etc are all program files. Usually program files are the ones used in creating data files by users.

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2. Data files – these are files that contain data. They are the files created by users using application programs. Unlike the programs files which bear standard names, the data files bear personal names or user define names. e.g. micky.doc, annual accounts.xls, seminar.ppt, students.dbs, etc.

In large systems, two types of data files are identified:i) Master files – these are files that contain relatively

permanent records that are generally updated periodically. They represent the first time creation of files on computers. E.gs. students records at the time of admission, customer accounts at the time of opening a new account, etc.

ii)Transaction files – these are temporary holding files holds that hold all the changes to be made to the master file. The changes include but are not limited to additions, deletions and revisions. e.g. of such files include end of semester results files, which are used to update the master file of students at the academic office, semester registration files, etc. (Williams & Sawyer, 2001, Hutchinson & Sawyer, 2000). 38Micky/DIS & OMIS (UG)

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Computer Data ProcessingTraditionally, there are two types of computer data

processing: - batch (offline) processing and online or interactive/ real-time processing.

1.Batch processing (off-line)-data is prepared ahead of time and then fed into the computer in batches for processing. That is data is collected in batches, and then the supervisory program determines the most economic time to process it. The data collection and processing could take as long as a week, month, or several days. IT is sometimes called “later” processing. E.g. monthly bank statements, bank credit card, payroll processing, cheque processing at banks, etc.

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Advantages of batch processingThere is convenience of data processing.There is no need for direct access to the

files/computerSuitable when the volume of transaction is lowIdeal for regular/periodic task, eg. Payroll

processing.Less expensive than online processing

Disadvantages of batch processingThere are delays/ slow in processing dataDoes not give instant replyErrors are not easy to detect Lack of up-to date info/system is not up-to-date.Not suitable for systems involving customer contact

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2. Online processing – the user is in direct contact with the computer using input devices to enter data. Each query receives instant results (information ). It is sometimes called “now” processing (O’Leary & O’Leary, 2005; Williams & Sawyer, 2000). Interactive processing may either be applied to situations where facilities are dynamically updated at the time of entering data, or to situations where the file can be interrogated instantly, but not necessarily modified. Personal computers have much of interactive processing capabilities whilst organizations still use both types of processing (Murdock, 1995). E.g. bank’s ATM offers online services, online air ticket reservations, online students registration, sales order processing, etc.

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Advantages of online processingIt is faster than batch processingGives instant reply/ there are no delaysSuitable when the volume of transaction is highEasy to detect and trace errors.

Disadvantages of online processingAlways need direct access to the files/computerExpensive to acquire and maintainBreak down easily compared with batch

processing. Are technical and sometimes difficult to use, the

use of some online systems can be very frustrating (CIM, 2001; ACCA, 2005).

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Illustration of Online processing

Source : ACCA (2005) : Business Information Management, 5th ed.

Source : O’Leary & O’Leary, 2004, Computing Today 43Micky/DIS & OMIS (UG)

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Illustration of batch processing

Source : O’Leary & O’Leary, 2004, Computing Today

Source : ACCA (2005) : Business Information Management, 5th ed.

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Distributed Processing (Multiprocessing)Multiprocessing refers to the situation where a number of

computers are linked to each other. The basis of a distributed system is that it uses a data communications system to create and maintain a network of computers, which are equally capable of independent operation and of resource sharing as required. The trend for distributed processing in information systems development has become known as end user computing (EUC), which means that the responsibility for IT resources has been delegated to individual users and control over processing has been decentralized.

Advantages- Processing activities can be shared between computers- Allows for independence and flexibility for the users

DisadvantagesMay be costly to maintainMay result in duplication of effort as end users develop

their own systems which may be similar to other end user systems (CIMA, 2001).

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Centralized Processing (Uni-processing)Originally, all computer systems were centralized, that is, they

used large mainframe computers to process data, connected to remote terminals which communicated with the central machine. These systems are usually designed for processing large volumes of data and transactions, such as in large banks.

Advantages-There are economies of scale for large transaction processing systems.-Able to cope in terms of speed and capacity required of large organizational databases.-The routine processing was ideally suited for the type of software these systems used.

Disadvantages -Can be inflexible – changes in software can take a long time to implement and can be disruptive to the organization-Mainframes can become obsolete technologically and it can be difficult and expensive to replace them with more modern technology if relied on for too long.-Centralization does not encourage user independence (CIMA, 2001).

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Managing ComputersMany broad issues come into play regarding

the management of computers. These issues include but not limited to decisions ranging from:

Buying computersUse & maintenance of computersUpgrading computers and Disposal of computers (this involves various

issues related to recycling discarded computers, paper, computer boxes, printer cartridges and floppy disks. Best practices & conscious awareness of ecological dangers of computer products must be upheld).

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Steps in Buying a Microcomputer SystemThe following is not intended to make buying a microcomputer

an exhausting experience. Rather, it is to help you clarify your thinking

about what you need and can affordStep 1

What Needs do I want a computer to serveYour main concern is to address the two part question:What do I need a computer system to do for meWhat will I need it to do for me in another year or two?

Step 2How much money do I have to spend on a computer system?Your main question is to answer this two-part question: How much am I prepared to spend on a computer system

today?How much am I prepared to spend in another year or two?

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Steps in Buying a Microcomputer System – Cont.Step 3What kind of software will best serve my needs?

Your main question is to answer this two-part question: What kind of software will best serve my needs today?What kind will best serve my needs in another year or two?

Step 4What kind of hardware will best serve my needs?

Your main question is to answer this two-part question:What Kind of hardware will best serve my needs today?What kind will best serve my needs in another year or two?Other considerations in buying computers include:Availability of accessoriesBrand of the computerCompatibility and upgradabilityWarranty/user supportUser friendliness and robustness, etc.

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Use and maintenance of computers

The following is a list of major computer management activities:1.File management – organizing and managing files (proper

labeling and organization of files into folders, proper naming/renaming folders, moving and duplicating files, delete, system files etc.

2.System management –maintenance (formatting, defragmentation, error checks, S/W updates).

3.Data/information management activities – managing and safe keeping of storage devices, performance enhancement techniques (file compression / decompression),

4.Security- passwords, backups, anti-viruses, play threats, etc5.People management- training & retraining of staff/users in proper

and efficient/ effective use of computers. All computing job are done through people, therefore where staff/people do not have the requisite training the overall aim of acquiring computers will only remain a dream.

6.Task management - Server/ Client server computing – multi tasking , timesharing multi programming, multiprocessing, etc 50Micky/DIS & OMIS (UG)

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Some Systems management activities on Windows platform.Most computer systems management activities can be carried

out by using the utilities on computer systems. The utilities or service programs perform specific tasks related to managing computer resources. The range of activities provided by the utilities/utility vary from O/S to OS. These include;

Troubleshooting/diagnostic - programs that recognize and correct problems ideally before they become serious.

Antivirus – programs that guard computer system against viruses

Uninstall – programs that allows you to safely and completely remove unneeded programs and related files from hard disk

Backup- programs that make copies of files to be used in case the originals are lost/damaged.

File compression- programs that reduce the size of files so they require less storage space and can be sent more efficiently over the Internet

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Steps in Upgrading a Microcomputer SystemReasons why computers are upgraded include

When computer is running slow/memory is lowTo support certain/latest S/WSupport new hardware devicesTo support increased/increasing data storage requirements

There are three main steps in upgrading a microcomputer system. Each step begins by asking a key question

Step 1Is it Time to Upgrade? Clearly define what you hope to gain with an

upgrade of some of your system’s hardware.Step 2What should I upgrade? Once you have clearly defined your

objectives, the focus shifts to identifying specific components to meet those objectives.

Step 3Who should do the Upgrade? Once you have decided that the cost of

he upgrade is justified and you know what you want to upgrade, the final choice is who is going to do it. Basically, there are two choices. You can either do it yourself or pay for professional installation.

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Disposal of computersThere are three better options available: reuse, recycle, and

trade-in.Reuse. The term “reuse” refers to giving (or selling) computers

to someone or some other organization to use. Computers are often sold on a secondary market, given (or sold) to employees, or donated to charitable organizations and schools.

Recycle. Reputable recycling companies usually charge a fee for pick-up and the requisite documentation to show that the computers were appropriately recycled. The savings from using a nonreputable recycler, however, are generally not worth the attendant risk if the computers are not properly disposed of.

Trade-in. Most major computer manufacturers (e.g., Dell, Gateway, HP/Compaq) have trade-in programs. For example,. Gateway’s program provides individuals who donate their used computer a $25 to $50 cash refund (Meyer, Waleed & Young, 2004)

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Ethical Issues in ComputingComputer ethics looks at the issues of professional

and social conduct of people in using computers for personal and corporate activities. People are required to use computers in acceptable ways. Generally, ethics of computing has to do with breach of privacy (using peoples information), accuracy(ensuring correctness of information), property (ownership of computing resources), and access (control over computing resources). Most of the specific ethical issues has to do with the following: Software piracy Malicious software (Malware) -Computer viruses Computer illiteracy/unemployment Computer crime

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Software piracy - duplication and redistribution of software without authorization e.g. illegal duplication and resale of software is a criminal offence. Users are therefore advices to purchase the original copies of software from the authorized resellers. Software piracy is a crime punishable by court fines and/or imprisonment.

Malicious software (Malware) or these are harm causing software capable of destroy computing resources. There are three types of malware – namely virus, worms and Trojan horse. Computer virus – a deviant program stored on a computer’s

hard drive, that can cause unexpected and often undesirable effect such as destroying or corrupting them. Viruses basically causes the malfunctioning of computers and could even prevent the use of hardware devices. Types of viruses include boot sector virus (attacks operating systems), file virus (attaches itself to files), macro virus (affects procedures in spreadsheets, emails, databases, etc) and logic bombs (set to go off at certain date/time).

Worms – special virus that self-replicate to slow or stop a computer systems operations.

Trojan horse – deposits virus onto unsuspecting computer systems. They are carriers of computer viruses but not virus themselves. (O'Leary & O’Leary, 2004).

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• Computer crime – this includes crime against computers such as theft of information, computer time, computer services, hardware and software thefts and crime using computers such computer frau, illegal transfers of money from peoples bank accounts, etc. Computer criminals include hackers, crackers, outsiders (suppliers/clients), organized crime, terrorists and employees who are the largest group of computer criminals responsible for about 80% of computer crimes. In effect people are the greatest threats to computer systems.

NB : Hackers – are people who gain access to computer systems often for the challenge of the fun of it.

Crackers – are people who illegally break into computer systems for bad purposes.

In the states, there are various acts which are intended to ensure ethical considerations – these include the Software Copyright Act of 1980, Computer Abuse Amendments Act of 1994, Computer Fraud and Abuse Act of 1986, etc. Such acts are currently, non-existent in Ghana.

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All the ethical issues have serious implications for the safety and security of computing resources. Generally threats to computers have been grouped into:Errors and accidents (such as procedural errors resulting

from tiredness, emotions and perceptions when handling computing activities, software errors, electromechanical errors, and dirty data)

Natural (terrorism & civil strife) and other hazards (fire, flood, accident, windstorm, electrical explosion, etc.)

Crime against computersCrime using computersMalicious software – worms/virusesComputer criminals.These and many other factors poses threat to computer

systems and hence the need to anticipate and planned for such threats. The following provide useful steps in protecting computing resources.

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Protection of Computer Resources There are various ways of protecting computer resources.

Usually, this has to do with protecting data and information in computer systems, and includes:Identification and access using signatures, badges, keys,

cards, PINs, biometric scanning ( retinal or eye scanners), digital signatures, firewalls, passwords (i.e. special word/code/symbol required to access a computer system.

Encryption – the altering of data so that only authorized users can read and use it.

Protection of software and data through control access, audit controls (track and trace potential threats), and people control.

Anticipating disaster – by having disaster recovery plan ( a method of restoring information processing operations that have been halted by destruction/accidents).

Backup – periodic copying and storage of data at a remote location or on alternative storage devices. 58Micky/DIS & OMIS (UG)

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The Ten Commandment of Computer Ethics1. Thou shalt not use a computer to harm other

people.2. Thou shalt not interfere with other people’s

computer work.3. Thou shalt not snoop around in other people’s

computer files.4. Thou shalt not use a computer to steal. (NB:

Computer fraud is the illegal use of computers for illegal banks and credit card transactions).

5. Thou shalt not use the computer to bear false witness. (NB: Computers can be used to manipulate sounds, images, information to discredit or bear false witness against people).

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6. Thou shalt not copy or use proprietary software for which you have not paid. (NB: This has to do with software piracy)

7. Thou shalt not use other people’s computer resources without authorization or proper compensation.

8. Thou shalt not appropriate other people’s intellectual output.

9. Thou shalt think about the social consequences of the program you are writing or the system you are designing.

10. Thou shalt always use a computer in ways that insure consideration and respect for your fellow humans (Computer Ethics Institute, Whitten, Bentley & Kelvin, 2004).

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Computers and HealthComputers affect users health physically (sight, posture, bodily

harm, etc and mentally (isolation, addiction, stress, frustration, etc). There is therefore the need for precautionary measures in a computing environment. The following are some of the precautions necessary to reduce the negative effects of computers on users:

1.Sit up right2.Sit at arms-length from the computer screen3.Do not sit continuously by the computer. Periodic breaks after 2

hrs are advised.4.Keep the computer environment clean – dust free.5.Do not eat in a computing environment (near or by a computer).6.Use the right electrical sockets and equipments. 7.A computing environment must be airy or at best air-conditioned.8.Ensure physical security of computer systems -guard against

theft/excessive exposure of computers especially laptops.9.Use health/environmentally friendly computers eg Green PC’s –

PC’s with energy saving processors, flat panel displays, and reduced harmful chemicals (CFC’s Chlorofluorocarbons, nickel, etc) 61Micky/DIS & OMIS (UG)