Components and Circuits Continued Class...

12019-Fall General License Course

Components and CircuitsContinued

Class 6


Analog and Digital Integrated Circuits

Analog ICs or “chips”:

Used for amplification, filtering, measurement, and power control

A linear voltage regulator is used to maintain a power supply output at a constant voltage over a wide range of currents

An integrated circuit operational amplifier is an analog device. G6B06 4-27

Operational amps (op amp) are used for dc and audio circuits


Analog and Digital Integrated Circuits

Digital Integrated Circuits (ICs)

Digital ICs operate with discrete values of voltage and current representing the binary numbers system values 0 and 1

Digital electronic circuits operate with only two stable states of operation, ON or OFF

Digital circuits can perform computations or control functions

CMOS (complementary metal-oxide semiconductors) technology is popular because of its high speed and low power consumption G6B03 4-28


Digital Logic Basics

The basic building blocks of digital circuits are called gates

Inversion (changing a 1 to a 0 and vice versa)

OR and AND functions

Inverted NOR and NAND

Truth tables explain the Boolean functions implemented by the gates



The basic building blocks of digital circuits are called gates

Inversion (changing a 1 to a 0 and vice versa)

OR and AND functions

Inverted NOR and NAND

Truth tables explain the Boolean functions implemented by the gates

A two-input AND gate’s output is high only when both inputs are high. G7B03 4-28

A two input NOR gate’s output is low when either or both inputs are high. G7B04 4-28



Flip-flop – has 2 stable states

Sequential logic – built on flip-flops feeding other flip-flops (used in counters)

Example: a 3-bit counter (one with 3 flip-flops) can count 23 = 8 different states G7B05 4-28

Example: a 4-bit counter (one with 4 flip-flops) can count 24 = 16 different states

Shift register – a clocked array of circuits that passes data in steps along the array G7B06 4-28


RF Integrated Circuits

RF ICs are designed for functions commonly used for radio frequencies

Low-level high-gain amplifiers

Mixers

Modulators and demodulators

Filters

MMIC (monolithic microwave integrated circuit) works through microwave frequencies G6B02 4-30


Microprocessors and Related Components

A microprocessor is a computer on a single Integrated Circuit

Capable of performing billions of instructions per second using combinations of digital logic gates

Has parallel and serial input-output ports, counters and timers

Nearly all built from CMOS logic


Memory

Memory:

Volatile memory loses the data stored when power is removed

Nonvolatile memory retains data permanently even when power is off G6B05 4-30

Random-access memory (RAM) can be read or written to in any order

Read-only memory (ROM) stores data permanently and can’t be changed G6B04 4-30


Data Interfaces

Interfaces:

Serial interface transfers one bit of data in each transfer

Parallel interface transfers multiple bits of data in each operation

RS-232 serial interface is rapidly being replaced by USB (universal serial bus) serial interface

Modern computers don’t have RS-232 ports, so use the USB port and RS-232 converter to interface them to your transceiver


Visual Interfaces

Indicator – device that presents ON/OFF information (LED)

Display – device capable of presenting text or graphics in visual form

An LED is a special diode that produces light when it is forward biased G6B08 4-31

LEDs are available in several different colors, including white

LEDs have replaced incandescent light bulbs because they last longer and react faster


Visual Interfaces

Liquid crystal display (LCD)

Created by sandwiching liquid crystal material between transparent glass panels

When voltage is applied to the electrodes on the front panel, the liquid crystals twist and block the light

LCDs require ambient or back lighting since the liquid crystal layer does not generate light G6B09 4-31


Practical Circuits


Rectifier Circuits

Half-wave rectifier

Allows current to flow in one-half of the input ac waveform (180°) from the transformer G7A05 4-32

Peak inverse voltage is twice the supply output voltage

The entire load current goes through one diode G7A04 4-32


Rectifier Circuits

Full-wave center-trapped rectifier

Two half-wave rectifiers operating on alternating half cycles using the transformer center tap for the current’s return path G7A03 4-32

Advantage – output is produced during entire 360° of the ac cycle G7A06 4-32

Output is a series of pulses at twice the frequency of the input voltage G7A07 4-32


Rectifier Circuits

Full Wave Bridge Rectifier Circuits

Uses a pair of diodes on alternating ac cycle halves

Diodes only have to withstand the full supply output voltage


Rectifier Circuits


Power Supply Filter Circuits

Rectifier’s pulsed output is unusable as dc

Filter networks – made up of capacitors and inductors, smooth out the ripple G7A02 4-33

Common method to smooth the ripple in a linear supply is a large electrolytic capacitor

Regulation – the percent variation in output voltage between no load and full load

Inductor-input or choke-input – uses an inductor to smooth current pulses with a capacitor so smooth voltage.


Power Supply Safety

Fuses in the primary are used to protect against short circuits or excessive current

Bleeder resistors ensure that the filter capacitors are discharged when power is removed. G7A01 4-33

Working on power supplies – wait for the bleeder resistor to discharge energy, even if it is unplugged


Switchmode or Switching Supplies

Transistors switch current pulses at a high frequency (20 kHz or more) through a transformer and/or inductor then a capacitor filters the voltage

The high frequency allows lightweight inductors and transformers to be used

Linear supplies are very heavy due to their large, iron-core power transformer

An advantage of a switchmode power supply as compared to a linear power supply is high-frequency operation allows the use of smaller components. G7A08 4-33


Batteries and Chargers

Large marine or RV storage batteries are often used as emergency backup power supplies

Liquid-electrolyte or gel-electrolyte batteries are rated at 12 V but should be maintained at 13.8 V

Lead-acid batteries are useful until their output drops to 10.5 V G6A01 4-36

Discharging batteries past their minimum voltage will reduce the life of the battery

NiCds (or Nicads) – designed to have low internal resistance to supply high discharge currents for tools and transmitters G6A02 4-36

Battery self-discharge gradually reduces stored energy over time

Slow by storage in a cool and dry place

Freezing will damage batteries with liquid or gel electrolytes


Batteries and Chargers

Different types of batteries require different charging methods

Use the proper type of charger to maximize the life and usefulness of the battery

Never attempt to recharge a carbon-zinc, alkaline, or silver-nickel type battery (chemical reaction can not be reversed)


Alternative Power

Solar Power – photovoltaic conversion of sunlight directly to electricity G4E08 4-36

Solar cells are a special type of diode

The forward voltage created as the electrons cross the junction is approximately 0.5 V dc (open circuit voltage) G4E09 4-36

Individual solar cells can be connected in series to create higher voltages (24 cells to create 12 V)

The reason that a series diode is connected between a solar panel and a storage battery that is being charged by the panel is the diode prevents self-discharge of the battery through the panel during times of low or no illumination. G4E10 4-39

Wind generators use dc generators connected to propellers that spin them

A disadvantage of using wind or solar as the primary source of power for an emergency station is a large energy storage system is needed to supply power when the wind is not blowing or the sun is not shining. G4E11 4-38


Connectors

Keyed connectors only mate one way, reducing the possibility of damage

Plugs are installed on cables

Jacks are installed on equipment

Adaptors make connections between different style connectors

Splitters divide a signal between two connectors


Power Connectors

Anderson Powerpole® connectors have become the standard for radio equipment used by ARES


Audio and Control Connectors

Consumer electronics and Amateur Radio share many of the same connectors

A RCA Phono connector is commonly used for audio signals in Amateur Radio stations. G6B12 4-40

Stereo Plugs:Contact tip is the end of the plugThe sleeve is the base of the plugThe ring is a third contact between the tip and sleeve

DIN or mini-DIN connectors are keyed and have up to 9 pins and are used to control multiple circuits on radio equipment


RF Connectors

UHF connectors (SO-239 & PL-259) can be used up to 150 MHz G6B13 4-39

“N” connectors are moisture resistant and used up to 10 GHz G6B07 4-40

SMA connectors are small threaded connectors designed for miniature coaxial cable and are rated up to 18 GHz G6B11 4-40

Used on many hand-held radios


Data Connectors

Digital data is exchanged between the computers and amateur radios:

D-type connectors are used for RS-232 (COM ports) and parallel ports

D-type 9-pin connector is referred to as DB-9 or DE-9 (commonly used for serial ports) G2E12 4-40

25-pin D-type connector for parallel ports

USB ports are standard for current computers


Basic Test Equipment


Analog and Digital Meters

Volt-ohm meter (VOM) is the simplest piece of test equipment

Measures – volts, current, resistance

Tests – continuity, diodes, transistors

Two types of VOM – Analog and Digital

Analog meters have a moving needle and calibrated scales on the meter face

Analog meters are useful for finding a peak or minimum reading, such as when adjusting a tuned circuit G4B14 4-41


Analog and Digital Meters

Digital meters (DDMs) offer significantly greater precision than analog meters G4B06 4-41

Digital meters have useful features:

auto-ranging to automatically select the proper display range

peak hold to capture maximum values

When measuring voltage, the meter should have a high input impedance to place the minimum load on the circuit being measured G4B05 4-41


Oscilloscope

The oscilloscope (or “scope”) provides a visual display of voltage against time

Updated rapidly enough to give a real-time picture of the signal

Fast-changing complex waveforms can be measured G4B02 4-42

External signals are connected to horizontal and vertical channel amplifier inputs to control the display G4B01 4-42

Variable gain and update rates are available to display many types of signals.


Oscilloscope

The transmitter’s attenuated output connects to the vertical channel of the oscilloscope to monitor the signal G4B04 4-42

Monitoring helps adjust keying waveforms, mic gain, and speech processing

The scope shows the effects of any adjustments that might cause distortion

A scope provides information that numeric meters can’t measure.

An oscilloscope is the best instrument to use when checking the keying waveform of a CW transmitter. G4B03 4-42


Impedance and Resonance Measurements

An antenna analyzer contains a CW signal generator, frequency counter, SWR bridge and impedance meter

Connects to the antenna feed line to measure SWR using very small signals for measurements G4B11 4-42

Impedance measurements show resonance

Measures feed line velocity factor, electrical length, and characteristic impedance G4B13 4-43

When making measurements on an antenna system with an antenna analyzer strong signals from nearby transmitters can affect the accuracy of measurements. G4B12 4-43


Field Strength and RF Power Meters

The radiation pattern of an antenna can be determined with a field strength meter G4B09 4-43

A field-strength meter may also be used to monitor relative RF output when making antenna and transmitter adjustments G4B08 4-43

To measure the SWR with a direction wattmeter, you first measure the power in one direction, then in the opposite direction, and finally calculate the SWR G4B10 4-43

SWR=

1+ √PRPF

1−√PRPF

Next Time

2015 General License Course 36

Reading assignment:

Chapter 5 Radio Signals and Equiopment thru page 5-13 Key Clicks

Study Pool Questions:

G7C12 thru G7C16G8A02 thru G8A05G8A07G8A08G8A10G8A11G8B03G8B04G8B06G8B07G8B11

G2A12G4B07G4B15G4D01 thru G4D03G4D08 thru G4D11G7B07G7B09G7B10G7C01G7C02G7C05G7C09 thru G7C11

Components and Circuits Continued Class...

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