Comparing the Severity of International Crime

!!!

! !!! !

Comparing*the*Severity**of*International*Crime*…………………………………………………………………………………………………..*

! !! !! !! !

Alixandra!Greenman!Political*Science,*Loyola*Marymount*University!

! !! !

May!10,!2013!!!! !!! !!

Advised!by:!Dr.!Richard!Fox!

! ! Political*Science,*Loyola*Marymount*University*! !! !! !! !! !! !! !!

ii!

Table!of!Contents!

Abstract! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 1!1!!!!!Is!There!a!Hierarchy!of!Seriousness?! ! ! ! ! ! !!!!!!!!!!!! ! ! ! ! ! ! 2!

A!!!!!The!Controversy!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 3!B!!!!!Review!of!the!Literature! ! !!!!! ! ! ! !!!!!!!!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 12!

! ! ! I! Sentencing:!Its!Consistency!and!What!It!Says!About!Crime!Severity!! 16!! ! ! ! II! Defining!the!Categories!of!International!Crime! ! ! ! ! ! ! 22!

! ! ! III! Where!the!Literature!Leaves!Us!! ! !!!!!!!!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 27!C!!!!!Methodology!!! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!!!!!!!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 29!! ! ! I! Contextual!Interpretation!of!International!Statutes!!!!!!! ! ! ! ! 29!

! ! ! II! Content!Analysis!of!Three!Tribunals! ! !!!!!!!!! ! ! ! ! ! ! 30!D!!!!!Implications!for!Future!Proceedings! ! ! ! !!!!!!!!! ! ! ! ! ! ! 30!E!!!!!Organization!of!the!Remaining!Chapters! ! ! ! !!!!!!!!! ! ! ! ! ! 32!

2!!!!!Interpreting!International!Law:!Definitions!and!the!Severity!of!Crimes!! ! ! ! 34!! ! A! Analyzing!International!Statutes! ! ! ! ! !!!!!!!!! ! ! ! ! ! ! 36!! ! B! Key!Findings! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!!!!!!!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 38!! ! ! ! I! Genocide’s!Origins!and!Definition! ! ! !!!!!!!!! ! ! ! ! ! ! 39!! ! ! ! II! Defining!Crimes!against!Humanity! !!!!!!!!! ! !!!!!!!!! ! ! ! ! ! 41!! ! ! ! III! Defining!War!Crimes!! !!!!!!!!! ! ! !!!!!!!!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 47!! ! ! ! IV! Genocide:!Crime!of!Crimes?!!!!!!!!! ! !!!!!!!!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 56!

V! Are!Crimes!against!Humanity!More!Serious!than!War!Crimes?! ! ! 58! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!C! Implications!of!Findings!! ! ! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 61!

3! Evaluating!Case!Law:!Data!from!Three!Tribunals! ! ! ! ! !!!!!!!!! ! ! ! ! 63!! ! A! The!Conflicts! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!!!!!!!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 65!! ! ! ! I! The!Yugoslav!Wars! ! ! ! ! !!!!!!!!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 65!! ! ! ! II! The!Rwandan!Genocide! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 69!! ! ! ! III! The!Sierra!Leone!Civil!War! ! ! ! !!!!!!!!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 71!! ! B! Analyzing!Case!Law! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!!!!!!!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 73!! ! C! Key!Findings! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!!!!!!!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 77! !! ! D! Implications!of!Findings!! ! ! ! !!!!!!!!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 87!4! Concluding!Thoughts! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!!!!!!!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 88!! ! A! Major!Takeaways! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 88!! ! B! Policy!Recommendations! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 90!! ! C! Opportunities!for!Future!Research! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 91!! ! D! Acknowledgments! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 93!Appendices! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!!!!!!!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 94!! ! A! List!of!Content!Analyzed!Cases!by!Tribunal! ! ! !!!!!!!!! ! ! ! ! ! 94!! ! ! ! I! International!Criminal!Tribunal!for!the!former!Yugoslavia! ! ! ! 94!! ! ! ! II! International!Criminal!Tribunal!for!Rwanda! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 95!

III! Special!Court!for!Sierra!Leone! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 96!! ! B! Coding!Sheet! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!!!!!!!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 97!! ! C! Codebook!! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!!!!!!!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 99!!

iii!

Table!of!Figures!

2.1!! Crimes!against!Humanity!as!Defined!by!the!Rome!Statute! ! ! ! ! ! ! 42!2.2!! Crimes!against!Humanity!as!Defined!by!the!Statute!of!the!ICTY! ! ! ! ! ! 43!2.3!! Crimes!against!Humanity!as!Defined!by!the!Statute!of!the!ICTR! ! ! ! ! ! 43!2.4!! Crimes!against!Humanity!as!Defined!by!the!Statute!of!the!SCSL! ! ! ! ! ! 44!2.5!! War!Crimes!as!Defined!by!the!Rome!Statute! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 48!2.6!! War!Crimes!as!Defined!by!the!Statute!of!the!ICTY!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 51!2.7!! War!Crimes!as!Defined!by!the!Statute!of!the!ICTR!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 52!2.8!! War!Crimes!as!Defined!by!the!Statute!of!the!SCSL!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 53!3.1!! Map!of!the!former!Yugoslavia! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 68!3.2!! Map!of!Rwanda! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 70!3.3!! Map!of!Sierra!Leone! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 72!3.4!! Defendants!and!Case!Results!by!Tribunal! ! ! ! ! !!!! ! ! ! ! ! ! 74!3.5! Proportions!of!Indictments!and!Convictions!by!Tribunal!and!Crime!Category! ! 74! !!!!!!!!!3.6!! Average!Initial!and!After!Appeal!Sentence!by!Crime!Category! ! !!!!!!!!! ! ! 79!3.7!! Average!Initial!Sentence!by!Crime!Category!and!Presence!of!Plea!Agreement! ! 81!3.8! Average!Initial!Sentence!by!Crime!Category!and!Tribunal! ! ! ! ! ! ! 83! !3.9! Average!Initial!Sentence!by!Criminal!Act!and!Crime!Category! ! ! ! ! ! 84! !3.10! Average!Initial!and!After!Appeal!Sentence!by!Number!of!Guilty!Counts!! ! ! 85!

! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

Comparing*the*Severity**of*International*Crime*!Alixandra!Greenman!

!

Abstract(

This!thesis!examines!the!relative!gravity!of!three!charges!commonly!seen!on!the!international!stage.!!More!specifically,!this!thesis!asks:!Is*there*a*hierarchy*of*seriousness*among*the*charges*of*genocide,*crimes*against*humanity*and*war*crimes?**And*if*a*hierarchy*exists,*what*is*the*impact*on*the*sentences*that*have*been*handed*down*to*perpetrators*of*these*crimes?!

To!answer!these!questions,!I!employ!a!mixedAmethods!approach.!!First,!I!examine!the!international!treaties!and!statutes!that!define!these!charges!such!as!the!Geneva!Conventions!of!1949!and!the!Rome!Statue!of!the!International!Criminal!Court!(1998).!

Next,!I!look!to!three!international!tribunals!as!examples!of!the!application!of!the!law.!The!proceedings!I!examine!include!the!International!Criminal!Tribunals!for!the!former!Yugoslavia!and!Rwanda!and!the!Special!Court!for!Sierra!Leone.!!Altogether,!I!content!analyzed!122!cases!with!186!defendants,!which!helped!me!to!determine!whether!one!of!these!categories!of!crime!is!perceived!as!more!serious!than!another!and!whether!this!perception!has!affected!the!sentences!that!have!been!handed!down.!!!

Determining!whether!the!international!legal!system!has!effectively!created!a!ranking!of!these!classifications,!this!thesis!has!tangible!implications.!!Understanding!the!seriousness!of!these!crimes!is!critical!to!evaluating!the!consistency!of!past!sentencing!and!the!application!of!future!sentences.!!Given!that!there!are!multiple!international!tribunals!(e.g.!the!International!Criminal!Court,!the!Extraordinary!Chambers!in!the!Courts!of!Cambodia,!the!Special!Tribunal!for!Lebanon,!and!the!new!hybrid!African!UnionASenegal!court)!and!various!national!courts!hearing!international!criminal!law!cases,!this!project!will!aid!these!courts!in!determining!appropriate!sentences!absent!any!significant!precedents!from!within!their!own!jurisprudence!to!draw!upon.!

!!!!!!!!!

Comparing*the*Severity*of*International*Crime*****2!

1( Is(There(a(Hierarchy(of(Seriousness?(

At!the!hands!of!the!Ottoman!Empire,!more!than!a!million!Armenians!were!killed!in!what!is!

now!referred!to!as!the!Armenian!Genocide.1!!The!Nazi!regime!under!the!direction!of!Adolf!

Hitler!killed!an!estimated!six!million!Jews,!200,000!Roma,!and!200,000!mentally!or!

physically!ill.2!!The!Hutus!slaughtered!an!estimated!800,000!Tutsis!in!the!Rwandan!

Genocide,!which!lasted!just!100!days.3!!At!least!140,000!people!lost!their!lives!in!the!

Yugoslav!Wars.4!!The!11Ayear!long!Sierra!Leone!Civil!War!left!approximately!50,000!dead.5!!

The!Cambodian!Khmer!Rouge!regime!is!responsible!for!the!deaths!of!at!least!1.7!million!

people.6!!The!War!in!Darfur!that!still!rages!on!after!nearly!11!years!has!resulted!in!the!

deaths!of!an!estimated!300,000!people!with!some!putting!the!number!even!higher.7!

All!these!conflicts!have!one!thing!in!common—they!resulted!from!the!atrocious!

behavior!of!people!with!an!abhorrent!and!incomprehensible!view!of!humanity.!!Regardless!

of!whether!their!crimes!amount!to!genocide,!crimes!against!humanity,!war!crimes,!some!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!1.!!“Q&A:!Armenian!Genocide!Dispute,”!BBC*News,!last!modified!March!5,!2010,!http://!

news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6045182.stm.!2.!!“Introduction!to!the!Holocaust,”!United!States!Holocaust!Memorial!Museum,!last!

modified!May!11,!2012,!http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/!article.php?ModuleId=10005143#seealso.!

3.!!“Ghosts!of!Rwanda,”!Public*Broadcasting*Service,!April!1,!2004,!http://!www.pbs.org/!wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/ghosts/etc/crontext.html.!

4.!!“By!the!Numbers:!Syria!Deaths,”!Cable*News*Network,!April!2,!2013,!http://!www.cnn.com/2013/01/08/world/meast/syriaAcivilAwarAcompare.!

5.!!“Factbox:!Sierra!Leone’s!Civil!War,”!Reuters,!January!8,!2008,!http://!www.reuters.com/article/2008/01/08/usAwarcrimesAtaylorAwarAidUSL066107120080108.!

6.!!“Cambodia!Profile,”!BBC*News,!March!17,!2013,!http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/worldAasiaApacificA13006828.!

7.!!“Darfur!Death!Toll!Rises!to!TwoAYear!High!in!Sudan,”!BBC*News,!June!7,!2010,!!www.!bbc.co.uk/news/10259604.!


combination!of!the!three!or!any!of!the!other!acts!punishable!by!international!law,*they!

deserve!punishment!aligned!with!their!heinous!crimes.!

The!international!legal!system!was!created!to!hold!the!perpetrators!of!these!senseless!

atrocities!accountable!for!their!actions!and!more!generally,!maintain!order!in!the!world.!!

With!the!creation!of!this!system,!a!number!of!questions!were!raised,!some!of!which!remain!

unanswered.!!Stakeholders!in!the!international!legal!system!and!nations!around!the!world!

asked:!What*crimes*are*punishable*by*international*law?*What*factors*should*be*used*to*

determine*a*perpetrator’s*sentence?*What*is*an*appropriate*sentence*for*perpetrators*of*

these*horrendous*crimes?!Are*certain*crimes*more*serious*than*others?**The!last!of!these!

questions!remains!unanswered!despite!contentious!debate!over!the!past!halfAcentury.!!This!

debate!was!fascinating!and!reading!the!literature!on!this!topic!engaged!me!in!the!research!

effort!reported!upon!here.!

(

A! The!Controversy!

The!question!of!the!relative!seriousness!of!the!crime!of!genocide,!crimes!against!humanity!

and!war!crimes!has!divided!the!international!community!for!more!than!half!a!century.8!

This!is!most!evident!at!the!International!Criminal!Tribunal!for!the!former!Yugoslavia!

(ICTY).!!In!the!Prosecutor*v.*Tadić,!the!defendant,!Duško!Tadić,!was!convicted!at!the!ICTY!of!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!8.!!Andrea!Carcano,!“Sentencing!and!the!Gravity!of!the!Offence!in!International!Criminal!

Law,”!International*and*Comparative*Law*Quarterly!51!(2002):!604,!doi:!10.1093/iclg/!51.3.583;!Micaela!Frulli,!“Are!Crimes!against!Humanity!More!Serious!than!War!Crimes?,”!European*Journal*of*International*Law!12,!no.!2!(2001):!329,!doi:!10.1093/ejil/12.2.329.!


murder!and!inhuman!treatment.9!!Specifically,!Tadić!forced!civilians!into!detention!camps,!

beat!and!kicked!a!victim!until!he!was!unconscious,!threatened!one!victim!with!a!knife!and!

then!stabbed!him,!killed!two!Muslim!policemen!and!participated!in!the!killings!of!five!

others.!!He!was!sentenced!to!20!years!imprisonment.!!In!the!Tadić!case,!the!Trial!Chamber!

concluded!that!a!crime!against!humanity!is!indeed!more!serious!than!a!war!crime.!!It!was!

explained!in!this!way:!

A!prohibited!act!committed!as!part!of!a!crime!against!humanity,!that!is!with!an!awareness!that!the!act!formed!part!of!a!widespread!or!systematic!attack!on!a!civilian!population,!is,!all!else!being!equal,!a!more!serious!offence!than!an!ordinary!war!crime.!!This!follows!from!the!requirement!that!crimes!against!humanity!be!committed!on!a!widespread!or!systematic!scale,!the!quantity!of!the!crimes!having!a!qualitative!impact!on!the!nature!of!the!offence!which!is!seen!as!a!crime!against!more!than!just!the!victims!themselves!but!against!humanity!as!a!whole.10!

!!!!!!!In!other!words,!it!is!the!requirement!that!crimes!against!humanity!be!committed!as!“part!of!

a!widespread!or!systematic!attack!on!a!civilian!population”!that!sets!it!apart!from!war!

crimes!and!the!crime!of!genocide.!!Regardless!of!the!context!in!which!the!crime!is!

committed,!crimes!against!humanity!must!have!a!deliberate!and!significant!impact!on!a!

particular!community.11!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!9.!!“Sentencing!Judgment!in!the!Prosecutor!v.!Tadić,”!International*Criminal*Tribunal*for*

the*former*Yugoslavia!(1999):!38,!http://www.icty.org/x/cases/tadic/tjug/en/tadAtsj991111e.pdf.!

10.!!“Sentencing!Judgment!in!the!Prosecutor!v.!Tadić,”!37.!11.!!Payam!Akhavan,!“Contributions!of!the!International!Criminal!Tribunals!for!the!

former!Yugoslavia!and!Rwanda!to!Development!of!Definitions!of!Crimes!against!Humanity!and!Genocide,”!American*Society*of*International*Law!94!(2000):!282,!http://!www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/25659412?uid=3739560&uid=2&uid=4&uid=3739256&sid=21102192459101;!Simon!Chesterman,!“An!Altogether!Different!Order:!Defining!the!Element!of!Crimes!against!Humanity,”!Duke*Journal*of*Comparative*and*International*Law!10!(2000):!314,!http://scholarship.law.duke.edu/djcil/vol10/iss2/3/;!Allison!Marston!Danner,!“Constructing!a!Hierarchy!of!Crimes!in!International!Criminal!Law!Sentencing,”!Virginia*Law*Review!87,!no.!3!(2001):!458A459,!http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/!papers.cfm?abstract_id=285268;!Frulli,!“Are!Crimes!against!Humanity!More!Serious!than!


Under!the!Rome!Statute!of!the!International!Criminal!Court!(ICC),12!which!was!adopted!

at!a!conference!in!1998,13!any!breach!of!the!Geneva!Conventions!of!1949!or!serious!

violation!of!the!international!laws!and!customs!guiding!periods!of!armed!conflict!

constitutes!a!war!crime.!!Examples!of!criminal!acts!under!the!category!of!war!crimes!

include,!but!are!not!limited!to!murder,!humiliating!or!degrading!treatment,!destruction!of!

property,!and!the!taking!of!hostages.14!!Criminal!acts!under!the!per!view!of!crimes!against!

humanity!include:!!

(a) Murder;!!(b) Extermination;!!(c) Enslavement;!!(d) Deportation!or!forcible!transfer!of!a!population;!(e) Imprisonment!or!other!severe!deprivation!of!physical!liberty!in!violation!

of!the!fundamental!rules!of!international!law;!(f) Torture;!!(g) Rape,!sexual!slavery,!enforced!prostitution,!forced!pregnancy,!enforced!

sterilization,!or!any!other!form!of!sexual!violence!of!comparable!gravity;!!(h) Persecution!against!any!identifiable!group!or!collectivity!on!political!

racial,!national,!ethnic,!cultural,!religious,!gender!…!or!other!grounds!that!are!universally!recognized!as!impermissible!under!international!law,!in!connection!with!any!act!referred!to!in!this!paragraph!or!any!crime!within!the!jurisdiction!of!the!Court;!!

(i) Enforced!disappearance!of!persons;!!(j) The!crime!of!apartheid;!!(k) Other!inhumane!acts!of!a!similar!character!intentionally!causing!great!

suffering!…!to!body!or!to!mental!or!physical!health.15!!Clearly,!a!number!of!criminal!acts!are!classified!as!both!crimes!against!humanity!and!war!

crimes.!!However,!this!is!without!taking!into!account!the!distinction!between!these!two!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!War!Crimes?,”!333;!David!Luban,!“A!Theory!of!Crimes!against!Humanity,”!The*Yale*Journal*of*International*Law!29,!(2004):!97,!http://scholarship.law.georgetown.edu/facpub/146/.!

12.!!“Rome!Statute!of!the!International!Criminal!Court,”!United*Nations!(1998),!http://!untreaty.un.org/cod/icc/statute/english/rome_statute%28e%29.pdf.!

13.!!The!Rome!Statute!was!formally!adopted!on!July!17,!1998;!it!entered!into!force!on!July!1,!2002!when!it!was!ratified!by!60!countries.!

14.!!United!Nations,!“Rome!Statute,”!4.!15.!!Ibid.,!3A5.!


categories!of!crime!that!was!mentioned!in!the!Tadić!case.!!An!offence!that!is!labeled!a!crime!

against!humanity!must!have!a!profound!effect!on!a!community!at!large.!!What’s!more!is!

that!war!crimes!are!always!committed!as!an!act!of!war.!!This!is!not!necessarily!the!case!of!

all!crimes!against!humanity.!!Thus,!it’s!not!just!the!context!that!distinguishes!a!crime!

against!humanity!from!a!war!crime!but!also!the!impact!of!the!crime!on!the!community!

where!it!is!committed.!

Clearly,!there!is!some!overlap!between!these!definitions.!!But!while!some!criminal!acts!

may!be!the!same,!they!tend!to!be!perpetrated!during!different!circumstances.!!This!is!

especially!true!when!it!comes!to!the!crime!of!genocide.!!The!standard!for!genocide!seems!to!

be!completely!different.!!For!the!purposes!of!the!ICC,!the!crime!of!genocide!is!an!offence!

committed!with!the!intent!to!destroy,!in!whole!or!in!part,!a!group!simply!because!of!the!

race,!nationality,!ethnicity,!or!religion!its!members!share.!!Criminal!acts!under!the!per!view!

of!genocide!include!murder,!causing!serious!bodily!or!mental!harm!to!members!of!the!

group,!imposing!measures!intended!to!prevent!births!within!the!group,!and!forcibly!

transferring!children!of!the!group.16!!Some!genocide!scholars!argue!that!this!definition!of!

genocide!and!the!one!laid!out!in!the!United!Nations!Convention!on!the!Prevention!and!

Punishment!of!the!Crime!of!Genocide!(UNCG)!is!“unduly!narrow.”17!!Apparently,!Rafael!

Lemkin,!the!man!who!coined!the!term!“genocide,”!favored!a!much!broader!definition!than!

the!one!that!was!ultimately!adopted!by!the!ICC!and!the!United!Nations!(UN).!!Lemkin!

wanted!the!UN’s!list!of!genocidal!acts!“to!include!forced!exile!and!population!displacement!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!16.!!Ibid.,!4A5.!17.!!Hannibal!Travis,!“On!the!Original!Understanding!of!the!Crime!of!Genocide,”!

Genocide*Studies*and*Prevention!7,!no.!1!(2012):!30,!doi:!10.1353/gsp.2012.0007.!


(i.e.,!ethnic!cleansing)!and!the!deliberate!destruction!of!a!cultural!heritage.”18!!Scholar!

Hannibal!Travis!believes!that!the!legal!definition!of!genocide!“rests!upon!incomplete!and!

selective!references!to!legal!sources!with!misleading!implications”!that!are!apparent!during!

debates!about!whether!or!not!crimes!such!as!ethnic!cleansing!constitute!genocide.19!

Surely,!all!three!of!these!categories!of!crime!are!serious.!!But!looking!strictly!at!their!

definitions,!one!gets!an!intuitive!sense!that!war!crimes!are!easier!to!prove.!!This!reason!

alone!might!suggest!that!they!are!less!serious!than!crimes!against!humanity!and!the!crime!

of!genocide.!!War!crimes!are!indeed!serious!offences,!but!many!perpetrators!of!these!

crimes!try!to!justify!the!criminal!acts!they!committed!by!claiming!that!they!were!not!

premeditated!but!merely!a!part!of!war.!!A!perpetrator!of!genocide!or!a!crime!against!

humanity,!on!the!other!hand,!can!make!no!such!claim!since!these!acts!require!intent!to!

commit!a!more!widespread!attack!against!a!particular!group!or!community.!!In!addition,!

crimes!against!humanity!and!the!crime!of!genocide!are!not!always!committed!during!

wartime,!which!means!that!the!perpetrator!cannot!just!explain!them!away.!

In!addition!to!disagreement!over!the!similarities!between!these!three!definitions!and!

the!seemingly!limited!scope!of!the!crime!of!genocide,!some!argue!that!determining!the!

severity!of!the!three!is!insignificant!considering!the!fact!that!all!international!crimes!are!

indeed!serious!offences.!!Still,!there!is!a!wellAdocumented!dialogue!concerning!this!topic!

going!back!to!the!first!use!of!the!charge!of!crimes!against!humanity!at!the!International!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!18.!!Marko!Attila!Hoare,!“A!Case!Study!in!Underachievement:!The!International!Courts!

and!Genocide!in!BosniaAHerzegovina,”!Genocide*Studies*and*Prevention!6,!no.!1!(2011):!89,!doi:!10.1353/gsp.2011.0109.!

19.!!Travis,!“Original!Understanding!of!Genocide,”!30.!


Military!Tribunal!(IMT)!at!Nuremberg,20!which!is!also!the!first!time!in!history!that!an!

international!entity!acknowledged!that!individuals!can!be!punished!for!violating!

international!law.21!!This!indicates!the!need!for!further!study!of!these!three!categories!of!

international!crime!and!their!relative!seriousness.!!In!fact,!the!statement!released!by!the!

Trial!Chamber!in!the!Tadić*case,!quoted!earlier,!represents!the!debate!that!continues!today!

among!judges!and!other!key!international!players.!!Judge!Shahabuddeen!and!Judge!

Cassese’s!separate!opinions,!which!were!delivered!at!the!close!of!Tadić’s!appeal,!provide!a!

synopsis!of!the!debate,!serving!as!an!ideal!starting!point!for!this!research!despite!the!fact!

that!Judge!Shahabuddeen!and!Judge!Cassese!only!address!the!relation!between!crimes!

against!humanity!and!war!crimes!leaving!out!the!crime!of!genocide.!!Agreeing!with!the!

majority!view,!Judge!Shahabuddeen!maintains!that!there!is!no!reason!to!conclude!that!a!

crime!against!humanity!is!a!more!serious!offence!than!a!war!crime!and!that!there!should!be!

no!distinction!between!them!when!sentencing.22!!Judge!Cassese,!on!the!other!hand,!believes!

that!“whenever!an!offence!committed!by!an!accused!is!deemed!to!be!a!crime!against!

humanity,!it!must!be!regarded!as!inherently!of!greater!gravity,*all!else!being!equal*(ceteris*

paribus),*than!if!it!is!instead!characterised!as!a!war!crime.!!Consequently,!it!must!entail!a!

heavier!penalty.”23!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!20.!!The!Nuremberg!Trials!were!set!up!by!the!Allied!powers!to!try!those!responsible!for!

the!criminal!acts!committed!before!and!during!World!War!II.!!They!began!in!November!1945—just!six!and!a!half!months!after!Germany!surrendered.!

21.!!Carcano,!“Sentencing!and!the!Gravity!of!the!Offence,”!584;!Danner,!“Constructing!a!Hierarchy,”!417;!Frulli,!“Are!Crimes!against!Humanity!More!Serious!than!War!Crimes?,”!343;!Luban,!“A!Theory!of!Crimes!against!Humanity,”!87.!

22.!!“Judgment!in!Sentencing!Appeals!in!the!Prosecutor!v.!Tadić,”!International*Criminal*Tribunal*for*the*former*Yugoslavia!(2000):!35A49,!http://www.icty.org/x/cases/tadic/!acjug/en/tadAasj000126e.pdf.!

23.!!Ibid.,!55.!


Judge!Shahabuddeen!and!Judge!Cassese’s!separate!opinions!do!not!represent!the!first!

time!that!judges!have!formally!disagreed!with!each!other!in!connection!with!these!two!

charges.!!In!Prosecutor*v.*Erdemović,!for!example,!the!holding!of!the!majority,!which!is!

explained!in!Judge!McDonald!and!Judge!Vohrah’s!joint!separate!opinion,!was!that!an!

offense!that!is!considered!to!be!a!crime!against!humanity!is!more!serious!and!should!

normally!carry!a!more!severe!penalty!than!if!it!were!branded!a!war!crime.24!!The!defendant!

in!this!case,!Erdemović,!was!convicted!and!sentenced!to!5!years.!!Specifically,!Erdemović!

personally!killed!about!70!people!and!participated!in!the!shooting!and!killing!of!hundreds!

of!unarmed!Bosnian!Muslim!men.!!Citing!the!Tadić!“Opinion!and!Judgment,”!Judges!

McDonald!and!Vohrah!state!that!because!crimes!against!humanity!are!directed!against!a!

particular!group!or!community,!they!are!fundamentally!different!than!war!crimes.25!!In!

other!words,!since!crimes!against!humanity!are!offences!that!have!massive!consequences!

for!specific!groups!of!people,!they!are!inherently!more!severe!offences!than!war!crimes.!!!

In!the!Erdemović!case,!Judge!Cassese!and!Judge!Stephen!concur!with!the!majority,!but!

Judge!Li!dissents!articulating!the!complete!opposite.!!Judge!Li!states:!!

The!gravity!of!a!criminal!act,!and!consequently!the!seriousness!of!its!punishment,!are!determined!by!the!intrinsic!nature!of!the!act!itself!and!not!by!the!classification!under!one!category!or!another.!!Take!the!present!case:!the!Appellant!killed!seventy!to!one!hundred!innocent!Muslim!civilians.!!Whether!his!criminal!act!is!classified!under!crimes!against!humanity!or!war!crimes,!the!harm!done!to!individuals!and!society!is!exactly!the!same,!neither!an!iota!more!nor!less.26!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

24.!!“Joint!Separate!Opinion!of!Judge!McDonald!and!Judge!Vohrah!in!the!Prosecutor!v.!Erdemović,”!International*Criminal*Tribunal*for*the*former*Yugoslavia!(1997),!http://!www.icty.org/x/cases/erdemovic/acjug/!en/erdAasojmcd971007e.pdf.!

25.!!Ibid.!26.!!“Separate!and!Dissenting!Opinion!of!Judge!Li!in!the!Prosecutor!v.!Erdemović,”!

International*Criminal*Tribunal*for*the*former*Yugoslavia!(1997):!para.!19,!http://!www.icty.org/x/cases/erdemovic/acjug/en/erdAasojli971007e.pdf.!


In!other!words,!Judge!Li!is!of!the!opinion!that!two!things!should!determine!the!seriousness!

of!a!criminal!act:!(1)!the!crime!that!was!committed!and!(2)!the!circumstances!surrounding!

the!defendant’s!actions.!!Thus,!a!crime!should!not!carry!a!longer!sentence!merely!because!it!

is!branded!genocide!or!a!crime!against!humanity!as!opposed!to!a!war!crime.!!In!Judge!Li’s!

view,!these!two!factors!should!be!the!only!ones!used!to!determine!a!perpetrator’s!sentence.!!

In!addition!to!using!the!Erdemović!case!as!an!example,!Judge!Li!cites!the!Statute!of!the!ICTY,!

the!Charter!of!the!IMT!at!Nuremberg,!the!U.S.!War!Crimes!Act!of!1996!as!well!as!other!

international!and!national!statutes!in!an!effort!to!prove!that!a!crime!against!humanity!is!not!

more!serious!than!a!war!crime.!

Adding!to!the!division!concerning!the!severity!of!the!charges!of!genocide,!crimes!

against!humanity,!and!war!crimes!is!the!persistent!dialogue!that!has!taken!place!since!the!

establishment!of!the!charge!of!crimes!against!humanity!following!the!atrocities!of!World!

War!II.!!One!reason!for!the!latter!of!these!controversies!is!that!crimes!charged!at!

Nuremberg!and!at!the!International!Military!Tribunal!for!the!Far!East!(IMTFE)!might!easily!

have!fallen!into!the!alreadyAaccepted!category!of!war!crimes.!!This!is!at!least!partially!

because!the!Nuremberg!Trials!covered!charges!that!took!place!during!an!act!of!war.!!Still!

the!distinction!was!made!because!some!of!the!criminal!acts!were!perpetrated!against!

whole!populations!before!any!act!of!war!was!documented.!!Also,!the!acts!were!committed!

against!civilians!and!not!combatants,!prisoners!of!war,!and!other!wartime!stakeholders.!

Judge!Li!actually!addresses!this!point!in!his!Separate!and!Dissenting!Opinion!on!the!

Erdemović!case.!!Briefly!discussing!the!origins!of!the!charge!of!crimes!against!humanity,!

Judge!Li!argues!that!there!are!no!significant!differences!between!the!two!charges.!!Rather,!

they!overlap!significantly!and!although!the!definitions!have!created!distinctions!between!


them,!they!are!essentially!the!same!and!thus!deserve!the!same!punishment!under!

international!law.!!He!says:!!

Prior!to!the!Second!World!War,!there!were!in!international!law!only!war!crimes!and!no!crimes!against!humanity!…!But,![since]!before!and!during!that!war,!the!Nazi!regime!…!committed!many!horrendous!atrocities!against!its!own!nationals![not!considered!war!crimes!at!the!time!but]!...!so!shocking!to!the!conscience!of!mankind!that!the!Allied!Governments!were!determined!to!punish!the!offenders!…!Hence!Article!6(c)!…!provides!that!‘murder,!extermination,!enslavement,!deportation!and!other!inhumane!acts!committed!against!any!civilian!population!before!or!during!the!war,!or!persecution!on!political,!racial!or!religious!grounds’!…!constitute!crimes!against!humanity.27!

!Judge!Li!explains!the!establishment!of!the!charge!of!crimes!against!humanity!being!careful!

not!to!express!a!distinction!in!its!severity.!!In!fact,!he!goes!on!to!state!emphatically,!“that!

the!Charter,!in!providing!for!crimes!against!humanity,!does!not!create!a!crime!more!serious!

than!a!war!crime.”28!!Perhaps!Judge!Li!would!have!been!more!comfortable!with!an!

expansion!of!the!definition!of!war!crimes!instead!of!a!new!charge!altogether.!!!!

Others!argue!that!distinguishing!certain!criminal!acts!committed!with!the!intention!of!

hurting!whole!groups!of!people!as!crimes!against!humanity!is!appropriate.!!Some!scholars!

also!maintain!that!the!creation!of!the!category!of!crimes!against!humanity!following!World!

War!II!should!not!have!come!as!such!a!surprise!since!the!term!was!used!decades!earlier!by!

France,!Great!Britain,!and!Russia!with!respect!to!atrocities!committed!by!the!Turks!against!

their!own!Armenian!population!in!1915.!!!!

Regardless!of!which!side!of!the!dialogue!your!view!falls,!the!charge!of!crimes!against!

humanity!is!still!in!use!today!and!still!applied!in!the!most!serious!of!international!criminal!

proceedings.!!It!is!crucial!to!understand!not!only!the!charge!of!crimes!against!humanity!but!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!27.!!Ibid.,!para.!21.!28.!!Ibid.,!para.!21.!


the!charges!of!genocide!and!war!crimes!as!well.!!With!an!understanding!of!these!three!

charges!and!how!they!relate!to!each!other!in!terms!of!severity!comes!the!likelihood!that!

international!law!will!be!enforced!more!consistently!in!the!future.!!This!understanding!is!

also!paramount!to!grasping!the!purpose!of!the!international!legal!system!as!a!whole.!

Accordingly,!this!thesis!asks:!Is*there*a*hierarchy*of*seriousness*among*the*charges*of*

genocide,*crimes*against*humanity*and*war*crimes?**And*if*a*hierarchy*exists,*what*is*its*

impact*on*the*sentences*that*have*been*handed*down*to*perpetrators*of*these*crimes?!

Before!addressing!these!questions,!I!review!the!relevant!literature.!!Frulli’s!study!

entitled,!“Are!Crimes!against!Humanity!More!Serious!than!War!Crimes?”—was!the!starting!

point!of!this!endeavor.!!That!work!begins!to!answer!the!questions!asked!here!and!thus!it!

became!an!induction!into!this!work.!!Next!came!the!workings!of!other!scholars!of!

international!law.!!Ultimately,!the!literature!is!divided!into!two!sections:!“Sentencing:!Its!

Consistency!and!What!It!Says!About!Crime!Severity”!and!“The!Legal!Features!of!

International!Crimes.”!!At!the!conclusion!of!the!literature!review,!I!address!what!questions!

researchers!still!need!to!address.!

!

B! Review!of!the!Literature!

This!thesis!endeavors!to!determine!whether!a!hierarchy!of!seriousness!exists!and!if!so,!

what!effect!it!had!on!the!sentences!that!have!been!handed!down!to!perpetrators!of!

genocide,!crimes!against!humanity!and!war!crimes.!!This!interest!led!to!a!review!of!

scholarly!works!on!international!sentencing,!the!severity!of!international!crimes!and!the!

literature!that!set!out!simply!to!define!those!crimes.!!In!addition!to!providing!ideas!on!how!

to!formulate!this!study,!this!breadth!of!literature!provided!a!framework!of!what!questions!


remain!unanswered!or!are!in!need!of!further!explanation!in!the!field!of!international!law.!!

In!this!respect,!Frulli’s!piece!was!particularly!helpful!because!it!addresses!a!very!similar!

question!to!those!asked!in!this!thesis.!

Frulli!answered!his!question!by!looking!both!at!the!law,!as!written,!and!how!it!has!been!

applied—an!essential!component!to!the!study!of!this!topic.!!Appropriately,!I!used!Frulli’s!

research!as!a!starting!point!in!my!effort!to!determine!whether!or!not!there!is!an!inherent!

hierarchy!of!seriousness!among!the!charges!of!genocide,!crimes!against!humanity!and!war!

crimes.!

Frulli!takes!a!twofold!approach!looking,!first,!at!international!law!and,!second,!at!three!

national!cases!and!at!case!law!from!two!ad*hoc!tribunals.!!In!the!first!part!of!his!work,!Frulli!

looks!to!the!International!Law!Commission!(ILC)’s!Draft!Code!of!Crimes!against!the!Peace!

and!Security!of!Mankind!and!the!Rome!Statute.!!He!splits!his!analysis!of!crimes!against!

humanity!and!war!crimes!into!two!pieces,!which!he!refers!to!as!the!contextual!element!and!

the!mental!element.!!In!the!first!of!these!sections,!Frulli!explains!that!the!“circumstances!in!

which!a!crime!is!committed!are!crucial!to!determining!the!gravity!of!the!crime!itself.”29!!In!

the!case!of!crimes!against!humanity,!the!criminal!act!can!be!committed!either!during!a!time!

of!war!or!peace,!but!always!in!the!context!of!a!pervasive!attack!directed!against!a!specific!

civilian!group.!!In!other!words,!the!contextual!element!of!all!crimes!against!humanity!is!the!

requirement!that!the!actus*reus!(or!the!act!itself)!be!carried!out!against!a!distinguishable!

group!of!people!on!a!large!scale.!!In!the!case!of!war!crimes,!the!criminal!conduct!is!carried!

out!in!the!context!of!an!armed!conflict,!so!the!actus*reus!is!contingent!upon!it!being!carried!

out!as!an!act!of!war.!!According!to!Frulli,!the!contextual!differences!between!crimes!against!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!29.!!Frulli,!“Are!Crimes!against!Humanity!More!Serious!than!War!Crimes?,”!333A34.!


humanity!and!war!crimes!written!into!the!law!imply!that!crimes!against!humanity!are!

more!severe!acts!than!war!crimes.!!

Frulli!then!turns!his!sights!to!the!mental!element!of!crime,!which!he!says!is!the!only!

element!besides!the!contextual!one!that!ought!“to!be!considered!as!influencing!the!gravity!

of!a!criminal!act.”30!!Implying!that!the!mens*rea—a!person's!awareness!of!the!fact!that!his!

or!her!conduct!is!criminal—of!a!crime!against!humanity!is!different!than!that!of!a!war!

crime,!Frulli!discusses!the!ILC’s!Draft!Code!and!the!Rome!Statute.!!He!says:!“The!1996!ILC!

Draft!Code!proves!useful!…!provid[ing]!that,!together!with!the!circumstances!in!which!…![a]!

crime!is!committed,!the!gravity!of!a!crime!may!be!inferred!from!the!feelings!which!impelled!

the!author.”31!!In!other!words,!knowing!the!intent!of!the!perpetrator!of!a!criminal!act!is!

crucial!to!determining!the!severity!of!his/her!crime.!!To!explain!this,!Frulli!compares!the!

mental!element!of!crimes!against!humanity!with!genocide.!!In!the!case!of!crimes!against!

humanity,!the!accused!must!have!intended!to!commit!a!crime!and!been!aware!that!his/her!

crime!is!a!part!of!a!widespread!attack!against!a!specific!community.!!The!mens*rea!required!

of!someone!accused!of!genocide!goes!a!step!further!requiring!the!perpetrator!to!be!part!of!

a!plan!to!destroy!a!group!of!people!on!discriminatory!grounds.32!!Morphing!his!conclusion!

slightly,!Frulli!claims!that!not!only!is!a!!crime!against!humanity!more!serious!than!a!war!

crime,!but!also!that!the!crime!of!genocide!is!more!serious!than!a!crime!against!humanity!

because!of!its!discriminatory!component.!!!!!

In!the!second!part!of!his!work,!Frulli!looks!at!three!national!trials!(Albrecht,!Barbie,!and!

Eichmann)!and!case!law!from!two!ad*hoc!courts.!!Frulli!argues!that!there!has!been!judicial!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!30.!!Ibid.,!336.!31.!!Ibid.,!336.!32.!!Ibid.,!336.!


recognition!at!both!the!domestic!and!international!levels!that!crimes!against!humanity!are!

more!serious!than!war!crimes.33!!He!asserts!that!a!difference!in!the!severity!of!crimes!

against!humanity!and!war!crimes!is!“reflected!in!several!domestic!penal!provisions!and!in!

some!of!the!sentencing!and!determination!of!penalties!and!procedures!adopted!by!national!

and!international!courts.”34!!In!Frulli’s!view,!domestic!legislation!as!well!as!the!Albrecht,!

Barbie,!and!Eichmann!trials!prove!that!a!crime!against!humanity!is!more!serious!than!a!war!

crime.!

Frulli!also!looks!at!the!decisions!made!in!four!cases:!Tadić,!Erdemović,!Akayesu,!and!

Kambanda.!!Here,!Frulli!argues!that!the!judges!in!these!cases!were!inconsistent!in!their!

sentencing.!!At!first,!the!court!was!harsher!in!its!sentencing!of!defendants!found!guilty!of!

crimes!against!humanity.!!Later,!however,!the!same!judges!rendered!decisions!that!seem!to!

indicate!that!the!same!acts,!no!matter!how!they!are!classified,!deserve!the!same!

punishment.!

A!central!problem!with!Frulli’s!analysis!is!the!number!of!cases!he!examines!both!at!the!

domestic!and!international!levels.!!The!small!number!of!cases!Frulli!considers!run!the!risk!

of!being!unrepresentative!given!that!the!number!of!cases!now!available!for!review!is!well!

over!100.!!My!work!will!build!on!Frulli’s!study!and!include!a!more!statistically!significant!

analysis!of!international!case!law.!!Beyond!Frulli’s!work,!there!are!two!other!important!

areas!of!scholarly!literature!divided!into!two!sections:!“Sentencing:!Its!Consistency!and!

What!It!Says!About!Crime!Severity”!and!“Defining!the!Categories!of!International!Crime.”!

!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!33.!!Ibid.,!346.!34.!!Ibid.,!349.!


I! Sentencing:!Its!Consistency!and!What!It!Says!About!Crime!Severity!

Criticized!by!some!scholars!as!inconsistent,!sentencing!at!international!tribunals!is!

purportedly!based!on!two!factors:!the!severity!of!the!perpetrator’s!crime(s)!and!the!

individual!circumstances!of!the!accused.35!!According!to!Carcano,!two!factors!determine!the!

seriousness!of!an!offence:!the!amount!of!harm!caused!by!the!offender!and!the!offender’s!

culpability!in!the!crime.36!!Beyond!this!bit!of!information,!the!criteria!for!determining!a!

convict’s!sentence!is!not!defined.!!Judges!are!given!a!tremendous!amount!of!discretion!to!

see!that!justice!is!done.37!!Most!of!the!international!charters!governing!ad*hoc!courts!are!

vague.!!The!only!limitation!placed!on!judges!is!that!they!cannot!sentence!a!defendant!to!

death.!!They!simply!stipulate!that!the!punishment!must!be!just,!but!no!definition!of!just!is!

given.!!Because!judicial!fairness!requires!that!judges!are!consistent!across!cases!and!even!

tribunals,!researchers!analyze!the!decisions!that!have!been!made!at!these!ad*hoc!courts!at!

regular!intervals.38!

The!first!work!that!falls!into!this!group!of!literature!was!published!in!2012.!!Using!a!

multiple!regression!analysis!to!study!sentencing!at!the!ICTY!and!the!ICTR,!authors!Barbora!

Holá,!Catrien!Bijleveld,!and!Alette!Smeulers!argue!that!there!is!no!indication!that!

international!sentencing!is!any!less!erratic!then!sentencing!at!the!domestic!level.39!!Holá,!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!35.!!Carcano,!“Sentencing!and!the!Gravity!of!the!Offence,”!588A89;!Barbora!Holá,!Catrien!

Bijleveld,!and!Alette!Smeulers,!“Consistency!of!International!Sentencing:!ICTY!and!ICTR!Case!Study,”!European*Journal*of*Criminology!9,!no.!5!(2012):!540A41;!James!Meernik,!“Victor’s!Justice!or!the!Law?:!Judging!and!Punishing!at!the!International!Criminal!Tribunal!for!the!former!Yugoslavia,”!The*Journal*of*Conflict*Resolution!47,!no.!2!(2003):!150.!

36.!!Carcano,!“Sentencing!and!the!Gravity!of!the!Offence,”!589.!37.!!Carcano,!“Sentencing!and!the!Gravity!of!the!Offence,”!583,!588;!Meernik,!“Victor’s!

Justice!or!the!Law?,”!143.!38.!!Carcano,!“Sentencing!and!the!Gravity!of!the!Offence,”!583.!39.!!Holá!et.!al.,!“Consistency!of!International!Sentencing,”!539.!


Bijleveld,!and!Smeulers’!analyzed!all!ICTY/ICTR!cases,!completed!by!May!2010,!that!

resulted!in!a!conviction.!!

For!each!defendant,!the!following!data!was!collected:!the!category!of!crime,!number!of!

guilty!counts,!mode!of!responsibility!(or!the!manner!in!which!the!accused!participated!in!

the!crime),!number!of!mitigating!factors,!number!of!aggravating!factors,!and!rank!in!the!

military.40!!The!dependent!variable!is!the!sentence!handed!down!to!each!defendant,!

measured!in!years.41!!In!order!to!include!those!sentenced!to!life!imprisonment,!the!authors!

recorded!‘life’!as!55!years—a!number!reflecting!the!average!time!an!ICTY/ICTR!defendant!

is!predicted!to!spend!in!prison.!!The!independent!variables!are!the!two!main!factors!that!

reportedly!determine!a!convict’s!sentence:!the!seriousness!of!the!crime!(category!of!crime,!

number!of!counts,!aggravating!factors,!mode!of!liability,!and!rank)!and!the!individual!

circumstances!of!the!accused!(mitigating!factors!such!as!whether!or!not!the!defendant!

provided!assistance!to!his/her!victims!or!the!family!circumstances!of!the!defendant).!!!

Holá,!Bijleveld,!and!Smeulers!analyzed!111!cases!of!defendants!sentenced!at!the!ICTY!

and!the!ICTR.42!!They!found!no!reason!to!conclude!that!the!sentencing!at!the!ICTY!and!the!

ICTR!is!inconsistent.!!In!fact,!they!actually!discovered!that!when!a!defendant!is!convicted!of!

genocide,!his/her!sentence!is!increased!by!about!16!years.!!According!to!Holá,!Bijleveld,!

and!Smeulers,!“genocide!is!…!treated!as!the!crime!of!crimes.”43!!Furthermore,!the!authors!of!

the!study!found!that!ICTY/ICTR!judges!see!the!categories!of!international!crime!as!ordered!

“hierarchically!…!with!genocide!at!the!top!of!the!seriousness!scale!followed!by!crimes!

against!humanity.”!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

40.!!Ibid.,!542A45.!41.!!Ibid.,!542.!42.!!Ibid.,!545.!43.!!Ibid.,!546.!


Another!significant!work!on!international!sentencing!is!scholar!James!Meernik’s!

“Victor’s!Justice!or!the!Law?:!Judging!and!Punishing!at!the!International!Criminal!Tribunal!

for!the!former!Yugoslavia.”44!!Similarly!to!Holá,!Bijleveld,!and!Smeulers,!Meernik!assesses!

the!consistency!of!sentencing!at!the!ICTY!using!a!statistical!model.!!He!does!this!by!looking!

at!the!establishment!and!use!of!fair!criteria!in!judging!instead!of!the!actual!sentences.!!

Instead!of!analyzing!the!sentencing!judgments,!Meernik!predicts!the!verdict!in!each!

case!after!determining!(1)!the!expertise!of!the!case’s!attorneys,!(2)!the!ethnicity!of!the!

accused,!(3)!the!number!of!witnesses!called!to!testify,!(4)!the!number!of!judges!from!NATO!

nations,!(5)!whether!the!arrest!was!made!by!the!NATOAled!Stabilization!Force,!(6)!the!

gravity!of!the!crime!committed!by!the!accused,!and!(7)!the!individual’s!level!of!

responsibility.45!!Meernik!then!uses!a!statistical!analysis!to!estimate!the!sentence!each!

defendant!will!receive.!!

Meernik!concludes!from!his!analysis!that!judges!use!“widely!accepted!legal!criteria!

found!in!key!international!agreements”!to!make!their!decisions.46!!Meernik!also!concludes!

that!those!defendants!who!are!“found!guilty!of!the!worst!crimes,!those!who!were!convicted!

of!the!most!offenses,!and!those!with!the!most!responsibility!for!crimes!…!pay!the!highest!

price.”!!Meernik!does!not!draw!a!conclusion!about!the!hierarchy!of!seriousness!among!

international!crime!per!se.!!However,!he!does!say!that!defendants!who!are!found!guilty!of!

“the!worst!offences!receive!lengthier!sentences!than!those!convicted!of!lesser!crimes.”47!

Although!Meernik’s!study!is!largely!comprehensive,!there!are!still!gaps.!!His!methods!

are!a!little!vague.!!It!is!difficult!to!see!a!clear!path!to!his!conclusions!that!judges!base!their!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

44.!!Meernik,!“Victor’s!Justice!or!the!Law?,”!140A62.!45.!!Ibid.,!152.!46.!!Ibid.,!159.!47.!!Ibid.,!157.!


decisions!on!fair!criteria!and!that!defendants!who!commit!the!most!serious!crimes!receive!

the!longest!sentences.!!Thus!readers!are!cautioned!not!to!be!persuaded!only!by!Meernik’s!

analysis.!

The!next!significant!piece!of!literature!on!sentencing!is!scholar!Andrea!Carcano’s!

“Sentencing!and!the!Gravity!of!the!Offence!in!International!Criminal!Law.”48!!Ultimately!

finding!that!“differences!between!international!crimes!can!be!identified,”!Carcano!looks!at!

case!law!from!the!Nuremberg!Trials!(both!the!international!tribunal!and!the!series!of!U.S.!

cases!following!it),!the!ICTY,!and!the!ICTR.49!

Carcano!starts!by!looking!at!Nuremberg!arguing!that!because!of!how!new!the!charge!of!

crimes!against!humanity!was!to!the!international!stage,!at!the!time,!no!distinction!can!be!

made!between!crimes!against!humanity!and!war!crimes.50!!According!to!Carcano,!the!

charge!of!crimes!against!humanity!was!added!to!the!Nuremberg!Charter!to!give!the!Allied!

Powers!the!ability!to!try!Nazis!for!the!crimes!they!committed!against!German!citizens!well!

before!World!War!II!began.!!Carcano!says:!“The!introduction!of!crimes!against!humanity!

was!…!meant!to!provide!the!IMT!with!a!tool!for!prosecuting!the!Germans!for!the!

extermination,!persecution!and!killing!of!German!Jews!who!were,!as!Germans,!outside!the!

protection!of!the!laws!of!war.”51!!From!his!review!of!Nuremberg!case!law,!Carcano!

concludes!that!the!judges!at!Nuremberg!by!and!large!treated!crimes!against!humanity!and!

war!crimes!as!the!same!thing.52!!!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!48.!!Carcano,!“Sentencing!and!the!Gravity!of!the!Offence,”!583A609.!49.!!Ibid.,!609.!50.!!Ibid.,!595.!51.!!Ibid.,!595.!52.!!Ibid.,!596.!


Carcano!then!discusses!the!series!of!U.S.!trials!that!followed!the!IMT.!!From!1947!to!

1949,!177!defendants!in!12!trials!were!tried!in!six!American!military!courts.!!According!to!

Carcano,!Control!Council!Law!No.!10,!which!governed!these!trials,!helped!to!solidify!crimes!

against!humanity!as!a!separate!legal!concept.53!!In!his!effort!to!illustrate!this,!Carcano!

details!five!of!the!12!cases!explaining!the!charges!that!were!brought!against!the!defendants,!

the!verdict,!the!sentence,!and!how!the!case!changed!the!international!community’s!attitude!

of!crimes!against!humanity.!!In!his!conclusion!of!this!section,!Carcano!stresses!that!the!

differences!between!crimes!against!humanity!and!war!crimes!are!much!more!apparent!

today!than!they!were!during!the!Nuremberg!Trials.!!!

Carcano’s!focus!then!shifts!turns!to!the!ICTR.!!Here,!his!objective!is!to!show!the!shift!in!

dialogue!concerning!crimes!against!humanity!that!took!place!in!the!halfAcentury!between!

Nuremberg!and!the!Rwandan!Genocide.!!Acknowledging!that!the!distinction!between!

crimes!against!humanity!and!war!crimes!was!not!heavily!discussed!at!the!ICTR,!Carcano!

discusses!five!pivotal!cases54!and!their!contribution!to!the!development!of!a!hierarchy!of!

international!crimes.55!!Carcano!pays!special!attention!to!Prosecutor*v.*Omar*Serushago.!!In!

this!case,!the!Court!found!Serushago!guilty!and!sentenced!him!to!15!years!imprisonment.!!

In!its!judgment,!the!Trial!Chamber!stated!that!genocide!is!the!“crime!of!crimes,”!but!that!it!

is!tough!to!compare!its!gravity!with!crimes!against!humanity!because!both!are!serious!

offences.56!!According!to!Carcano,!this!opinion!was!pretty!much!indicative!of!the!entire!

tribunal.!!Judges!and!prosecutors!alike!felt!that!because!“the!notion!of!war!crimes!…![is]!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

53.!!Ibid.,!596.!54.!!These!include:!Prosecutor*v.*Jean*Kambanda,!Prosecutor*v.*Jean*Paul*Akayesu,!

Prosecutor*v.*Clement*Kayishema*and*Obed*Ruzindana,!Prosecutor*v.*Omar*Serushago,!and!Prosecutor*v.*Georges*Anderson*Nderubumwe*Rutaganda.!

55.!!Carcano,!“Sentencing!and!the!Gravity!of!the!Offence,”!600A02.!56.!!Ibid.,!602.!


difficult!to!apply!in!the!context!of!the!Rwandan!genocide,”!it!is!hard!to!determine!whether!

there!is!an!inherent!ranking!of!the!most!heinous!violations!of!international!law.57!!!!!!

Carcano!then!discusses!ICTY!case!law!explaining!that!unlike!the!ICTR,!the!ICTY!

compared!the!seriousness!of!crimes!against!humanity!and!war!crimes!extensively.!!It!also!

weighed!in!on!the!seriousness!of!genocide,!but!not!until!2001!in!the!Prosecutor*v.!Krstić.!!In!

addition!to!discussing!the!Krstić!case,!Carcano!discusses!the!judgments!rendered!in!the!

Erdemović,!Furundžija,!Kordič,!Krstić,!Kunarac,!and!Tadić!cases!explaining!the!differences!

between!crimes!against!humanity!and!war!crimes!according!to!ICTY!judges.!!Carcano!first!

discusses!Judge!Vohrah’s!opinion.!!In!Furundžija,!he!argued:!

While!all!crimes!cannot!be!placed!on!a!continuum!of!seriousness!or!within!a!hierarchy!of!gravity,!there!are!certain!crimes!that!will!always!be!regarded!as!the!worst!crimes!it!is!possible!to!commit,!and!these!include!genocide!and!crimes!against!humanity.!These!crimes!are!considered!the!“crime!of!crimes”!primarily!because!they!are!committed!against!a!group!as!such!or!are!committed!generally!against!a!large!number!of!people,!and!often!committed!on!discriminatory!grounds.!Indeed,!if!the!majority’s!view!that!war!crimes!and!crimes!against!humanity!are!prima*facie!indistinguishable!as!to!inherent!gravity,!that!principle!would!seemingly!apply!to!there!also!being!no!hierarchical!difference!between!war!crimes!and!crimes!against!peace!or!between!war!crimes!and!genocide.!I!find!this!position!to!be!inherently!flawed,!as!it!fails!to!take!into!account!inter*alia!the!broader!nature!of!the!crimes!or!the!different!interests!the!prohibitions!of!the!crimes!are!intended!to!protect.58!

!In!other!words,!genocide!and!crimes!against!humanity!are!innately!graver!offences!than!

war!crimes!and!thus,!warrant!lengthier!prison!terms!as!sentences.!!Judge!Vohrah’s!opinion,!

however,!is!not!indicative!of!all!the!judges!at!the!ICTY.!!For!instance,!the!Trial!Chamber!in!

the!Kunarac!case!said!that!it!was!irresponsible!to!compare!the!gravity!of!international!

crimes.!!In!Kunarac,!the!Trial!Chamber!also!held!that!criminal!acts!do!not!attract!more!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!57.!!Ibid.,!600.!58.!!“Judgment!in!the!Prosecutor!v.!Furundžija,”!International*Criminal*Tribunal*for*the*

former*Yugoslavia!(2000):!89,!http://www.icty.!org/x/cases/furundzija/acjug/en/furAaj000721e.pdf.!


severe!penalties!if!branded!crimes!against!humanity!or!genocide.59!!Ultimately,!Carcano!

stresses!that!ICTY!judges!remain!split!to!this!day!about!the!relative!seriousness!of!

international!crime.!!

Similarly!to!Carcano,!researcher!Allison!Danner!researches!what!has!been!said!about!

the!existence!of!a!hierarchy!of!international!crime!and!its!relation!to!sentencing.60!!Danner!

also!focuses!on!ICTY/ICTR!case!law,!but!first!looks!at!some!general!principles!of!criminal!

law,!the!Nuremberg!Charter,!and!the!Statutes!of!the!ICTY!and!the!ICTR.!!She!explores!more!

or!less!the!same!cases!as!Carcano!in!hopes!of!convincing!readers!of!her!conclusion.!!She!

says:!“The!battle!over!a!normative!hierarchy!of!international!crimes!has!played!out!in!the!

Tribunals!on!a!field!that!pitches!the!status!of!crimes!against!humanity!against!that!of!

violations!of!the!laws!and!customs!of!war.”61!!Danner!then!goes!on!to!conclude!that!based!

on!the!Statutes!and!the!pool!of!ICTY/ICTR!cases!that!had!been!decided!in!2000,!the!Courts!

have!not!established!a!hierarchy!of!international!crime.!

II! Defining!the!Categories!of!International!Crime!

Despite!that!it!has!been!decades!since!the!first!use!of!the!charge!of!crimes!against!humanity!

and!genocide,!and!even!longer!since!the!establishment!the!war!crimes!charge,!the!

definitions!of!these!three!are!still!challenged.!!Questions!still!arise!concerning!the!scope!of!

these!three!classes!of!international!crime!and!their!similarities!and!differences.!!For!this!

reason,!international!treaties!and!international!case!law!have!been!studied!extensively.!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!59.!!Carcano,!“Sentencing!and!the!Gravity!of!the!Offence,”!606.!60.!!Danner,!“Constructing!a!Hierarchy,”!415A501.!61.!!Ibid.,!492.!


Scholar!Payam!Akhavan!wrote!one!piece!that!explains!the!dilemma!concerning!the!

definitions!of!these!three!charges!very!well.62!!He!begins!by!discussing!the!two!main!

elements!of!the!definition!of!crimes!against!humanity:!the!contextual!element!and!the!

mental!element!(mens*rea).!!The!gist!of!Akhavan’s!argument,!in!this!part!of!his!work,!is!that!

the!requirement!that!a!crime!be!of!“a!certain!scale!and!gravity”!is!an!essential!ingredient!in!

the!definition!of!crimes!against!humanity.63!!Similarly!to!Frulli,!Akhavan!asserts!that!there!

are!two!basic!pieces!of!the!definition!of!crimes!against!humanity!that!sets!it!apart!from!the!

definitions!of!war!crimes!and!genocide.!!These!include:!“the!emancipation!of!crimes!against!

humanity!from!the!context!of!armed!conflict”!and!(2)!the!distinction!that!this!crime!be!

committed!with!“knowledge!of!the!broader!context”!and!not!simply!intent!to!commit!a!

crime.64!!In!other!words,!because!crimes!against!humanity!are!not!always!committed!

during!wartime!and!the!perpetrator!does!not!just!intend!to!commit!a!crime!but!rather!

intends!to!harm!a!specific!community,!crimes!against!humanity!are!inherently!different!

than!war!crimes!and!the!crime!of!genocide.!!

Akhavan!then!explains!the!added!mens*rea!required!for!genocide.!!In!this!section,!he!

brings!up!the!Kambanda,!and!Jelisić*cases!in!an!effort!to!illustrate!the!aspect!of!the!

definition!of!genocide!that!distinguishes!it!from!other!international!crimes.!!He!says:!“There!

is!a!distinction!between!the!scope!of!intent—which!is!to!destroy!a!group—and!the!degree!of!

intent—referring!to!a!hierarchy!of!culpable!mental!states!such!as!culpa,!dolus*eventualis,!

dolus*generalis!and!dolus*specialis.”65!!He!continues!explaining!that!the!standard!for!dolus*

specialis!(intent)!is!particularly!high.!!It!is!not!enough!that!the!defendant!knows!his!crime!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

62.!!Akhavan,!“Contributions!of!the!International!Criminal!Tribunals,”!279A284.!!63.!!Ibid.,!280.!64.!!Ibid.,!280.!65.!!Ibid.,!282.!


might!result!in!the!destruction!of!a!group;!the!accused!must!intend!to!destroy!a!specific!

group!because!of!the!race,!ethnicity,!nationality!or!religion!its!members!share.66!!According!

to!Akhavan,!the!distinction!in!the!type!of!intent!required!for!genocide!was!first!established!

in!the!Kambanda!case!and!later!upheld!in!the!Jelisić!case.!!

Akhavan!also!discusses!a!number!of!other!ICTY/ICTR!cases!including!Tadić,!Akayesu,!

Kupreškić,!and!Erdemović.!!For!each,!he!discusses!statements!made!by!the!Trial!Chamber!

interpreting!the!legal!definitions!of!genocide,!crimes!against!humanity,!and!war!crimes.!!

Ultimately,!Akhavan!concludes!that!the!case!law!shows!a!“considerable!contribution!to!the!

progressive!development!and!definition!of!…!the!most!serious,!and!ambiguous,!crimes!in!

international!law.”67!!In!other!words,!without!the!ICTY/ICTR,!the!international!community!

would!not!have!as!good!of!an!understanding!of!the!factors!that!differentiate!these!

international!crimes!from!each!other.!!!

Another!crucial!piece!that!analyzed!the!definitions!of!these!crimes!is!Simon!

Chesterman’s!“An!Altogether!Different!Order:!Defining!the!Elements!of!Crimes!Against!

Humanity.”68!!The!focus!of!Chesterman’s!article!is!on!explaining!the!differences!in!the!

definitions!of!crimes!against!humanity!found!in!the!ICTY/ICTR!Statutes!and!the!Rome!

Statute.!!According!to!Chesterman,!The!only!thing!that!these!three!instruments!have!in!

common!is!that!they!all!“state!that!certain!acts!…!committed!under!defined!circumstances!

constitute!crimes!against!humanity.”69!!Purportedly,!even!the!lists!of!criminal!acts!

considered!crimes!against!humanity,!in!these!documents,!are!different.!!They!all!consider!

murder,!extermination,!enslavement,!deportation,!imprisonment,!torture,!rape,!and!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

66.!!Ibid.,!282.!67.!!Ibid.,!284.!68.!!Chesterman,!“An!Altogether!Different!Order,”!307A343.!69.!!Ibid.,!309.!


persecution!crimes!against!humanity.!!However,!the!Rome!Statute!also!includes!the!crime!

of!apartheid!and!the!enforced!disappearance!of!persons!in!its!definition.!!It!should!be!

noted,!though,!that!this!is!not!that!surprising!since!the!Rome!Statute!is!a!negotiated,!

prospective!agreement!in!which!the!international!community!was!free!to!expand!the!

definitions!of!crimes!as!they!saw!fit.!!The!ICTY!and!the!ICTR,!on!the!other!hand,!were!given!

jurisdiction!over!conduct!that!had!already!taken!place.!!Thus,!their!statutes!had!to!conform!

to!recognized!international!law!as!it!stood!at!the!time!of!their!creation.!

Chesterman!also!asserts!that!the!Rome!Statute!provides!a!much!more!elaborate!

definition!of!crimes!against!humanity.!!The!example!he!uses!is!the!ICTY/ICTR!Statutes’!use!

of!the!term!“rape”!as!opposed!to!the!Rome!Statute’s!use!of!the!terms!“sexual!slavery,”!

“enforced!prostitution,”!“forced!pregnancy,”!and!“enforced!sterilization”!in!addition!to!the!

term!“rape.”70!

According!to!Chesterman,!another!significant!difference!between!these!documents!is!

that!the!Statute!of!the!ICTY!requires!a!crime!against!humanity!to!be!committed!in!the!

context!of!an!armed!conflict!while!the!Statute!of!the!ICTR!and!the!Rome!Statutes!do!not.!!

This!is!very!unusual!considering!that!it!is!now!widely!accepted!that!crimes!against!

humanity!are!not!always!committed!during!wartime.!!A!third!notable!difference!is!the!ICTR!

Statute’s!requirement!that!crimes!against!humanity!be!“committed!as!part!of!a!widespread!

or!systematic!attack!against!a!civilian!population!on!national,!political,!ethnic,!racial!or!

religious!grounds.”71!!The!first!part!of!this—the!part!that!requires!the!crime!to!be!

committed!in!a!widespread!or!continuous!way!against!a!specific!group—is!not!unusual.!!

The!second!part,!which!requires!that!the!act!to!be!committed!on!discriminatory!grounds,!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

70.!!Ibid.,!309.!71.!!Ibid.,!311.!


however,!is!strange.!!This!characteristic!is!usually!what!sets!genocide!apart!from!crimes!

against!humanity,!but!for!some!reason,!it!is!included!in!the!ICTR’s!definition!of!crimes!

against!humanity.!!!

After!discussing!the!definition!of!crimes!against!humanity!according!to!the!ICTY,!ICTR,!

and!Rome!Statutes,!Chesterman!explains!the!definition!of!crimes!against!humanity!in!a!

more!general!fashion.!!In!this!section,!Chesterman!mentions!some!case!law,!but!primarily!

sticks!to!a!discussion!of!the!way!the!law!is!written.!!Chesterman!then!moves!on!to!a!

discussion!of!specific!crimes!against!humanity!and!their!extraordinary!requirements.!!Here,!

he!discusses!murder,!extermination,!and!rape!in!tremendous!detail.!!Chesterman!concludes!

that!while!understanding!the!three!definitions!of!crimes!against!humanity!provided!in!the!

ICTY,!ICTR,!and!Rome!Statutes!is!a!great!start,!they!are!not!the!be*all,*end*all!of!the!dialogue.!!

The!third!piece!that!addresses!the!definitions!of!genocide,!crimes!against!humanity!and!

war!crimes!is!David!Luban’s!“A!Theory!of!Crimes!Against!Humanity.”72!!In!this!piece,!Luban!

seeks!to!define!crimes!against!humanity!within!the!context!of!other!classes!of!crimes!

commonly!seen!on!the!international!stage!such!as!the!crime!of!genocide!and!war!crimes.!!

He!begins!by!discussing!the!origins!of!the!term!crimes!against!humanity!bringing!up!the!

Nuremberg!Charter,!Hannah!Arendt’s!Eichmann*in*Jerusalem:*A*Report*on*the*Banality*of*

Evil,73!and!Mary!Ann!Glendon’s!A*World*Made*New:*Eleanor*Roosevelt*and*the*Universal*

Declaration*of*Human*Rights.74!!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!72.!!Luban,!“A!Theory!of!Crimes!against!Humanity,”!85A167.!73.!!Eichmann*in*Jerusalem!is!a!commentary!on!the!trial!of!Adolf!Eichmann,!which!was!

heard!by!the!Jerusalem!District!Court!in!1961.!!Eichmann!was!sentenced!to!death!after!being!convicted!of!crimes!against!humanity!and!crimes!against!the!Jewish!people.!

74.!!A*World*Made*New!explains!the!difference!between!crimes!against!peace!and!crimes!against!humanity.!


Luban!then!describes!the!legal!features!of!crimes!against!humanity!in!immense!detail!

citing!Article!6(c)!of!the!Nuremberg!Charter.!!In!this!section,!he!asserts!that!“crimes!against!

humanity!consist!of!the!most*severe!and!abominable!acts!of!violence!and!persecution”!

(emphasis!added).75!!By!this,!Luban!means!that!crimes!against!humanity!encompass!some!

of!the!most!evil!things!that!humans!can!do!to!each!other.76!!It!is!important!to!note,!however,!

that!Luban!draws!this!conclusion!after!examining!the!Nuremberg!Charter,!which!was!

written!well!before!the!crime!of!genocide!was!defined.!!In!fact,!the!very!word!“genocide”!

was!only!coined!in!1944!and!it!was!not!formally!defined!until!a!couple!of!years!later!when!

the!Genocide!Convention!was!adopted.!!So!when!Luban!says!that!crimes!against!humanity!

encompass!the!“most!severe!and!abominable!acts,”!he!is!effectively!including!what!is!now!

the!separate!offense!of!genocide.!

III! Where!the!Literature!Leaves!Us!

A!few!central!conclusions!can!be!drawn!from!the!existing!literature.!!First,!there!is!little!

evidence!that!sentencing!at!the!international!level!is!inconsistent!as!some!scholars!have!

argued.!!This!is!according!to!the!studies!conducted!by!Holá,!Bijleveld,!and!Smeulers!in!2012!

and!Meernik!in!2003.!!!

Second,!there!is!some!evidence!that!indicates!that!a!hierarchy!of!seriousness!does,!in!

fact,!exist.!!More!specifically,!Frulli!concluded!in!2001!that!certain!international!crimes!

seem!to!be!perceived!as!more!serious!than!others!by!the!courts,!but!that!more!case!law!

needs!to!be!analyzed!before!this!can!be!said!definitively.!!Writing!in!2002,!Carcano!stressed!

that!a!hierarchy!may!very!well!exist,!but!that!the!international!community!remains!split!on!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!75.!!Luban,!“A!Theory!of!Crimes!against!Humanity,”!98.!76.!!Ibid.,!109.!


the!issue.!!Danner,!whose!article!was!published!in!2001,!argued!the!opposite!of!Frulli!and!

Carcano—that!no!established!hierarchy!exists.!!The!bottom!line!is!that!the!relative!

seriousness!of!international!crime!needs!to!be!studied!further!once!additional!case!law!

becomes!available.!!!

And!finally,!the!definitions!of!genocide,!crimes!against!humanity!and!war!crimes!need!to!

be!clarified!further.!!Akhavan,!Chesterman,!and!Luban—writing!in!2000,!2000,!and!2004,!

respectively—breakdown!the!legal!definitions!of!these!three!crimes!stressing!that!a!lot!is!

left!up!to!interpretation!and!that!the!debate!concerning!the!definitions!of!these!crimes!is!

far!from!over.!

From!this!list!of!the!basic!conclusions!that!have!been!drawn!by!scholars!in!the!field,!it!is!

clear!how!relevant!these!pieces!are!to!the!research!at!hand.!!This!is!true!despite!the!fact!

that!only!Frulli’s!piece!addressed!a!question!similar!to!the!ones!I!endeavored!to!answer.!!He!

asks:!Are*crimes*against*humanity*more*serious*than*war*crimes?!!Although!genocide!is!

pretty!much!left!out!of!his!analysis,!Frulli’s!work!provided!a!starting!point!for!the!

development!of!my!study!because!his!research!pertains!to!the!relative!severity!of!

international!crime.!!The!other!literature,!in!addition!to!providing!me!with!a!few!concrete!

takeaways,!served!as!examples!of!what!methods!researchers!have!used!to!study!

international!law.!

Based!on!the!review!of!the!literature,!I!settled!on!four!hypotheses:!

(a) There!is,!in!fact,!a!hierarchy!of!seriousness;!(b) Criminal!acts!that!are!classified!as!genocide!do!actually!receive!the!most!

significant!penalties;!(c) Offences!classified!as!crimes!against!humanity!result!in!more!serious!penalties!

than!war!crimes;!(d) A!criminal!act!classified!as!a!crime!against!humanity!carries!a!more!severe!

penalty!than!if!that!same!act!is!labeled!a!war!crime.!!


C! Methodology!

I!employ!a!mixed!methods!approach!to!address!the!hypotheses!identified!above.!!It!is!

critical!when!executing!a!legal!analysis!to!look!at!both!the!theory!of!the!law!(or!in!other!

words,!how!the!law!was!written)!and!the!law’s!application.!!Accordingly,!I!broke!my!

methodology!into!two!components.!!The!first!is!an!analysis!of!seven!international!statutes!

and!documents.!!And!the!second!is!an!analysis!of!case!law!from!three!tribunals.!!

Correspondingly,!I!divided!this!section!into!two!smaller!sections.!

I! Contextual!Interpretation!of!International!Statutes!

To!answer!these!questions,!I!first!look!to!the!written!law!breaking!down!and!comparing!the!

criminal!acts!that!are!classified!as!genocide,!crimes!against!humanity,!and!war!crimes.!!This!

part!of!my!analysis!includes!a!look!at!the!definitions!of!these!crimes!and!the!contextual!

and/or!mental!elements!required!for!a!court!to!convict!a!defendant!for!committing!these!

crimes.!!In!addition,!I!looked!for!language!in!the!law!that!eludes!to!the!presence!of!a!

hierarchy!of!seriousness.!!This!analysis!comes!from!a!detailed!look!at!international!treaties!

and!other!instruments!that!seek!to!define!these!crimes!as!well!as!provide!guidelines!to!the!

national!and!international!courts!hearing!international!criminal!law!cases.!!The!documents!

I!examined!include:!

1. Convention!on!the!Prevention!and!Punishment!of!the!Crime!of!Genocide!(1948);!2. The!Geneva!Conventions!of!12!August!1949;!3. Statute!of!the!International!Criminal!Tribunal!for!the!former!Yugoslavia!(ICTY)!

(1993);!4. Statute!of!the!International!Criminal!Tribunal!for!Rwanda!(ICTR)!(1994);!5. Rome!Statute!of!the!International!Criminal!Court!(1998);!!6. Statute!of!the!Special!Court!for!Sierra!Leone!(SCSL)!(2000);!and!7. Report!of!the!International!Commission!of!Inquiry!on!Darfur!to!the!United!

Nations!SecretaryAGeneral!(2004).!!


II! Content!Analysis!of!Three!Tribunals!

Next,!I!looked!to!three!international!criminal!tribunals!as!examples!of!the!application!of!

these!three!categories!of!international!crime.!!The!proceedings!I!examined!include!the!

ICTY,77!the!ICTR,78!and!the!SCSL.79!!

In!total,!I!content!analyzed!122!cases!with!a!total!of!186!defendants!(see!Appendix!A)!in!

my!effort!to!determine!whether,!in!practice,!one!of!these!three!categories!of!crime!is!

perceived!as!more!serious!than!the!other!two!and!whether!this!(assuming!it!exists)!has!

affected!the!sentences!handed!down!to!perpetrators!of!these!crimes.!!For!each!case,!the!

indictments,!trial!chamber!judgments,!and!appeals!chamber!judgments!were!classified!

ultimately!allowing!me!to!analyze!the!sentences!handed!down!to!each!defendant.!!All!of!the!

cases!I!analyzed!have!either!been!completed!(as!of!January!2013)!or!are!currently!pending!

an!appeal.!!

!

D! Implications!for!Future!Proceedings!

The!international!legal!system!as!a!whole!is!in!its!infancy,!but!nonetheless,!continuing!the!

dialogue!regarding!the!severity!of!genocide,!crimes!against!humanity!and!war!crimes!is!

crucial!to!the!success!of!the!ICC!and!future!ad*hoc!tribunals!that!are!set!up.!!The!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!77.!!Established!by!the!United!Nations!Security!Council!in!1993,!the!ICTY!was!set!up!to!

prosecute!the!perpetrators!of!the!heinous!crimes!committed!during!the!Yugoslav!Wars.!!The!ad*hoc!court!has!indicted!161!individuals,!to!date,!on!charges!of!war!crimes,!crimes!against!humanity,!and!genocide.!

78.!!In!response!to!genocide!and!other!violations!of!international!law!committed!in!Rwanda,!the!United!Nations!Security!Council!established!the!ICTR!in!1994.!!To!date,!the!ICTR!has!issued!indictments!for!99!individuals.!

79.!!Set!up!by!the!Sierra!Leonean!government!and!the!United!Nations!in!2000,!the!SCSL!was!created!to!prosecute!perpetrators!of!the!Sierra!Leone!Civil!War.!!A!total!of!12!individuals!have!been!indicted!by!the!ad*hoc!court.!


contribution!of!my!thesis!is!its!focus!on!this!dialogue.!!Research!to!date!has!clarified!the!

definition!of!these!three!charges!and!looked!at!how!they!have!been!used!at!specific!ad*hoc!

international!criminal!tribunals.!!However,!only!Frulli’s!study!has!actually!analyzed!

whether!these!charges!fall!into!a!hierarchy!of!seriousness!as!I!suspect.!!Given!that!this!

study!did!not!address!the!place!of!genocide!on!this!hierarchy!and!the!fact!that!a!lot!more!

cases!have!been!decided!in!the!decade!since!this!research!was!published,!it!is!time!that!this!

subject!is!researched!again.!

My!research!also!has!an!added!contribution!as!the!International!Criminal!Tribunal!for!

the!former!Yugoslavia!(ICTY)!and!the!International!Criminal!Tribunal!for!Rwanda!(ICTR)!

have!completed!a!lot!more!cases!since!Frulli!studied!this!topic!in!2001.!!In!addition,!a!new!

tribunal—the!Special!Court!for!Sierra!Leone!(SCSL)—was!set!up!and!has!begun!hearing!

cases!since!Frulli’s!work!was!published.!!Another!contribution!of!my!thesis!is!the!inclusion!

of!the!crime!of!genocide!in!my!research!of!the!relative!seriousness!of!international!crime.!!

Neither!Frulli!nor!the!other!scholars!whose!pieces!I!read!discuss!the!crime!of!genocide’s!

place!on!the!hierarchy!of!seriousness.!!For!this!reason,!my!research!not!only!updates!the!

existing!literature,!it!makes!an!original!contribution!as!well.!!!

Frulli!justified!his!research!with!the!following!statement:!!

The!determination!of!their!degree!of!relative!gravity!has!extremely!concrete!implications:!it!is!crucial!for!the!application!of!penalties.!!If!a!conclusion!is!reached!that,!all!else!being!equal,!a!crime!against!humanity!is!more!serious!than!a!war!crime,!then!the!same!criminal!conduct!should!entail!a!heavier!penalty!if!characterized!as!a!crime!against!humanity.80!

!!This!research!draws!upon!additional!case!law,!which!will!strengthen!any!extrapolation!

regarding!the!relative!severity!of!genocide,!crimes!against!humanity!and!war!crimes.!!New!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!80.!!Frulli,!“Are!Crimes!against!Humanity!More!Serious!than!War!Crimes,”!330.!!


methodologies!are!also!applied!providing!a!more!robust!foundation!for!conclusions!about!

the!differences!between!these!charges.!

Summing!up,!this!thesis!gauges!whether!the!international!legal!system!has!effectively!

created!a!ranking!of!these!classifications!and,!whether!genocide,!crimes!against!humanity,!

and!war!crimes!is!that!ranking!with!respect!to!their!severity.!!Determining!the!seriousness!

of!these!three!criminal!categories!as!they!relate!to!each!other!is!critical!to!evaluating!the!

consistency!of!past!sentencing!and!the!application!of!sentences!in!the!future.!!Given!that!

there!are!multiple!international!tribunals!(e.g.!the!International!Criminal!Court,!the!

Extraordinary!Chambers!in!the!Courts!of!Cambodia,!the!Special!Tribunal!for!Lebanon,!and!

the!new!hybrid!African!UnionASenegal!court)!and!various!national!courts!hearing!

international!criminal!law!cases!without!a!significant!body!of!jurisprudence!to!rely!on,!this!

project!will!aid!these!courts!in!determining!appropriate!sentences.!

!

E! Organization!of!the!Remaining!Chapters!

Generally!speaking,!I!conclude!that!the!crime!of!genocide!seems!to!be!the!most!heinous!

international!crime.!!Likewise,!crimes!against!humanity!seem!to!be!more!serious!than!war!

crimes.!!I!also!found!that!not!only!does!this!hierarchy!exist,!but!that!it!had!an!effect!on!the!

sentences!handed!down!by!the!ICTY,!the!ICTR!and!the!SCSL!to!perpetrators!of!these!crimes.!!

Since!my!methodology!is!easily!broken!into!two!parts,!I!divided!up!my!findings!into!two!

chapters.!!The!first!(Chapter!2)!is!titled:!“Interpreting!International!Law:!Definitions!and!

the!Severity!of!Crimes.”!!It!covers!my!analysis!of!the!seven!international!statutes!and!legal!

commentaries!I!chose!to!examine.!!I!divided!my!interpretation!of!the!law!into!five!sections.!!

Section!I!explores!genocide’s!origins!and!definition.!!Section!II!compares!and!contrasts!the!


different!legal!definitions!of!crimes!against!humanity.!!Section!III!explores!the!similarities!

and!differences!between!the!different!legal!definitions!of!war!crimes.!!Section!IV!discusses!

whether!genocide!is!the!most!heinous!international!crime,!as!I!hypothesized.!!Section!V!

discusses!evidence!in!the!law,!which!suggests!that!crimes!against!humanity!are!more!

serious!than!war!crimes.!

My!second!chapter!of!findings!(Chapter!3)!is!titled:!“Evaluating!Case!Law:!Data!from!

Three!Tribunals.”!!This!is!where!my!findings!from!my!content!analysis!are!laid!out.!!The!

data!collected!from!my!content!analysis!of!122!cases!across!three!ad*hoc!courts!are!

illustrated!by!five!figures.!

In!addition!to!presenting!my!findings!and!conclusions!in!each!of!these!chapters,!the!

implications!of!this!research!are!discussed.!!These!are!laid!out!in!Section!D!of!Chapter!2!and!

in!Section!E!of!Chapter!3.!!Chapter!2!also!includes!a!brief!description!of!the!conflicts!that!

resulted!in!the!ICTY,!the!ICTR!and!the!SCSL.!

In!Chapter!4,!major!takeaways!of!this!research!are!laid!out.!!Policy!recommendations!

for!the!ICC,!current!and!future!ad*hoc!courts!(such!as!the!Extraordinary!Chambers!in!the!

Courts!of!Cambodia,!the!Special!Tribunal!for!Lebanon,!and!the!new!hybrid!African!UnionA

Senegal!court)!and!national!courts!hearing!international!criminal!law!cases!are!also!

offered.!!Then,!a!few!of!the!questions!left!unanswered!by!this!study!are!outlined!in!the!

hopes!that!future!researchers!will!attempt!to!answer!them.!

!!!!!!!!


2( Interpreting(International(Law:(Definitions(and(the((Severity(of(Crimes(

(It!is!hard!to!argue!the!relevance!of!international!law!when!prisoners!remain!incarcerated!in!

Guantanamo!Bay,!Iran!gets!closer!and!closer!to!having!nuclear!weapons,!and!ethnic!

violence!verging!on!genocide!continues!to!erupt!all!over!the!world.!!But!despite!the!near!

constant!criticism!of!the!United!Nations!(UN)!and!the!various!courts!hearing!international!

criminal!law!cases,!one!thing!is!certain—we!have!made!leaps!and!bounds!since!the!AlliedA

powers!tried!Nazi!war!criminals!at!Nuremberg.!

That!said,!there!is!still!work!to!be!done.!!In!fact,!many!unanswered!questions!remain,!

the!most!basic!of!which!is:!What*exactly*constitutes*international*law?!!According!to!Nolo’s!

PlainAEnglish!Law!Dictionary,!“the!term!is!taken!to!mean!the!collection!of!treaties,!

multilateral!agreements,!and!customs!governing!the!interaction!of!nations,!multinational!

businesses!or!nongovernmental!organizations.”!!This!is!fairly!straightforward.!!However,!

there!is!no!one!definition!of!international!law!that!is!accepted!by!all!of!the!system’s!

stakeholders.!!Consider!the!description!Rosalyn!Higgins!gives!of!the!term.!!A!former!

president!of!the!International!Court!of!Justice,!Higgins!says:!

International!law!is!not!rules.!!It!is!a!normative!system.!!All!organized!groups!and!structures!require!a!system!of!normative!conduct—that!is!to!say,!conduct!which!is!regarded!by!each!actor,!and!by!the!group!as!a!whole,!as!being!obligatory,!and!for!which!violation!carries!a!price!…!Without!law!at!the!domestic!level,!cars!cannot!safely!travel!on!the!roads,!purchases!cannot!be!made,!personal!safety!cannot!be!secured.!!Without!international!law,!safe!aviation!could!not!be!agreed,!resources!could!not!be!allocated,![and]!people!could!not!safely!choose!to!dwell!in!foreign!lands.!!Two!points!are!immediately!apparent.!!The!first!is!that!this!is!humdrum!stuff.!!The!role!of!law!is!to!provide!an!operational!system!for!securing!values!that!we!all!desire—security,!freedom,!the!provision!of!sufficient!materials!goods.!!It!is!not,!as!is!commonly!supposed,!only!about!resolving!disputes!…!The!second!point!is!that!…!international!law!is!no!different!from!domestic!law.!!It!is!not,!as!some!suppose!an!


arcane!and!obscure!body!of!rules!whose!origin!and!purpose!are!shrouded!in!mystery.81!

!Higgins!clearly!believes!that!international!law!is!critical!as!a!basis!for!securing!“values!we!

all!desire”!such!as!safety,!freedom,!and!procurement!across!national!borders.!!It!is!not!she!

says,!“humdrum!stuff”!and!it!is!not!only!about!resolving!disputes.!!It!differs!from!domestic!

law!because!the!stakeholders!include!people!of!the!world!at!large.!!The!normative!conduct!

defined!by!these!laws!is!obligatory!for!people!across!nations!and!geographic!boundaries.!

Then!there!is!the!question!of!whether!this!body!of!treaties!and!agreements!is!even!

legitimate!given!that!many!nations!have!not!ratified!the!most!important!of!these!

documents.!!After!all,!the!U.S.,!a!major!global!player,!has!not!even!ratified!the!Rome!

Statute.82!!The!issue!of!course!is!that!the!international!legal!system!is!young!and!thus!its!

tenants!are!under!construction.!!This!will!likely!continue!for!some!years!and!thus!the!laws!

used!to!bring!criminals!to!justice!will!evolve!over!that!time.!

This!thesis!does!not!speak!to!the!definition!or!legitimacy!of!international!law,!but!it!

does!look!at!the!law!in!an!effort!to!ascertain!if!certain!crimes!are!considered!more!serious!

than!others.!!A!mixed!methods!approach!was!used!to!look!at!this!topic.!!This!chapter!

outlines!the!findings!of!my!statutory!analysis!while!the!next!chapter!outlines!the!findings!of!

my!content!analysis.!!Ultimately,!this!research!will!help!to!standardize!the!use!of!specific!

charges!and!thus!increase!the!legitimacy!of!the!courts!themselves.!!To!put!it!more!

specifically,!this!thesis!asks:!Is*there*a*hierarchy*of*seriousness*among*the*charges*of*!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

81.!!Quoted!in!Donald!A.!Rothwell,!Stuart!Kaye,!Afshin!Akhtarkhavari,!and!Ruth!Davis,!Cases*and*Materials*with*Australian*Perspectives,!(New!York:!Cambridge!University!Press,!2011),!http://www.cambridge.org/aus/catalogue/!catalogue.asp?isbn=9780521609111&ss=exc.!

82.!!Although!the!U.S.!had!a!major!role!in!drafting!the!Rome!Statute,!it!has!currently!signed!but!not!ratified!the!document.!!The!significance!of!this!point!is!that!by!not!having!ratified!this!treaty,!the!U.S.!is!not!subject!to!prosecution!for!violating!the!statute.!


genocide,*crimes*against*humanity*and*war*crimes?**And*if*a*hierarchy*exists,*what*is*its*

impact*on*the*sentences*that*have*been*handed*down*to*perpetrators*of*these*crimes?!

!

A! Analyzing!International!Statutes!

In!order!to!answer!these!questions,!the!first!step!is!to!look!at!how!the!was!written.!!The!

goal!of!this!part!of!the!methodology!was!to!see!whether!the!law!itself!acknowledges!the!

existence!of!a!hierarchy!of!seriousness.!!Three!predominant!concepts!were!reviewed:!(1)!

the!definitions!of!the!crime!of!genocide,!crimes!against!humanity,!and!war!crimes,!(2)!the!

contextual!elements!(actus*reus)!required!for!a!court!to!convict!someone!of!these!crimes,!

and!(3)!the!mental!elements!or!intent!(mens*rea)!required!for!a!court!to!convict.!!The!

analysis!comes!from!a!detailed!look!at!various!international!treaties!and!other!legal!

instruments.!!These!include!the!following!documents:!

8. Convention!on!the!Prevention!and!Punishment!of!the!Crime!of!Genocide!(1948);!9. The!Geneva!Conventions!of!12!August!1949;!10. Statute!of!the!International!Criminal!Tribunal!for!the!former!Yugoslavia!(ICTY)!

(1993);!11. Statute!of!the!International!Criminal!Tribunal!for!Rwanda!(ICTR)!(1994);!12. Rome!Statute!of!the!International!Criminal!Court!(1998);!!13. Statute!of!the!Special!Court!for!Sierra!Leone!(SCSL)!(2000);!and!14. Report!of!the!International!Commission!of!Inquiry!on!Darfur!to!the!United!

Nations!SecretaryAGeneral!(2004).!!

Note!that!in!addition!to!the!Statutes!of!the!ICTY,!the!ICTR!and!the!SCSL,!two!of!the!most!

infamous!international!statutes!were!read:!The!Geneva!Conventions!and!the!Rome!Statute.!!

Also!included!was!the!document!that!established!the!crime!of!genocide!and!a!report!to!the!

UN!that!coincidentally!discusses!some!of!the!same!concepts!as!this!thesis.!!Each!of!these!

documents!has!a!direct!relationship!either!to!the!tribunals!discussed!further!in!Chapter!3!

or!to!the!severity!of!genocide,!crimes!against!humanity!and!war!crimes.!!These!sources!also!


contributed!to!defining!one!or!more!of!these!crimes.!!By!looking!at!distinctions!between!

these!crimes,!the!court’s!jurisdiction!to!prosecute!these!crimes!and!a!few!commentaries!

published!by!the!UN,!an!assessment!was!enabled!as!to!whether!the!writers!of!the!law!

intended!to!rank!these!crimes!in!terms!of!their!severity.!

The!application!of!these!charges!provides!many!examples!that!a!clear!hierarchy!exists.!!

So!it!was!assumed!that!it!would!be!equally!clear!in!the!examination!of!the!law!as!written.!!

However,!the!anticipated!clarity!in!examining!these!documents!was!not!found.!!That!said,!

there!was!evidence!that!genocide!is!considered!the!most!heinous!of!the!three.!!Several!

citations!provided!in!the!findings!make!reference!to!this!idea.!

The!distinction!between!crimes!against!humanity!and!war!crimes,!on!the!other!hand,!

was!a!little!less!clear.!!While!it!is!apparent!that!the!language!used!to!define!crimes!against!

humanity!is!seemingly!more!severe!than!that!used!to!define!war!crimes,!there!does!not!

seem!to!be!a!clearly!documented!hierarchy!or!ranking!of!these!two!charges.!!While!war!

crimes!are!acts!of!harm!committed!during!an!armed!conflict,!crimes!against!humanity!are!

systematic!acts!committed!against!a!specific!civilian!group!or!population.!!And!they!can!

take!place!either!during!a!time!of!war!or!peace.!!Thus,!the!distinction!in!the!intent!required!

for!crimes!against!humanity!sounds!more!severe.!!However,!nothing!in!the!actual!definition!

or!other!aspects!of!the!law!clearly!says!this.!

Further!to!this!point,!since!war!crimes!by!definition!comes!as!part!of!an!act!of!war,!

there!is!some!ambiguity!as!to!whether!or!not!they!are!justified!or!explained!by!the!context!

of!the!ongoing!conflict.!!And!since!crimes!against!humanity!have!no!such!ambiguity,!that!in!

itself!may!be!reason!to!conclude!that!they!are,!in!fact,!more!serious.!!Still,!there!is!nothing!in!

the!law!itself!that!plainly!says!so.!!!


Accordingly,!this!chapter!details!the!findings!from!reviewing!the!statutes!and!legal!

commentaries!mentioned!above.!!The!definitions!of!genocide,!crimes!against!humanity!and!

war!crimes!are!compared!and!examples!in!the!language!that!suggest!that!this!hierarchy!

exists!are!cited.!!Subsequently,!in!chapter!three,!the!findings!regarding!how!the!law!has!

been!applied!are!outlined.!

!

B! Key!Findings!

First,!the!definitions!of!genocide,!crimes!against!humanity!and!war!crimes!given!in!the!

various!statutes!and!documents!mentioned!above!were!compared.!!Interestingly,!the!

definition!of!genocide!has!been!reprinted!the!same!as!it!was!in!every!statute!that!was!

analyzed!for!this!thesis.!!On!the!other!hand,!the!definitions!of!crimes!against!humanity!and!

war!crimes!all!differ!from!each!other!ever!so!slightly.!!For!this!reason,!I!noted!the!

differences!with!the!goal!of!seeing!how!these!definitions!have!changed!over!time!and!for!

use!in!specific!contexts.!

Correspondingly,!Section!I!includes!the!definition!of!genocide!and!the!origins!of!the!

term.!!Sections!II!and!III!include!breakdowns!of!how!crimes!against!humanity!and!war!

crimes!are!defined!in!the!most!significant!legal!statutes!and!documents.!!Section!IV!lays!out!

my!findings!with!respect!to!the!severity!of!genocide.!!And!lastly,!Section!V!discusses!the!

severity!of!crimes!against!humanity!as!compared!to!war!crimes.!

!

!

!


I! Genocide’s!Origins!and!Definition!

According!to!the!document83!that!officially!established!genocide!as!a!crime!under!

international!law,!genocide!means!any!of!the!following!acts!committed!with!intent!to!

destroy,!in!whole!or!in!part,!a!national,!ethnical,!racial,!or!religious!group:!

(a) Killing!members!of!the!group;!(b) Causing!serious!bodily!or!mental!harm!to!members!of!the!group;!(c) Deliberately!inflicting!on!the!group!conditions!of!life!calculated!to!bring!about!its!

physical!destruction!in!whole!or!in!part;!(d) Imposing!measures!intended!to!prevent!births!within!the!group;!(e) Forcibly!transferring!children!of!the!group!to!another!group.84!

!Some!believe!that!the!discriminatory!element!to!the!definition!of!genocide!is!what!sets!it!

apart!from!other!international!crimes.!!They!would!conclude!that!this!act!of!discrimination!

shows!determination!or!intent!that!makes!genocide!the!most!serious!of!crimes.!!Others!

argue!that!crimes!against!humanity!can!be!just!as!severe.!!Even!war!crimes!are!occasionally!

considered!as!egregious!as!the!other!two,!but!this!perspective!is!seen!much!less!frequently!

in!all!of!the!documentation!I!reviewed.!!!

A!good!starting!point!is!the!origins!of!the!term!“genocide”!itself.!!Raphael!Lemkin!was!

the!first!to!coin!the!word.!!In!his!book,!Axis*Rule*in*Occupied*Europe,!published!in!1944,!

Lemkin!argues,!among!other!things,!that!the!Nazi!policy!of!extermination!of!Jews!and!

Gypsies!as!well!as!some!of!their!other!policies!constitute!genocide.!!Although!Lemkin!is!

credited!with!being!the!first!to!use!the!term,!it!actually!appeared,!years!before!he!used!it,!in!

a!draft!of!the!Charter!of!the!International!Military!Tribunal!at!Nuremberg.!!That!said,!

because!the!term!“genocide”!was!replaced!with!the!term!“crimes!against!humanity”!in!that!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!83.!!“Convention!on!the!Prevention!and!Punishment!of!the!Crime!of!Genocide,”!United*

Nations!(1948),!http://www.oas.org/dil/1948_Convention_on_the_Prevention_and_!Punishment_of_the_Crime_of_Genocide.pdf.!

84.!!Ibid.,!art.!2.!


document,!Lemkin!is!considered!the!father!of!the!label.!!In!fact,!until!1948!when!the!

Convention!was!adopted,!the!international!community!used!the!term!crimes!against!

humanity!to!deal!with!charges!of!persecution!and!extermination!of!national,!ethnic,!racial!

and!religious!groups.!

According!to!professor!of!international!law!William!Schabas,!the!definition!of!genocide,!

since!being!defined!in!1948,!has!largely!been!“reproduced!without!change!in!such!

instruments!as!the!statutes!of!the!ad*hoc!tribunals!for!the!former!Yugoslavia!and!Rwanda!

and!the!Rome!Statue.”85!!This!is!despite!criticism!that!the!definition!is!too!limited!in!scope.!!

Believers!in!this!group!feel!that!genocide!should!include!the!crimes!of!ethnic!cleansing!and!

similar!attacks!aimed!at!displacing!a!group!instead!of!limiting!it!to!extermination.86!!As!

stated!by!Schabas,!the!definition!of!genocide!“remains!confined!to!the!intentional!physical!

destruction!of!the!group,!rather!than!attacks!on!its!existence!involving!persecution!of!its!

culture!or!the!phenomenon!of!‘ethnic!cleansing.’”87!!However,!supporters!of!the!current!

definition!of!genocide!have!resisted!this!idea!often!by!suggesting!that!the!broader!

definition!should!apply!to!crimes!against!humanity!instead.!!Schabas!actually!addresses!

this!point!as!well.!!He!says:!!

[T]he!gaps!lefts!by!the!somewhat!narrow!definition!of!genocide!in!the!1948!Convention!have!been!filled!more!or!less!satisfactorily!by!the!dramatic!enlargement!of!the!ambit!of!crimes!against!humanity!during!the!1990s.!!The!coverage!of!crimes!against!humanity!expanded!to!include!acts!perpetrated!in!time!of!peace,!and!to!a!broad!range!of!groups,!not!to!mention!an!ever!growing!list!of!punishable!acts.88!

!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!85.!!William!A.!Schabas,!“Convention!for!the!Prevention!and!Punishment!of!the!Crime!of!

Genocide,”!United*Nations!(2008):!3,!http://untreaty.un.org/cod/avl/pdf/ha/cppcg/!cppcg_e.pdf.!

86.!!Ibid.,!4.!87.!!Ibid.,!3.!88.!!Ibid.,!3.!


This!is!not!to!say!that!Schabas!favors!a!more!limited!definition!of!genocide!and!more!

expansive!definition!of!crimes!against!humanity.!!In!fact,!it!is!not!clear!how!he!feels.!!He!is!

simply!addressing!the!controversy!surrounding!the!definition!of!genocide.!

As!Schabas!pointed!out!earlier!in!his!piece,!the!definition!of!genocide!has,!in!fact,!

remained!unchanged!since!it!was!first!codified.!!Some!think!that!this!is!because!of!the!

disagreement!about!whether!or!not!the!definition!should!be!expanded.!!In!fact,!it!could!be!

for!a!very!different!reason.!!However,!one!thing!is!certain—as!Schabas!said,!it!was!indeed!

reproduced!in!the!Rome!Statute!and!the!Statutes!of!the!ICTY!and!the!ICTR!exactly!as!it!was!

written!in!the!Convention!on!the!Prevention!and!Punishment!of!the!Crime!of!Genocide.!!It!is!

interesting!to!note!that!this!is!not!the!case!with!the!definitions!of!crimes!against!humanity!

and!war!crimes.!!The!definitions!of!these!two!categories!of!international!crime!have!been!

adapted!and!changed!numerous!times!over!the!years.!!These!differences!are!explained!in!

the!following!two!sections.!

II! Defining!Crimes!against!Humanity!

Four!different!definitions!of!crimes!against!humanity!were!discovered.!!Although!minor,!

these!are!noteworthy!because!of!how!crucial!legal!terminology!is!to!the!application!of!laws.!!

After!all,!the!application!of!the!law!rests!on!how!the!jargon!within!the!law!is!interpreted.!

Accordingly,!Figures!2.1,!2.2,!2.3!and!2.4!show!the!definitions!of!crimes!against!

humanity!as!written!in!the!Rome!Statute!and!the!Statutes!of!the!ICTY,!the!ICTR!and!the!

SCSL.!!Notice!that!the!most!prominent!differences!in!the!language!of!these!definitions!is!in!

the!text!that!proceeds!the!list!of!criminal!acts.!!It!is!also!important!to!note!that!because!the!

Rome!Statute!is!a!negotiated,!prospective!agreement,!the!definitions!of!the!crimes!are!

longer!and!more!specific!than!those!in!the!Statutes!of!the!ICTY,!the!ICTR!and!the!SCSL.!


Crimes!against!Humanity!as!Defined!by!the!Rome!Statute!

For!the!purpose!of!this!Statute,!‘crime!against!humanity’!means!any!of!the!following!acts!when!committed!as!part!of!a!widespread!or!systematic!attack!directed!against!any!civilian!population,!with!knowledge!of!the!attack:!!

(a) Murder;!(b) Extermination;!(c) Enslavement;!(d) Deportation!or!forcible!transfer!of!population;!(e) Imprisonment!or!other!severe!deprivation!of!physical!liberty!in!violation!of!

fundamental!rules!of!international!law;!(f) Torture;!(g) Rape,!sexual!slavery,!enforced!prostitution,!forced!pregnancy,!enforced!

sterilization,!or!any!other!form!of!sexual!violence!of!comparable!gravity;!(h) Persecution!against!any!identifiable!group!or!collectivity!on!political,!racial,!

national,!ethnic,!cultural,!religious,!gender!as!defined!in!paragraph!3,!or!other!grounds!that!are!universally!recognized!as!impermissible!under!international!law,!in!connection!with!any!act!referred!to!in!this!paragraph!or!any!crime!within!the!jurisdiction!of!the!Court;!

(i) Enforced!disappearance!of!persons;!(j) The!crime!of!apartheid;!(k) Other!inhumane!acts!of!a!similar!character!intentionally!causing!great!suffering,!

or!serious!injury!to!body!or!to!mental!or!physical!health.!

Figure!2.1!

Source:*“Rome!Statute,”!5A6.!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!


Crimes!against!Humanity!as!Defined!by!the!Statute!of!the!ICTY!

The!International!Tribunal!shall!have!the!power!to!prosecute!persons!responsible!for!the!following!crimes!when!committed!in!armed!conflict,!whether!international!or!internal!in!character,!and!directed!against!any!civilian!population:!!

(a) Murder;!(b) Extermination;!(c) Enslavement;!(d) Deportation;!(e) Imprisonment;!(f) Torture;!(g) Rape;!(h) Persecution!on!political,!racial!and!religious!grounds;!(i) Other!inhumane!acts.!

Figure!2.2!

Crimes!against!Humanity!as!Defined!by!the!Statute!of!the!ICTR!

The!International!Tribunal!for!Rwanda!shall!have!the!power!to!prosecute!persons!responsible!for!the!following!crimes!when!committed!as!part!of!a!widespread!or!systematic!attack!against!any!civilian!population!on!national,!political,!ethnic,!racial!or!religious!grounds:!!

(a) Murder;!(b) Extermination;!(c) Enslavement;!(d) Deportation;!(e) Imprisonment;!(f) Torture;!(g) Rape;!(h) Persecution!on!political,!racial!and!religious!grounds;!(i) Other!inhumane!acts.!

Figure!2.3!

Source:!“Statute!of!the!International!Criminal!Tribunal!for!the!former!Yugoslavia,”!United*Nations!(1993):!6,!http://www.icty.org/x/file/Legal%20Library/Statute/!statute_sept09_en.pdf.!

Source:!“Statute!of!the!International!Criminal!Tribunal!for!Rwanda,”!United*Nations!(1994):!61,!http://www.unictr.org/Portals/0/English%5CLegal%5CStatute%5C!2010.pdf.!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

! ! !

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!


Figure!2.4!Crimes!against!Humanity!as!Defined!by!the!SCSL!

The!Special!Court!shall!have!the!power!to!prosecute!persons!who!committed!the!following!crimes!as!part!of!a!widespread!or!systematic!attack!against!any!civilian!population:!!

(a) Murder;!(b) Extermination;!(c) Enslavement;!(d) Deportation;!(e) Imprisonment;!(f) Torture;!(g) Rape,!sexual!slavery,!enforced!prostitution,!forced!pregnancy!and!any!other!form!

of!sexual!violence;!(h) Persecution!on!political,!racial!or!religious!grounds;!(i) Other!inhumane!acts.!

Source:!“Statute!of!the!Special!Court!for!Sierra!Leone,”!United!Nations!(2000):!art.!2,!http://www.scAsl.org/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=uClnd1MJeEw%3D&.!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

To!begin!with,!we!have!the!definition!of!crimes!against!humanity!provided!in!the!Rome!

Statute.!!Since!the!Rome!Statute!is!a!negotiated,!prospective!treaty—in!which!the!

international!community!was!free!to!expand!upon!concepts!as!they!saw!fit—the!definition!

of!crimes!against!humanity!appears!more!comprehensive!than!the!other!three.!!Further!to!

this!point,!because!the!ICTY!and!the!ICTR!are!ad*hoc!tribunals!that!were!given!jurisdiction!

over!conduct!that!had!already!taken!place,!their!statutes!had!to!conform!to!the!law!as!it!

stood!at!the!time!of!their!creation.!!!

This!is!not!to!say!that!the!differences!in!the!definition!of!crimes!against!humanity!

provided!in!the!Rome!Statute!are!not!important!to!note.!!For!starters,!two!crimes!

(apartheid!and!enforced!disappearance!of!persons)!are!included!in!the!Rome!Statute,!but!

nonexistent!in!the!other!three!definitions!I!examined.!!!


Next,!there!is!the!fact!that!a!crime!against!humanity!is!defined!in!the!Rome!Statute!as!

any!of!the!acts!in!the!list!when!they!are!“committed!as!part!of!a!widespread*or*systematic!

attack”!on!a!specific!civilian!group!(emphasis!added).!!This!language!is!similar!to!the!

language!used!in!the!Statutes!of!the!ICTR!and!the!SCSL.!

Another!noticeable!difference!is!that!the!definition!of!crimes!against!humanity!in!the!

Rome!Statute,!unlike!the!one!in!Statute!of!the!ICTR!is!not!written!in!a!way!that!requires!the!

perpetrator!to!have!committed!their!crime(s)!against!a!group!merely!because!of!the!

nationality,!politics,!ethnicity,!race!or!religion!its!members!share.!!!

And!finally,!it!is!clear!in!reading!the!definition!of!crimes!against!humanity!provided!in!

the!Rome!Statute!that!specificity!was!important!to!the!drafters!of!this!document.!!For!

example,!the!Rome!Statute!lists!five!types!of!sex!crimes!in!addition!to!rape.!!This!is!a!

notable!difference!given!the!fact!that!in!the!Statutes!of!the!ICTY!and!the!ICTR!only!rape!is!

listed.!

Turning!to!the!Statute!of!the!ICTY,!there!were!a!few!additional!differences!noticed.!!For!

example,!unlike!the!other!three!reviewed!definitions,!the!significance!of!crimes!against!

humanity!in!this!Statute!says!that!the!perpetrator,!in!addition!to!targeting!a!specific!group!

of!people,!must!have!committed!one!or!more!of!the!acts!listed!during!an!armed!conflict!in!

order!to!be!prosecuted.!!This!is!probably!the!most!important!difference!that!was!revealed.!!

This!is!because!the!inclusion!of!this!requirement!clouds!the!distinction!of!crimes!against!

humanity!from!war!crimes.!!In!other!words,!one!of!the!distinguishing!characteristics!

between!these!two!crimes,!according!to!most!scholars,!is!that!crimes!against!humanity!are!

committed!during!a!time!of!war!or!peace!whereas!war!crimes!are!only!committed!as!part!of!

an!armed!conflict.!


Figures!2.1,!2.2,!2.3!and!2.4!illustrate!a!number!of!noteworthy!differences!between!the!

delineations!of!crimes!against!humanity!given!in!the!Rome!Statute!and!the!Statutes!of!the!

ICTY,!the!ICTR!and!the!SCSL.!!Most!of!the!differences!are!in!the!text!that!precedes!the!list!of!

criminal!acts!provided!with!each!definition.!!However,!there!are!also!noteworthy!

differences!in!the!lists!of!criminal!acts.!!To!begin!with,!the!Rome!Statute!includes!more!

crimes!and!is!more!specific!than!the!other!three.!!Then!there!is!the!fact!that!different!

language!was!used!in!each!statute!to!define!crimes!against!humanity.!!As!already!explained,!

this!is!most!apparent!in!the!Statute!of!the!ICTR,!which!says!that!a!perpetrator!must!target!a!

specific!civilian!group!and!attack!them!during!wartime.!

What!makes!these!distinctions!worth!noting!is!that!these!statutes!are!what!give!these!

courts!jurisdiction!to!prosecute.!!Thus!a!difference!between!one!court’s!definition!and!

another!might!result!in!inconsistencies!in!the!way!the!law!is!applied.!!Furthermore,!these!

statutes!are!what!prosecutors!turn!to!in!order!to!ensure!that!the!facts!they!are!presenting!

correspond!with!the!way!the!defendant!was!charged.!!And!finally,!the!definitions!are!used!

by!judges!in!pronouncing!sentence.!!Given!that!consistency!in!the!application!of!the!law!is!

one!of!the!primary!goals!of!the!international!legal!system,!it!is!crucial!that!the!statutes!of!

these!courts!are!interpreted!similarly.!!The!differences!in!the!definitions!of!crimes!against!

humanity!can!only!hinder!this!effort.!

That!said,!examining!the!differences!between!the!definitions!of!crimes!against!humanity!

only!tells!part!of!the!story.!!Accordingly,!the!next!section!applies!the!same!process!to!the!

definitions!of!war!crimes!found!in!these!very!same!statutes.!

!

!


III! Defining!War!Crimes!

The!definitions!of!war!crimes!provided!in!the!Rome!Statute!and!the!Statutes!of!the!ICTY,!

the!ICTR!and!the!SCSL!are!all!different—just!like!with!the!definitions!of!crimes!against!

humanity.!!Interestingly,!these!four!definitions!of!war!crimes!primarily!differ!in!the!lists!of!

criminal!acts.!!For!the!most!part,!the!text!that!proceeds!these!lists!is!pretty!much!the!same!

across!the!board.!!Each!definition!says!that!war!crimes!encompass!both!violations!of!the!

laws!and!customs!of!war!and!breaches!of!the!Geneva!Conventions!of!1949.!!Accordingly,!

Figures!2.5,!2.6,!2.7!and!2.8!show!the!definitions!of!war!crimes!as!written!in!the!Rome!

Statute!and!the!Statutes!of!the!ICTY,!the!ICTR!and!the!SCSL,!respectively.!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

! ! !


Figure!2.5!War!Crimes!as!Defined!by!the!Rome!Statute!

The!Court!shall!have!jurisdiction!in!respect!of!war!crimes!in!particular!when!committed!as!part!of!a!plan!or!policy!or!as!part!of!a!largeAscale!commission!of!such!crimes.!!For!the!purpose!of!this!Statute,!‘war!crimes’!means:!!!

(a) Grave!breaches!of!the!Geneva!Conventions!of!12!August!1949,!namely,!any!of!the!following!acts!against!persons!or!property!protected!under!the!provisions!of!the!relevant!Geneva!Convention:!!(i) Willful!killing;!(ii) Torture!or!inhuman!treatment,!including!biological!experiments;!(iii) Willfully!causing!great!suffering,!or!serious!injury!to!body!or!health;!(iv) Extensive!destruction!and!appropriation!of!property,!not!justified!by!

military!necessity!and!carried!out!unlawfully!and!wantonly;!(v) Compelling!a!prisoner!of!war!or!other!protected!person!to!serve!in!the!

forces!of!a!hostile!Power;!(vi) Willfully!depriving!a!prisoner!of!war!or!other!protected!person!of!the!

rights!of!fair!and!regular!trial;!(vii) Unlawful!deportation!or!transfer!or!unlawful!confinement;!(viii) Taking!of!hostages.!

!(b) Other!serious!violations!of!the!laws!and!customs!applicable!in!international!

armed!conflict,!within!the!established!framework!of!international!law,!namely,!any!of!the!following!acts:!!(i) Intentionally!directing!attacks!against!the!civilian!population!as!such!or!

against!individual!civilians!not!taking!direct!part!in!hostilities;!(ii) Intentionally!directing!attacks!against!civilian!objects,!that!is,!objects!

which!are!not!military!objectives;!(iii) Intentionally!directing!attacks!against!personnel,!installations,!material,!

units!or!vehicles!involved!in!a!humanitarian!assistance!or!peacekeeping!mission!in!accordance!with!the!Charter!of!the!United!Nations,!as!long!as!they!are!entitled!to!the!protection!given!to!civilians!or!civilian!objects!under!the!international!law!of!armed!conflict;!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!


(iv) Intentionally!launching!an!attack!in!the!knowledge!that!such!attack!will!cause!incidental!loss!of!life!or!injury!to!civilians!or!damage!to!civilian!objects!or!widespread,!longAterm!and!severe!damage!to!the!natural!environment!which!would!be!clearly!excessive!in!relation!to!the!concrete!and!direct!overall!military!advantage!anticipated;!

(v) Attacking!or!bombarding,!by!whatever!means,!towns,!villages,!dwellings!or!buildings!which!are!undefended!and!which!are!not!military!objectives;!

(vi) Killing!or!wounding!a!combatant!who,!having!laid!down!his!arms!or!having!no!longer!means!of!defense,!has!surrendered!at!discretion;!

(vii) Making!improper!use!of!a!flag!of!truce,!of!the!flag!or!of!the!military!insignia!and!uniform!of!the!enemy!or!of!the!United!Nations,!as!well!as!of!the!distinctive!emblems!of!the!Geneva!Conventions,!resulting!in!death!or!serious!personal!injury;!

(viii) The!transfer,!directly!or!indirectly,!by!the!Occupying!Power!of!parts!of!its!own!civilian!population!into!the!territory!it!occupies,!or!the!deportation!or!transfer!of!all!or!parts!of!the!population!of!the!occupied!territory!within!or!outside!this!territory;!

(ix) Intentionally!directing!attacks!against!buildings!dedicated!to!religion,!education,!art,!science!or!charitable!purposes,!historic!monuments,!hospitals!and!places!where!the!sick!and!wounded!are!collected,!provided!they!are!not!military!objectives;!

(x) Subjecting!persons!who!are!in!the!power!of!an!adverse!party!to!physical!mutilation!or!to!medical!or!scientific!experiments!of!any!kind!which!are!neither!justified!by!the!medical,!dental!or!hospital!treatment!of!the!person!concerned!nor!carried!out!in!his!or!her!interest,!and!which!cause!death!to!or!seriously!endanger!the!health!of!such!person!or!persons;!

(xi) Killing!or!wounding!treacherously!individuals!belonging!to!the!hostile!nation!or!army;!

(xii) Declaring!that!no!quarter!will!be!given;!(xiii) Destroying!or!seizing!the!enemy's!property!unless!such!destruction!or!

seizure!be!imperatively!demanded!by!the!necessities!of!war;!(xiv) Declaring!abolished,!suspended!or!inadmissible!in!a!court!of!law!the!

rights!and!actions!of!the!nationals!of!the!hostile!party;!!(xv) Compelling!the!nationals!of!the!hostile!party!to!take!part!in!the!

operations!of!war!directed!against!their!own!country,!even!if!they!were!in!the!belligerent's!service!before!the!commencement!of!the!war;!

(xvi) Pillaging!a!town!or!place,!even!when!taken!by!assault;!(xvii) Employing!poison!or!poisoned!weapons;!(xviii) Employing!asphyxiating,!poisonous!or!other!gases,!and!all!analogous!

liquids,!materials!or!devices;!(xix) Employing!bullets!which!expand!or!flatten!easily!in!the!human!body,!

such!as!bullets!with!a!hard!envelope!which!does!not!entirely!cover!the!core!or!is!pierced!with!incisions;!

(xx) Committing!outrages!upon!personal!dignity,!in!particular!humiliating!and!degrading!treatment;!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!


(xxi) Employing!weapons,!projectiles!and!material!and!methods!of!warfare!which!are!of!a!nature!to!cause!superfluous!injury!or!unnecessary!suffering!or!which!are!inherently!indiscriminate!in!violation!of!the!international!law!of!armed!conflict,!provided!that!such!weapons,!projectiles!and!material!and!methods!of!warfare!are!the!subject!of!a!comprehensive!prohibition!and!are!included!in!an!annex!to!this!Statute,!by!an!amendment!in!accordance!with!the!relevant!provisions!set!forth!in!articles!121!and!123;!

(xxii) Committing!rape,!sexual!slavery,!enforced!prostitution,!forced!pregnancy,!as!defined!in!article!7,!paragraph!2!(f),!enforced!sterilization,!or!any!other!form!of!sexual!violence!also!constituting!a!grave!breach!of!the!Geneva!Conventions;!

(xxiii) Utilizing!the!presence!of!a!civilian!or!other!protected!person!to!render!certain!points,!areas!or!military!forces!immune!from!military!operations;!

(xxiv) Intentionally!using!starvation!of!civilians!as!a!method!of!warfare!by!depriving!them!of!objects!indispensable!to!their!survival,!including!willfully!impeding!relief!supplies!as!provided!for!under!the!Geneva!Conventions;!

(xxv) Intentionally!using!starvation!of!civilians!as!a!method!of!warfare!by!depriving!them!of!objects!indispensable!to!their!survival,!including!willfully!impeding!relief!supplies!as!provided!for!under!the!Geneva!Conventions;!

(xxvi) Conscripting!or!enlisting!children!under!the!age!of!fifteen!years!into!the!national!armed!forces!or!using!them!to!participate!actively!in!hostilities.!

Source:*“Rome!Statute,”!6A9.!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

! !

!

!

!

!


Figure!2.6!War!Crimes!as!Defined!by!the!Statute!of!the!ICTY!

The!International!Tribunal!shall!have!the!power!to!prosecute!persons!committing!or!ordering!to!be!committed!grave!breaches!of!the!Geneva!Conventions!of!12!August!1949,!namely!the!following!acts!against!persons!or!property!protected!under!the!provisions!of!the!relevant!Geneva!Convention:!!!

(a) Willful!killing;!(b) Torture!or!inhuman!treatment,!including!biological!experiments;!(c) Willfully!causing!great!suffering!or!serious!injury!to!body!or!health;!(d) Extensive!destruction!and!appropriation!of!property,!not!justified!by!military!

necessity!and!carried!out!unlawfully!and!wantonly;!!(e) Compelling!a!prisoner!of!war!or!a!civilian!to!serve!in!the!forces!of!a!hostile!

power;!(f) Willfully!depriving!a!prisoner!of!war!or!a!civilian!of!the!rights!of!fair!and!regular!

trial;!(g) Unlawful!deportation!or!transfer!or!unlawful!confinement!of!a!civilian;!!(h) Taking!civilians!as!hostages.!

!The!International!Tribunal!shall!have!the!power!to!prosecute!persons!violating!the!laws!or!customs!of!war.!!Such!violations!shall!include,!but!not!be!limited!to:!!!

(a) Employment!of!poisonous!weapons!or!other!weapons!calculated!to!cause!unnecessary!suffering;!

(b)Wanton!destruction!of!cities,!towns!or!villages,!or!devastation!not!justified!by!military!necessity;!

(c) Attack,!or!bombardment,!by!whatever!means,!of!undefended!towns,!villages,!dwellings,!or!buildings;!

(d) Seizure!of,!destruction!or!willful!damage!done!to!institutions!dedicated!to!religion,!charity!and!educations,!the!arts!and!sciences,!historic!monuments!and!works!of!art!and!science;!

(e) Plunder!of!public!or!private!property.!!Source:!“Statute!of!the!ICTY,”!5.!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!


Figure!2.7!War!Crimes!as!Defined!by!the!Statute!of!the!ICTR!

The!International!Tribunal!for!Rwanda!shall!have!the!power!to!prosecute!persons!committing!or!ordering!to!be!committed!serious!violations!of!Article!3!common!to!the!Geneva!Conventions!of!12!August!1949!for!the!Protection!of!War!Victims,!and!of!Additional!Protocol!II!thereto!of!8!June!1977.!!These!violations!shall!include,!but!shall!not!be!limited!to:!!!

(a) Violence!to!life,!health!and!physical!or!mental!wellAbeing!of!persons,!in!particular!murder!as!well!as!cruel!treatment!such!as!torture,!mutilation!or!any!form!of!corporal!punishment;!!

(b) Collective!punishments;!(c) Taking!of!hostages;!(d) Acts!of!terrorism;!(e) Outrages!upon!personal!dignity,!in!particular!humiliating!and!degrading!

treatment,!rape,!enforced!prostitution!and!any!form!of!indecent!assault;!(f) Pillage;!(g) The!passing!of!sentences!and!the!carrying!out!of!executions!without!previous!

judgment!pronounced!by!a!regularly!constituted!court,!affording!all!the!judicial!guarantees!which!are!recognized!as!indispensable!by!civilized!peoples;!!

(h) Threats!to!commit!any!of!the!following!acts.!

Source:!“Statute!of!the!ICTR,”!61.!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!


Figure!2.8!War!Crimes!as!Defined!by!the!Statute!of!the!SCSL!

The!Special!Court!shall!have!the!power!to!prosecute!persons!who!committed!or!ordered!the!commission!of!serious!violations!of!article!3!common!to!the!Geneva!Conventions!of!12!August!1949!for!the!Protection!of!War!Victims,!and!of!Additional!Protocol!II!thereto!of!8!June!1977.!!These!violations!shall!include:!!!

(a) Violence!to!life,!health!and!physical!or!mental!wellAbeing!of!persons,!in!particular!murder!as!well!as!cruel!treatment!such!as!torture,!mutilation!or!any!form!of!corporal!punishment;!

(b) Collective!punishments;!(c) Taking!of!hostages;!(d) Acts!of!terrorism;!(e) Outrages!upon!personal!dignity,!in!particular!humiliating!and!degrading!

treatment,!rape,!enforced!prostitution!and!any!form!of!indecent!assault;!(f) Pillage;!(g) The!passing!of!sentences!and!the!carrying!out!of!executions!without!previous!

judgment!pronounced!by!a!regularly!constituted!court,!affording!all!the!judicial!guarantees!which!are!recognized!as!indispensable!by!civilized!peoples;!

(h) Threats!to!commit!any!of!the!following!acts.!!The!Special!Court!shall!have!the!power!to!prosecute!persons!who!committed!the!following!serious!violations!of!international!humanitarian!law:!!

(a) Intentionally!directing!attacks!against!the!civilian!population!as!such!or!against!individual!civilians!not!taking!direct!part!in!hostilities;!

(b) Intentionally!directing!attacks!against!personnel,!installations,!material,!units!or!vehicles!involved!in!a!humanitarian!assistance!or!peacekeeping!mission!in!accordance!with!the!Charter!of!the!United!Nations,!as!long!as!they!are!entitled!to!the!protection!given!to!civilians!or!civilian!objects!under!the!international!law!of!armed!conflict;!

(c) Conscripting!or!enlisting!children!under!the!age!of!15!years!into!armed!forces!or!groups!or!using!them!to!participate!actively!in!hostilities.!

Source:!“Statute!of!the!SCSL,”!art.!3!and!4.!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!


As!is!evident!simply!by!glancing!at!Figures!2.5,!2.6,!2.7!and!2.8,!the!definitions!of!war!

crimes!provided!in!the!Rome!Statute!and!the!Statutes!of!the!ICTY,!the!ICTR!and!the!SCSL!

are!much!longer,!even!more!specific,!than!the!definitions!of!crimes!against!humanity!found!

in!these!very!same!statutes.!!No!one!is!certain!why!this!is!the!case.!!I!can!only!speculate!that!

the!drafters!of!these!statutes!wanted!to!encompass!everything!in!their!definitions.!!This!

was!so!that!they!could!provide!their!respective!courts!with!jurisdiction!to!prosecute!the!

broadest!set!of!crimes.!!As!I!discussed!extensively!in!Section!II,!the!length!and!specificity!of!

the!Rome!Statutes’!definition!can!be!explained!by!the!nature!of!the!document—a!

negotiated,!prospective!treaty!in!which!stakeholders!in!the!international!system!were!free!

to!expand!upon!concepts!as!they!saw!fit.!!This!does!not!account!for!the!length!of!the!other!

three!statutes’!definitions!of!war!crimes.!!!

Further!to!this!point,!these!definitions!also!differ!in!the!lists!of!criminal!acts!that!are!

included!in!each!definition.!!For!example,!the!definition!of!war!crimes!provided!in!the!Rome!

Statute!includes!nearly!four!times!the!number!of!criminal!acts!than!the!other!three.!!There!

is!certainly!some!repetition,!but!even!if!the!repetition!is!eliminated,!this!definition!will!still!

be!extraordinarily!long!and!specific!in!nature.!!Further!to!this!point,!certain!crimes!are!

included!in!one!or!two!statutes,!but!in!not!the!others.!!For!instance,!the!Statutes!of!the!ICTR!

and!the!SCSL!include:!“The!passing!of!sentences!and!the!carrying!out!of!executions!without!

previous!judgment!pronounced!by!a!regularly!constituted!court,!affording!all!the!judicial!

guarantees!which!are!recognized!as!indispensable!by!civilized!peoples.”!!The!Rome!Statute!

and!the!Statute!of!the!ICTY,!however,!does!not.!

Another!notable!difference!is!that!the!same!criminal!acts!were!written!in!completely!

different!ways!across!these!four!definitions.!!For!instance,!in!the!Statutes!of!the!ICTR!and!


the!SCSL,!it!lists:!“Violence!to!life,!health!and!physical!or!mental!wellAbeing!of!persons,!in*

particular*murder!as!well!as!cruel!treatment!such!as!torture,!mutilation!or!any!form!of!

corporal!punishment”!(emphasis!added).!!In!the!Statute!of!the!ICTY,!on!the!other!hand,!it!

simply!lists:!“Willful!killing.”!!While!both!of!these!crimes!are!listed!in!order!to!give!the!court!

jurisdiction!to!prosecute!murderers,!they!are!written!completely!differently.!!One!is!

simplistic!while!the!other!lists!a!few!different!crimes!using!the!phrase!“in!particular!

murder.”!

Then,!there!is!the!difference!in!how!the!list!of!criminal!acts!under!each!definition!is!

separated!into!breaches!of!the!Geneva!Convention!and!other!violations!of!the!laws!and!

customs!of!war.!!As!I!mentioned!in!Chapter!1,!both!of!these!charges!are!considered!war!

crimes!by!the!international!community.!!What’s!interesting,!though,!is!that!a!number!of!

crimes!are!labeled!breaches!of!the!Geneva!Convention!in!one!statute!and!violation!of!the!

laws!and!customs!of!war!in!another.!!!

As!I!said!in!my!discussion!of!the!different!definitions!of!crimes!against!humanity,!the!

more!differences!in!the!documents!that!give!these!courts!jurisdiction!to!prosecute,!the!

more!likely!it!is!that!the!law!will!be!applied!inconsistently.!!That!said,!the!definitions!of!

these!categories!of!crime!constitute!only!one!piece!of!the!law!that!can!lead!to!

inconsistencies!in!the!law’s!application.!!A!second!perspective!comes!from!looking!at!the!

seriousness!of!these!criminal!acts!to!determine!if!there!is!a!hierarchy!among!them!and!if!so,!

whether!that!hierarchy!is!as!hypothesized.!!Accordingly,!the!next!two!sections!explore!

whether!the!law!as!written!supports!the!conclusion!that!genocide!is!the!most!heinous!

international!crime!and!whether!crimes!against!humanity!are!considered!more!serious!

than!war!crimes.!


IV! Genocide:!Crime!of!Crimes?!

As!mentioned!earlier,!there!is!some!evidence!that!genocide!is!the!most!heinous!of!

international!crimes.!!Looking!at!the!Convention!on!the!Prevention!and!Punishment!of!the!

Crime!of!Genocide,!the!Rome!Statute,!and!the!Report!of!the!International!Commission!of!

Inquiry!on!Darfur,!I!sought!evidence!of!whether!the!law!acknowledges!that!genocide!is!the!

most!heinous!international!crime.!!The!Convention!itself!was!not!all!that!helpful.!!However,!

the!article!Schabas!wrote!for!the!United!Nations!explaining!the!Convention!was.!!In!his!

piece,!Schabas!says:!!

The!Convention!has!been!much!criticised!for!its!limited!scope.!!This!was!really!more!a!case!of!frustration!with!the!inadequate!reach!of!international!law!in!dealing!with!mass!atrocities!…![T]his!difficulty!would!be!addressed!not!by!expanding!the!definition!of!genocide!or!by!amending!the!Convention,!but!rather!by!an!evolution!in!the!closely!related!concept!of!crimes!against!humanity.!!Accordingly,!the!crime!of!genocide!has!been!left!alone,!where!it!occupies!a!special!place!as!‘the*crime*of*crimes.’89!(emphasis!added)!!

In!Schabas’!opinion,!the!fact!that!the!definition!of!genocide!has!remained!largely!unchanged!

since!it!was!first!written!into!law!in!1948!proves!its!place!in!the!law!as!the!worst!of!the!

international!crimes.(

I!found!further!substantiation!of!my!conclusion!that!genocide!is!the!most!serious!of!

international!crimes!in!the!Report!of!the!International!Commission!of!Inquiry!on!Darfur!to!

the!United!Nations!SecretaryAGeneral.!!The!problem!is!that!in!this!singular!report,!the!

Commission’s!wording!is!inconsistent.!!In!the!beginning!of!this!document,!it!says:!!

The!conclusion!that!no!genocidal!policy!has!been!pursued!and!implemented!in!Darfur!…!should!not!be!taken!in!any!way!as!detracting!from!the!gravity!of!the!crimes!perpetrated!in!that!region.!!International!offences!such!as!the!crimes!against!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!89.!!Schabas,!“Convention!on!Genocide,”!4.!


humanity!and!war!crimes!that!have!been!committed!in!Darfur!may!be!no!less!serious!and!heinous!than!genocide.90!

!At!first!glance,!this!seems!to!disprove!my!argument.!!However,!there!could!be!many!other!

reasons!for!not!bringing!genocidal!charges!in!Darfur.!!Also,!the!statement!made!by!the!

Commission!could!have!been!more!about!emphasizing!that!the!crimes!being!committed!in!

Darfur!are!heinous!and!horrible!than!about!comparing!the!severity!of!genocide!relative!to!

crimes!against!humanity.!!!

Later,!in!the!Commission’s!discussion!of!the!gravity!of!genocide!compared!to!other!

international!crimes,!it!says:!“As!the!ICTY!Appeals!Chamber!rightly!put!it!in!Krstić!…!

‘Genocide!is!one!of!the!worst!crimes!known!to!humankind,!and!its!gravity!is!reflected!in!the!

stringent!requirements!of!specific!intent’”!(emphasis!added).91!!This!suggests!that!even!

though!the!intent!required!of!those!who!commit!genocide!is!absent!in!Darfur,!the!activities!

taking!place!there!are!of!a!grave!and!serious!nature.!!One!could!conclude!then!that!the!

Commission!considers!genocide!the!most!serious!of!crimes!and!crimes!against!humanity!a!

very!close!second.!!The!Commission!certainly!chose!its!words!carefully—and!yet,!they!still!

say!that!the!ICTY!Appeals!Chamber!was!right!in!its!statement!that!genocide!is!the!worst!

international!crime.!

The!Commission!goes!on,!stating:!!

It!has!widely!been!held!that!genocide*is*the*most*serious*international*crime.!!In!Kambanda!…!and!Serushago!…!the!ICTR!defined!it!as!‘the!crime!of!crimes’!…!In!Krstić,!the!ICTY!Appeals!Chamber!stated!that!…!‘[T]he!crime!of!genocide!is!singled!out!for!special!condemnation!and!opprobrium.!!The!crime!is!horrific!in!scope;!its!perpetrators!identify!entire!human!groups!for!extinction.!!Those!who!devise!and!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!90.!!“Report!of!the!International!Commission!of!Inquiry!on!Darfur!to!the!United!Nations!

SecretaryAGeneral,”!United*Nations!(2004):!4,!http://www.un.org/news/dh/sudan/!com_inq_darfur.pdf.!

91.!!Ibid.,!128.!


implement!genocide!seek!to!deprive!humanity!of!the!manifold!richness!its!nationalities,!races,!ethnicities!and!religions!provide.’92!(emphasis!added)!

!The!fact!of!the!matter!is!that!any!conclusion!as!to!a!hierarchy!of!seriousness!among!these!

crimes!is!subject!to!interpretation.!!Nonetheless,!there!is!clear!phraseology!and!wording!to!

suggest!that!such!a!hierarchy!exists.!!One!explanation!for!the!lack!of!statements!clearly!

outlining!a!hierarchy!of!seriousness!is!that!scholars!of!the!international!legal!system!have!

expressed!concern.!!They!worry!that!distinguishing!genocide!as!the!most!heinous!crime!

makes!light!of!other!international!crimes.!!Further!to!this!point,!the!authors!of!the!Geneva!

Conventions,!the!Rome!Statute!and!the!Statutes!of!the!ICTY,!the!ICTR!and!the!SCSL!did!not!

help!matters.!!These!documents!simply!define!the!crimes,!list!the!punishable!acts!under!

each!category!of!crime!and!provide!a!few!miniscule!sentencing!guidelines.!!They!do!not!

provide!much!clarity!about!a!hierarchy!of!seriousness.!

V! Are!Crimes!against!Humanity!More!Serious!than!War!Crimes?!

Whether!or!not!the!law!sets!genocide!apart,!the!other!two!criminal!categories!are!even!

more!difficult!to!rank.!!Nonetheless,!there!is!some!evidence!in!the!written!law!that!suggests!

that!crimes!against!humanity!are!considered!more!serious!than!war!crimes.!!Three!

approaches!were!revealed!in!reviewing!the!international!statutes!and!other!documents!I!

chose!to!examine.

The!first!of!these!is!that!the!alignment!of!crimes!against!humanity!to!“the!crime!of!

crimes”!(i.e.!genocide)!separates!war!crimes!as!distinctly!less!significant.!!In!fact,!the!

International!Commission!of!Inquiry!on!Darfur!makes!a!statement,!which!is!again!summed!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!92.!!Ibid.,!128.!


up!exceptionally!well!in!Schabas’!commentary!on!the!Convention!for!the!Prevention!and!

Punishment!of!the!Crime!of!Genocide.!!He!says:!

Its!comments!highlighted!what!is!often!a!sterile!debate!about!whether!to!characterise!acts!as!genocide!or!as!“mere”!crimes!against!humanity.!!Indeed,!crimes!against!humanity!was!the!label!attached!to!the!Nazi!atrocities!at!Nuremberg,!and!it!remains!one!of!the!“most!serious!crimes!of!concern!to!the!international!community!as!a!whole.”93

! According!to!Schabas,!the!International!Commission!of!Inquiry!on!Darfur!believes!that!the!

crime!of!genocide!and!crimes!against!humanity!are,!in!some!circumstances,!level!in!terms!

of!their!severity.!!He!comes!to!this!conclusion!after!reading!the!Commission’s!comment!that!

crimes!against!humanity!have!been!one!of!the!“most!serious!crimes!of!concern!to!the!

international!community”!since!Nuremberg.!!Schabas!makes!a!compelling!argument.!!!

At!first!glance,!this!inference!may!seem!to!undermine!the!conclusion!drawn!in!the!

preceding!section.!!However,!given!the!language!identified!to!the!contrary,!what!it!does!

instead!is!strengthen!the!rationale!behind!ranking!crimes!against!humanity!a!level!above!

war!crimes.!!The!Commission!really!does!themselves!a!disservice!by!not!mentioning!the!

severity!of!war!crimes!in!their!report.!!They!insinuate!that!crimes!against!humanity!may!be!

just!as!serious!as!the!crime!of!genocide,!but!don’t!mention!war!crimes!leading!their!readers!

to!infer!that!this!crime!is!inherently!less!severe.!!If!they!are!of!the!opinion!that!all!

international!crimes!rank!the!same!in!terms!of!their!severity,!then!they!would!have!stated!

that!explicitly.!!Since!they!obviously!do!not!do!this,!it!is!reasonable!to!draw!the!conclusion!

that!war!crimes,!while!very!serious!offences,!rank!a!level!below!crimes!against!humanity!in!

terms!of!severity.

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!93.!!Schabas,!“Convention!on!Genocide,”!5.!


Further!to!this!point,!the!fact!that!war!crimes!are!not!mentioned!in!many!of!the!

commentaries!and!reports!on!the!law!that!have!been!prepared!by!the!UN!distinguishes!the!

category!as!less!severe!than!other!crimes.!!Look!again!at!the!commentary!Schabas!provides!

on!the!Convention!on!the!Prevention!and!Punishment!of!the!Crime!of!Genocide.!!Genocide!

and!crimes!against!humanity!are!mentioned!throughout!whereas!war!crimes!were!barely!

discussed.!!Furthermore,!when!they!were!included,!they!were!often!minimized!or!

explained!in!a!way!that!made!it!seem!like!they!can,!in!some!cases,!be!explained!away!by!

armed!conflict.

A!final!perspective!on!the!severity!of!these!classifications!can!be!found!in!the!language!

used!to!describe!each!of!them,!particularly!in!the!definitions!of!each!of!these!crimes!

provided!in!nearly!every!international!statute.!!In!national!and!international!courts!alike,!

prosecutors!must!prove!that!a!defendant!had!the!intent!to!commit!a!crime!(mens*rea)!in!

order!to!successfully!prosecute.!!With!each!of!the!international!crimes!discussed!in!this!

thesis,!there!is!a!different!standard!of!intent!that!must!be!proven.!!For!genocide,!a!

perpetrator!must!intend!to!commit!a!crime!against!a!specific!civilian!group!because!of!the!

race,!nationality,!ethnicity,!or!religion!shared!by!members!of!the!group.!!For!crimes!against!

humanity,!a!perpetrator!also!must!intent!to!commit!a!crime!against!a!specific!civilian!

group,!but!does!not!have!to!do!so!out!of!pure!hatred!(or!in!other!words,!in!a!discriminatory!

fashion).!!The!standard!of!intent!is!even!lower!for!war!crimes.!!To!be!convicted!of!a!war!

crime,!the!prosecutor,!in!addition!to!showing!that!the!defendant!is!responsible!for!their!

crime,!must!prove!that!he!or!she!intended!to!violate!the!Geneva!Conventions!or!another!

violation!of!the!laws!and!customs!of!war.!

!


C! Implications!of!Findings!

While!the!written!law!alone!does!not!provide!irrefutable!proof!that!a!hierarchy!of!

seriousness!does,!in!fact,!exist,!there!is!certainly!some!evidence!that!supports!this!

conclusion.!!Most!of!this!was!found!in!Schabas’!commentary!on!the!Convention!on!the!

Prevention!and!Punishment!of!the!Crime!of!Genocide!and!in!the!Report!of!the!International!

Commission!of!Inquiry!on!Darfur.!!Neither!explicitly!says!that!genocide!is!the!most!heinous!

international!crime!and!that!crimes!against!humanity!and!war!crimes!fall!just!under!it!in!

terms!of!severity.!!However,!there!are!pieces!in!both!of!these!documents!that!when!added!

together!make!it!plausible!to!conclude!that!this!hierarchy!of!seriousness!exists.!!!

Then!there!are!the!pieces!of!evidence!I!found!in!the!definitions!of!these!crimes!that!

indicate!the!presence!of!this!hierarchy.!!The!different!levels!of!intent!required!of!

perpetrators!of!these!crimes!says!it!all.!!Because!of!its!discriminatory!element,!I!would!rank!

the!crime!of!genocide!as!most!severe.!!Why*shouldn’t*the*crime*of*genocide*be*treated*

similarly*to*the*charge*of*hate*crimes?**In!the!U.S.,!a!hate!crimes!charge!can!only!be!brought!

if!there!is!evidence!that!the!defendant!discriminated!on!the!basis!of!someone’s!race,!

nationality,!ethnicity,!religion!or!gender!in!committing!their!crime(s).!!Because!of!this,!it!

carries!a!more!severe!penalty.!!Genocide,!which!irrefutably!has!a!discriminatory!element!to!

it,!should!be!treated!the!same—as!heinous!and!warranting!of!the!most!severe!penalty.!!And!

if!this!crime!does!indeed!warrant!the!most!severe!penalties,!then!it!should!be!treated!in!

general!as!the!most!severe!international!crime.!

Interestingly,!my!biggest!take!away!from!the!written!law!is!not!that!it!is!very!likely!that!

this!hierarchy!exists!but!rather!that!the!law!lacks!specificity.!!The!reason!that!one!can!

conclude!from!the!law!that!this!hierarchy!exists,!or!that!it!does!not!exist,!is!because!the!law!


as!a!whole!is!not!clear!enough.!!As!mentioned!previously,!consistency!in!the!way!the!law!is!

applied!is!crucial!to!the!success!of!the!international!legal!system!as!a!whole.!!If!consistency!

is!not!valued!and!maintained,!the!decisions!made!by!these!courts!would!be!endlessly!

questioned!jading!the!important!work!they!do.!!This!is!not!to!say!that!the!tremendous!

amount!of!discretion!given!to!judges,!as!pointed!out!by!a!few!scholars,!is!a!bad!thing.94!

Simply!put,!the!differences!in!the!definitions!provided!of!these!crimes!and!the!weak!

language!in!the!commentaries/reports!on!these!laws—that!were!purportedly!written!to!

explain!the!law—are!reason!enough!for!stakeholders!in!the!international!legal!system!to!

work!toward!complete!clarity!of!all!the!issues!discussed!in!this!thesis.!

What’s!interesting!is!that!the!lack!of!clarity!within!the!law!has!not!really!hindered!the!

consistency!of!the!international!legal!system!as!a!whole.!!This!can!change!at!any!moment,!

but!for!now,!the!issue!is!mute.!!I!say!this!because!it!is!clear!from!my!content!analysis!of!the!

122!cases!I!examined!across!the!ICTY,!the!ICTR!and!the!SCL!that!the!law!is!pretty!consistent!

and!even!more!importantly,!that!the!hierarchy!of!seriousness!does,!in!fact,!exist,!exactly!as!I!

hypothesized.!

Further!to!this!point,!an!argument!can!be!made!that!the!application!of!the!law,!and!thus!

my!findings!in!this!area,!are!more!important!than!the!written!law.!!I!say!this!because!the!

law!as!applied!is!representative!of!the!work!and!thinking!of!the!everyday!players!in!the!

international!legal!system.!!If!they!are!acting!on!the!assumption!that!this!hierarchy!exists,!

then!it!ought!to!be!officially!recognized!and!acted!upon.!!This!is!what!I!discuss!more!

specifically!in!Chapter!3!and!in!turn,!what!I!hope!will!result!from!this!research.!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

94.!!Carcano,!“Sentencing!and!the!Gravity!of!the!Offence,”!583,!588;!Meernik,!“Victor’s!Justice!or!the!Law?,”!143.!


3( Evaluating(Case(Law:(Data(from(Three(Tribunals(

Milan!Martić!ordered!the!shelling!of!Zagreb—an!event!that!resulted!in!the!deaths!of!seven!

and!the!injuries!of!214—and!took!part!in!the!forced!displacement!of!thousands!of!Croats!

and!nonASerbs.!!He!was!convicted!of!war!crimes!and!crimes!against!humanity!(cruel!

treatment;!deportation;!destruction!of!property;!imprisonment;!murder;!persecutions!on!

political,!racial!and!religious!grounds;!torture)!at!the!International!Criminal!Tribunal!for!

the!former!Yugoslavia!(ICTY)!and!sentenced!to!35!years!imprisonment.95!!Milan!Lukić!

murdered!145!Bosnian!men,!women!and!children.!!He!also!beat!detainees!in!a!detention!

camp!at!the!Uzamnica!military!barracks!in!Višegard.!!He!was!sentenced!to!life!

imprisonment!at!the!ICTY!after!being!convicted!of!war!crimes!and!crimes!against!humanity!

(cruel!treatment;!extermination;!inhumane!acts;!murder).96!!Jean!Paul!Akayesu!

participated!in!the!mass!slaughter!of!the!Tutsis,!ordering!the!deaths!of!eight!refugees!from!

Ruanda!and!five!teachers.!!He!was!convicted!of!crimes!against!humanity!(extermination;!

murder;!rape;!torture)!and!genocide!and!sentenced!to!life!imprisonment.97!!Charles!Taylor!

planned!and!ordered!the!commission!of!“some!of!the!most!heinous!and!brutal!crimes!

recorded!in!human!history.”98!!He!was!convicted!of!war!crimes!and!crimes!against!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!95.!!“Milan!Martić,”!International*Criminal*Tribunal*for*the*former*Yugoslavia!(2009):!1,!

http://www.icty.org/x/cases/martic/cis/en/cis_martic_en.pdf.!96.!!“Milan!Lukić!and!Sredoje!Lukić,”!International*Criminal*Tribunal*for*the*former*

Yugoslavia!(2012):!1,!http://www.icty.org/x/cases/milan_lukic_sredoje_lukic/cis/en/cis_!lukic_lukic_en.pdf.!

97.!!“The!Prosecutor!of!the!Tribunal!against!JeanAPaul!Akayesu,”!International*Criminal*Tribunal*for*Rwanda!(1998):!art.!3,!http://www.unictr.org/Portals/0/Case%5C!English%5CAkayesu%5Cjudgement%5Cak81002e.pdf.!

98.!!“The!Prosecutor!of!Special!Court!v.!Charles!Ghankay!Taylor,”!Special*Court*for*Sierra*Leone!(2012):!lines!14A15,!http://www.scAsl.org/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=nT8DZy!66FWk%3d&tabid=160.!


humanity!(acts!of!terrorism;!enslavement;!murder;!pillage;!rape;!sexual!slavery)99!and!

sentenced!to!50!years!imprisonment.100!

These!men!and!the!countless!other!men!and!women!who!have!been!tried!and!convicted!

for!violating!international!law!are!representative!of!more!than!mere!justice!for!the!victims!

of!the!senseless!atrocities!that!have!taken!place!throughout!human!history.!!These!men!are!

representative!of!the!worldwide!effort!to!not!let!history!repeat!itself—to!meet!its!goal!of!

“never!again.”!!This!is!not!to!say!that!the!international!community!has!not!made!mistakes!

along!the!way;!there!is!no!question!that!they!have.!!This!does!not!mitigate!their!successes,!

however.!!The!very!fact!that!people!like!Martić,!Lukić,!Akayesu!and!Taylor!are!currently!

sitting!in!cells!abroad!is!evidence!that!the!international!community!is!trying.!!!

The!question!is:!What*can*be*done*to*increase*the*efficiency*of*the*courts*hearing*

international*criminal*law*cases*and*thus,*bring*the*international*community*that*much*

closer*to*fulfilling*its*“never*again”*ideal?!!Based!on!the!results!of!my!content!analysis,!I!

believe!that!the!courts!hearing!these!cases!will!be!more!consistent!if!the!international!

community!acknowledges!that!certain!crimes!are!more!serious!than!others.!!!

This!is!what!I!hope!this!chapter!will!persuade!you!of.!!However,!before!I!get!into!my!

findings,!the!implications!of!my!findings!and!my!recommendations!for!the!courts!hearing!

international!criminal!law!cases,!I!provide!a!brief!synopsis!of!the!conflicts!that!led!to!the!

ICTY,!the!ICTR!and!the!SCSL!adjudications.!!This!is!broken!up!into!the!following!three!

sections:!“The!Yugoslav!Wars,”!“The!Rwandan!Genocide”!and!“The!Sierra!Leone!Civil!War.”!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

99.!!“Judgment!in!the!Prosecutor!v.!Charles!Ghankay!Taylor,”!Special*Court*for*Sierra*Leone!(2012):!2475A78,!http://www.scAsl.org/!LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=k%2b03KREEPCQ%3d&tabid=107.!

100.!!“Sentencing!Judgment!in!the!Prosecutor!v.!Charles!Ghankay!Taylor,”!Special*Court*for*Sierra*Leone!(2012):!40,!http://www.!scAsl.org/!LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=U6xCITNg4tY%3d&tabid=107.!


A! The!Conflicts!

It!is!not!disputed!that!the!conflicts!that!led!to!the!establishment!of!the!ICTY,!the!ICTR!and!

the!SCSL!were!three!of!the!most!horrific!episodes!of!genocidal!or!ethnic!struggle!in!all!of!

human!history.!!Regardless!of!how!long!the!conflicts!lasted,!each!resulted!in!the!deaths!of!

tens!of!thousands!of!innocent!people.!!To!adjudicate!any!crime,!the!context!in!which!the!

crime!was!perpetrated!provides!important!background!for!the!stakeholders!of!the!legal!

system.!!Thus,!to!get!justice!for!those!killed!in!course!of!these!conflicts!and!the!countless!

other!individuals!who!were!displaced,!raped!and!tortured,!the!international!community!

should!try!to!understand!the!context!in!which!each!of!these!crimes!was!committed.!!The!

following!section!provides!that!framework.*

I! The!Yugoslav!Wars!

At!the!beginning!of!the!1990s,!Yugoslavia!was!largely!considered!the!most!developed!and!

diverse!country!in!the!Balkans.!!It!was!comprised!of!a!six!republics:!Bosnia!and!

Herzegovina,!Croatia,!Macedonia,!Montenegro,!Serbia!and!Slovenia!(see!Figure!3.1:!Map!of!

the!former!Yugoslavia).!!Yugoslavia!was!a!mix!of!ethnicties!and!religions—with!the!main!

religions!being!Catholicism,!Orthodox!Christinanity!and!Islam.!

The!Yugoslav!Wars!refer!to!a!series!of!conflicts!in!the!former!Yugoslavia!during!the!

1990s!with!the!republics!that!wanted!independence!on!one!side!and!the!Yugoslav!

government!on!the!other!side.!!Solvenia!was!the!first!of!the!six!republics!to!declare!its!

indepedence.!!Their!delcaration!in!1991!resulted!in!a!military!conflict!often!referred!to!as!

the!TenADay!War.101!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!101.!!“The!Conflicts,”!International!Criminal!Tribunal!for!the!former!Yugoslavia,!

http://www.icty.org/sid/322.!


Croatia!declared!independence!just!after!Slovenia;!but!while!Slovenia’s!succession!from!

the!union!was!relatively!bloodless,!Croatia’s!was!not.!!The!Serb!minority!in!Croatia!rejected!

the!new!state,!declaring!a!third!of!its!territory!to!be!under!their!control!and!unleashing!a!

violent!campaign!of!ethnic!cleansing!that!resulted!in!the!forced!displacement!and!deaths!of!

thouands!of!Croats!and!nonASerbs.102!!The!war!ended!in!the!fall!of!1995.!

The!conflict!in!Bosnia!and!Herzegovina!was!the!deadliest!of!all!of!them,!partly!because!

of!how!diverese!the!republic!was!prior!to!declaring!its!independence.!!The!region!was!

made!up!of!sizeable!minorities!of!Muslims,!Serbs!and!Croats.!!In!1992!when!60!percent!of!

Bosnians!voted!for!independence,!a!gory!threeAsided!war!broke!out!with!civillians!of!all!

ethnicities!becoming!the!victims!of!horrific!crimes.103!

Kosovo!had!its!turn!in!1998!when!the!Albanin!community!rebelled!against!Serbia!in!the!

hopes!of!gaining!their!indpendence.!!Police!and!army!reinforcements!were!sent!in!to!crush!

the!rebels!targeting!civillians!through!the!shelling!of!villages!and!the!forced!displacement!

of!Kosovo!Albanians.104!

Macedonia!was!the!last!republic!to!succeed!from!the!Yugoslav!Federation.!!They!

declared!independence!in!1991!and!enjoyed!a!relatively!peaceful!separation.!!The!only!

conflict!that!resulted!was!a!brief!clash!in!2001!between!the!ethnic!Albanians!and!the!

republic’s!security!forces.105!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!102.!!Ibid.!103.!!Ibid.!104.!!Ibid.!105.!!Ibid.!


The!ICTY!was!established!by!the!United!Nations!(UN)!Security!Council!in!1993.!!The!

final!indictments!were!issued!in!2004!and!trial!proceedings!with!appeals!are!expected!to!be!

completed!by!2015.106!!Following!is!a!synopsis!of!the!ICTY’s!results!to!date:!

• The!Tribunal!has!indicted!161!individuals;!• Proceedings!have!been!completed!with!regard!to!136!of!them:!

o 69!of!which!were!convicted;!o 18!of!which!were!acquitted;!o 36!of!which!had!their!indictments!withdrawn!or!died!before!judgment;!

and!o 13!of!which!have!had!their!cases!transferred!to!national!courts.!

• Proceedings!are!ongoing!for!25!of!the!accused!with:!o 13!of!them!currently!before!the!Appeals!Chamber;!and!o 12!of!them!currently!at!trial.107!

!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

106.!!“Key!Figures!of!the!Cases,”!International!Criminal!Tribunal!for!the!former!Yugoslavia,!http://www.icty.org/sections/TheCases/KeyFiguresoftheCases.!

107.!!Ibid.!


KR

AJ

IN

A

GornjiVakuf

Konjic

Sarajevo

Ivangrad

SA N D Z A K

THE FORMER

YUGOSLAV REPUBLIC

OF MACEDONIA

Tetovo

Gostivar

Dakovica

Vranje

KosovskaMitrovica

Velika PlanaSmederevo

Beograd(Belgrade)

Subotica

Novi Sad

V O J V O D I N A

Vinkovci

Vukovar

ErdutKarlovac

KulenVakuf

B O S N I A A N D

H E R Z E G O V I N A

Zenica

Visoko

S E R B I A

Zepa

Bijeljina

A L B A N I A

Timisoara

Szeged

Titov Veles

VarazdinKranj

Maribor

CeljePtuj

Novo Mesto

Zrenjanin

Vršac

Becej

Subotica

Sombor

Ruma

Šabac

Loznica

Bijeljina

Brcko

TuzlaMaglaj

Doboj

Erdut

Vinkovci

Vukovar

Osijek

SlavonskiBrod

Pale

Zvornik

Srebrenica

Priboj

Zenica

VisokoProzor

Vitez

Konjic

Žepa

Vareš

Uzice

Gorazde

Pljevlja

Velika Plana

Cuprija

Kraljevo

Cacak

Zajecar

Negotin

Aleksinac

Leskovac

Niš

Vranje

Kumanovo

PetrovecTetovo

Prizren

KosovskaMitrovica

Pec

Dakovica

Kocani

StipTitov VelesGostivar

Prilep

BitolaOhrid

Kicevo

Cetinje

Bar

Niksic

Ivangrad

Mostar

JajceTravnik

Donji Vakuf

Livno

JablanicaSinj

Split

GornjiVakuf

G. Dreznica

Udbina

Divulje

VrbnikKnin

ZadarD. Zemunik

MrkonjicGrad

´BosanskoGrahovo

BribirskiMostine

Banja Luka

Prijedor

SanskiMost

KulenVakuf

Bihac

VelikaKladusa

Daruvar

Virovitica

KutinaSisakKarlovac

Kostanjnica

Gospic

RakovicaSenj

SlunjOgulin

Rijeka

Bjelovar

Trieste

Rovinj

Pula

Venice

Dubrovnik

Metkovic´Ploce

Maslenica

Gracac

Sibenik

Primosten

Durres

N.Gradiska

Pécs

Szeged

Požarevac

Smederevo

Arad

Timisoara

Skopje

Sarajevo

Tirana

Skopje

Zagreb

Ljubljana

Podgorica

Sofia

Beograd(Belgrade)

Sava

Una

Vrbas

Drava

Bos

na

DanubeSava

Timis

ˆ

Tisa

Dri

na

Morava

Drin

Piva

Tara

Nereva

Drava

Mura

Struma

Gul fof

Venice

Morava

Z . M o r a v a

A

D

R

I

A

T

I

C

S

E

A

42

44

46

2220181614

46

44

42

14 16 18 2220

V O J V O D I N A

K O S O V O

S

E

R

BI

A

Priština

Novi Sad

LakeOhrid

Lake Prespa

LakeDoïran

LakeScutari

Lastovo

Vis

Hvar

Mljet

Korcula‹

Peljiesac ‹

Solta

‹

Kornat

Dugi Otok

Rab

Pag

Losinj‹

Brac ‹

KR

AJ

IN

A

B A R A N J A

S L A V O N I A

PrevlakaPeninsula

Boka Kot

orsk

aS

A N D Z A K

Krk

I T A L Y

R O M A N I A

A L B A N I A

A U S T R I A

G R E E C E

B U L G A R I A

S L O V E N I A

C R O A T I A

H U N G A R Y

B O S N I A A N D

H E R Z E G O V I N A

THE FORMER

YUGOSLAV REPUBLIC

OF MACEDONIA

MONTENEGRO

S E R B I A

S A NM A R I N O

THE FORMERYUGOSLAVIA

0 50 100

50 0 100 mi

150 km

International boundaryRepublic boundaryAutonomous province boundaryNational capitalAdministrative capitalRailroadPrincipal roadSecondary road

THE FORMERYUGOSLAVIA

Map No. 3689 Rev. 12 UNITED NATIONSJune 2007

Department of Peacekeeping OperationsCartographic Section

The boundaries and names shown and the designationused on this map do not imply official endorsement oracceptance by the United Nations.

Figure!3.1!Map!of!the!former!Yugoslavia!

Source:*“The!Former!Yugoslavia,”!United!Nations,!http://www.un.org/Depts/!Cartographic/map/profile/frmryugo.pdf.!


II! The!Rwandan!Genocide!

The!Rwandan!Genocide!was!a!mass!slaughter!of!the!Tutsis!by!the!Hutus!that!took!place!in!

1994!in!the!East!African!state!of!Rwanda!(see!Figure!3.2:!Map!of!Rwanda).!!Over!the!course!

of!just!threeAandAaAhalf!months,!at!least!800,000!people!were!killed.108!

Spurts!of!conflict!between!the!Tutsis!and!the!Hutus!had!been!taking!place!since!the!

Hutus!took!power!in!1959.!!Genocide!was!sparked!when!Rwandan!President!Juvenal!

Habyarimana’s!plane!was!shot!down!over!Kigali.!!Some!believe!that!current!President!Paul!

Kagame,!a!Tutsi,!organized!the!assassination!of!Habyarimana,!a!Hutu.!!Kagame!denies!this;!

he!maintains!that!the!assassination!was!carried!out!by!“Hutu!extremists,!in!order!to!

provide!a!pretext!to!carry!out!their!wellAlaid!plans!to!exterminate!the!Tutsi!community.”109!!

Regardless!of!who!was!responsible,!the!incident!was!the!catalyst!of!a!campaign!of!genocidal!

violence!in!which!hundreds!of!thousands!of!Tutsis!and!moderate!Hutus!were!killed.!

The!ICTR!was!established!in!1994!to!try!the!perpetrators!of!the!genocidal!acts!

committed!in!Rwanda.!!Following!is!a!synopsis!of!the!ICTR’s!results!to!date:!


o 46!of!which!were!convicted;!o 12!of!which!were!acquitted;!o 2!of!which!died!before!judgment;!and!o 4!of!which!had!their!cases!transferred!to!national!jurisdiction.!

• Proceedings!are!ongoing!for!17!of!the!accused,!all!of!which!are!currently!before!the!Appeals!Chamber;!and!

• 9!are!still!at!large!with!some!perpetrators!suspected!to!be!dead.110!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!108.!!“Rwanda!Profile,”!BBC*News,!February!5,!2013,!http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/!

worldAafricaA14093238.!109.!!“Rwanda:!How!the!Genocide!Happened,”!BBC*News,!December!18,!2008,!http://!

news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/1288230.stm.!110.!!“Status!of!Cases,”!International!Criminal!Tribunal!for!the!former!Yugoslavia,!

http://www.unictr.org/Cases/tabid/204/Default.aspx.!


Source:*“Rwanda,”!United!Nations,!http://www.un.org/Depts/Cartographic/map/!profile/rwanda.pdf.!

Figure!3.2!Map!of!Rwanda!

LacMikindi

AKAGERANATIONAL

PARKLac Hago

NYUNGWE NAT'L PARK

RwumbaGisakura

Kitabi

BugumyaKarengera

Runyombyi

Ruramba

S O U T H E R N P R O V I N C E

T O W N O FK I G A L I

LacBurera

LacRuhondo

GISHWATINATURALRESERVE

NORTHERNPROVINCE

Cyimbogo

Kagitumba

Bukavu

Bugesera

NgaramaGabiro

KabayaRushashi

Kirehe

Kiyumba

NembaKagali

Busogo

Nyundo

Gishyita

Mabanza

Ruhango

Gisagara

Rwesero

Kamembe

Rwumba

Cyamba Mulindi

Goma

RutshuruNyagatare

Munini

Nemba

Kirambo

Murambi

Bwakira

Busoro

Bare

Rilima

GisakuraKarama

Rukira

Runyombyi

Kitabi

Ruramba

Rwamatamu

Gikoro

Ngororero

Sake

Muvumba

Gatunda

KoraMutura

Ngaru

Butaro

Runda

Rusumo

RutareMuhura

Bicumbi

Rukara

Ngenda

Bulinga

Lubirizi

Katuna

Rwemhasha

Kinihira

Mbogo

Kinyami

Kidaho

Kayonza

Kigarama

Kicukiro

Kaduha

Karaba

BugumyaKarengera

Masango

Nyakabuye

Birambo

Gatagara

Kafunzo

Kisoro

Kabale

Merama

Cyanika

Shyorongi

Butamwa

Gashora

Bugarama

RusatiraGikongoro

Butare

Gitarama

Cyangugu

Gisenyi

Ruhengeri

Kibungo

Kibuye

Byumba

Nyanza

RwamaganaKigali

T O W N O FK I G A L I

S O U T H E R N P R O V I N C E

WESTERN PROVINCE

E A S T E R N P R O V I N C E

NORTHERNPROVINCE

UGANDA

BURUNDI

UNITEDREPUBLIC OF

TANZANIA

DEMOCRATICREPUBLIC OF THE

CONGO

LakeBunyonyi

LacCyohoha

Sud

LacRweru

LacCyambwe

LacMugesera

LakeMujunju

LakeBisongou

LacIhema

LacKivumba

Lac Hago

LacMikindi

LacRwanyakizinga

LacNasho

LakeMutanda

LacMpanga

LacBurera

LacRuhondo

Lac Muhazi

Akany

aru

Kagera

Nyabarongo

Lowa

Kagera

Lac Kivu

Kag

itum

ba

IleBugarura

IleIdjwi

BIRUNGANAT'L PARK

AKAGERANATIONAL

PARK

Ile Wahu

IleGombo

NYUNGWE NAT'L PARK

GISHWATINATURALRESERVE

R W A N D A

Map No. 3717 Rev. 10 UNITED NATIONSJune 2008

Department of Field SupportCartographic Section

The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations.

National capitalPrefecture capitalTown, villageAirport, airstripInternational boundaryProvincial boundaryRoadTrack

RWANDA

0

0

10 20 30 40 50 km

10 20 30 mi

!!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!


III! The!Sierra!Leone!Civil!War!

Sierra!Leone,!a!country!in!West!Africa,!was!plagued!by!civil!war!from!1991!to!2002!(see!

Figure!3.3:!Map!of!Sierra!Leone).111!!War!began!when!former!army!corporal!Foday!Sankoh!

and!his!Revolutionary!United!Front!(RUF)!took!up!arms!against!thenAPresident!Joseph!

Momoh,!taking!over!towns!near!Liberia’s!border.!!Partly!funded!by!diamonds!mined!in!

southern!and!eastern!Sierra!Leone,!the!rebels!were!popular!at!first,!but!quickly!earned!a!

reputation!for!savagely!murdering,!raping!and!mutilating!innocent!civilians.!!They!also!

forcibly!enlisted!children!to!fight!on!their!behalf.112!

The!first!attempt!at!peace!was!made!in!1999,!but!it!fell!apart.!!Finally,!in!2002,!UN!and!

British!forces!successfully!disarmed!the!rebels.!!The!war!left!an!estimated!50,000!dead!in!a!

country!with!a!population!of!just!6!million.113!

The!SCSL!was!established!by!the!Sierra!Leonean!Government!and!the!Secretary!General!

of!the!United!Nations!to!try!the!perpetrators!of!the!senseless!crimes!that!were!committed!

during!the!course!of!the!war.114!!Following!is!a!synopsis!of!the!SCSL’s!results!to!date:!


o 8!of!which!were!convicted;!and!o 2!of!which!had!their!indictments!withdrawn!or!died!before!judgment.!

• The!only!ongoing!procceding!is!the!Prosecutor*v.*Charles*Taylor,!which!is!currently!before!the!Appeals!Chamber;!and!

• Johnny!Paul!Koroma!is!still!at!large.115!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!111.!!“Sierra!Leone!Profile,”!BBC!News,!last!modified!November!28,!2012,!http://!

www.bbc.co.uk/news/worldAafricaA14094379.!112.!!“Factbox:!Sierra!Leone’s!Civil!War,”!Reuters,!August!2,!2007,!http://!

uk.reuters.com/article/2007/08/02/ukAleoneAwarcrimesAwarAidUKL0286217420070802.!113.!!Ibid.!114.!!“About!the!Special!Court!for!Sierra!Leone,”!Special!Court!for!Sierra!Leone,!http://!

www.scAsl.org/ABOUT/tabid/70/Default.aspx.!115.!!Ibid.!


Source:*“Sierra!Leone,”!United!Nations,!!http://www.un.org/Depts/Cartographic/map/!profile/sierrale.pdf.!

Figure!3.3!Map!of!Sierra!Leone!

Kortimaw Is.

Banana Is.

Plantain Is.

Turtle Is.Sherbro I.

Robertsport

Bomi-Hills

Bendaja

KleBong

Kongo

Bopolu

Mamou

Fandié

Tabili

Coyah

Dubréka

Médina Dula

Faranah

Banian

Bambaya

Yombiro

BendouBodou

Koundou

Kindia

Kamakwie

Kamalu

PendembuMateboi

Karina

Gbinti

MadinaJct.

KambiaRokupr

MamboloMange

Port LokoLunsar

Masiaka

Lungi Pepel

Binkolo

Matotoka

Magburaka

Musaia

Kabala

Falaba

Bafodia

Koinadugu

GberiaFotombu

Bendugu

Kurubonla

Bendugu

Alikalia

Kayima

Yomadu

Koidu-SefaduYengema

Tefeya

NjaiamaNjaiama-Sewafe Gandorhun

Kailahun

Songo

York Rotifunk

HastingsWellington

Bauya

Shenge

Waterloo

Moyamba

Sembehun

Bonthé

Gbangbatok

Matru Sumbuya

Koribundu

Gerihun

Tikonko

Potoru

Kpetewoma

Sulima

Pujehun

Gorahun

Zimmi

Yonibana

TaiamaNjala

Mongeri

Yele

Mano

Blama

Lago

PangumaFalla

Tongo

Boajibu

Daru

Giehun

Bendu

BomiManowa

Tokpombu

Pendembu

Segbwema

Buedu

Koindu

Konta

Kukuna Fadugu

Bumbuna

Forécariah

Batkanu

Bradford

Masingbi

Dambara

Tungie

Nitti

Bumpe

Mile 91

Sieromco Mokanje KenemaBo

Makeni

N O R T H E R N

S O U T H E R N

WESTERNAREA

E A S T E R N

G U I N E A

L I B E R I A

Freetown Ferry

Int'l Airport

YawriBay

Sherbro River

ATLANTIC OCEANSherbro

Str

ait

Lake Piso

Lake Mape

Lake Mabesi

M

oa

Gre

at S

carc

ies

Meli

Niger

Lofa

Saint Paul

Mano

Mah

oi

M

oro

BagbeTa

ia

Sewa

M

oa

Mano

Littl

e Scarcies

Mabole

Kaba

M

ongo

Seli

Pampa

na

Lo la

R okel or Seli

Waa

nj

e

Nig

er

Kolente

The boundaries and names shown and the designationsused on this map do not imply official endorsement oracceptance by the United Nations.

Map No. 3902 Rev. 5 UNITED NATIONSJanuary 2004

Department for Peacekeeping OperationsCartographic Section

SIERRA LEONENational capitalProvincial capitalCity, townMajor airportInternational boundaryProvincial boundaryMain roadSecondary roadRailroad

SIERRA LEONE

0

0

20 40 60 80 km

10 20 30 40 50 mi

!!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!


C! Analyzing!Case!Law!

In!order!to!determine!whether!a!hierarchy!of!seriousness!exists,!as!I!hypothesized,!I!

conducted!a!content!analysis!of!122!cases!(see!Appendix!A!for!a!list)!from!three!ad*hoc!

international!criminal!tribunals!(see!Figure!3.4:!Defendants!and!Case!Results!by!Tribunal).!

Determining!whether!a!ranking!of!these!classifications!exists!and,!whether!war!crimes,!

crimes!against!humanity,!and!genocide!is!that!ranking!with!respect!to!their!severity,!is!

essential!to!the!success!of!the!international!legal!system.!!Picking!up!where!previous!

researchers!left!off,!my!study!produced!results!with!tangible!implications!for!the!various!

international!tribunals!(e.g.!the!International!Criminal!Court!(ICC),!the!Extraordinary!

Chambers!in!the!Courts!of!Cambodia!(ECCC),!the!Special!Tribunal!for!Lebanon!(STL)!and!

the!new!hybrid!African!UnionASenegal!court)!and!national!courts!hearing!international!

criminal!law!cases.!!This!project!will!aid!these!courts!in!determining!appropriate!sentences!

absent!any!significant!precedents!from!within!their!own!jurisprudence!to!draw!upon.!!!

Altogether,!I!looked!at!the!convictions!and!sentences!of!186!defendants.!!Of!these!186!

defendants,!some!were!convicted,!some!were!acquitted!and!others!had!their!indictment!

withdrawn!due!to!death!or!a!lack!of!evidence!(see!Figure!3.4).!!All!186!defendants!were!

indicted!and/or!convicted!of!war!crimes,!crimes!against!humanity,!genocide,!or!some!

combination!of!these!(see!Figure!3.5:!Proportion!of!Indictments!and!Convictions!by!

Tribunal!and!Crime!Category).!

!

!

!

!


Figure!3.5!

Figure!3.4!!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

! Proceedings!!!!!!!!!!!terminated!!! Found!not!guilty!!! Found!guilty!

! SCSL!!! ICTY!!! ICTR!!!!!! SCSL!!! ICTY!!! ICTR!!!!!! ICTY!!! ICTR!!!


In!addition!to!showing!how!many!people!were!indicted!and/or!convicted!of!war!crimes,!

crimes!against!humanity!and!genocide!at!the!ICTY,!the!ICTR!and!the!SCSL,!Figure!3.5!also!

provides!some!basic!insight!into!each!of!the!conflicts!studied.!!The!Rwandan!conflict,!for!

example,!was!deemed!genocide,!so!many!of!the!people!tried!by!the!ICTR!were!indicted!

and/or!convicted!of!some!facet!of!this!crime.!!Whether!a!conflict!is!considered!genocide!or!

not!is!largely!up!to!the!UN.!!Usually,!the!UN!will!form!a!committee!to!investigate!a!conflict!

and!determine!whether!or!not!the!government!involved!has!pursued!a!policy!of!genocide.!!

If!a!court!is!given!jurisdiction!over!the!crime!of!genocide,!as!the!ICTR!was,!the!prosecutor!

can!pursue!the!following!charges:!

• Genocide;!!• Conspiracy!to!commit!genocide;!• Direct!and!public!incitement!to!commit!genocide;!!• Attempt!to!commit!genocide;!and!• Complicity!in!genocide.!

!Two!examples!of!conflicts!that!did!not!meet!the!standard!for!genocide!are!the!Sierra!

Leonean!conflict!discussed!in!this!study!and!the!conflict!currently!taking!place!in!Darfur.!

Darfur!was!not!labeled!genocide!because!the!committee!set!up!by!the!UN!to!investigate!the!

conflict!did!not!find!the!“special!intent”!required!of!those!who!commit!genocide.!!In!the!

Report!of!the!International!Commission!of!Inquiry!on!Darfur,!it!says:!!

The!Commission!concluded!that!the!Government!of!Sudan!has!not!pursued!a!policy!of!genocide.!!Arguably,!two!elements!of!genocide!might!be!deduced!from!the!gross!violations!of!human!rights!perpetrated!by!Government!forces!and!the!militias!under!their!control.!!These!two!elements!are,!first,!the!actus*reus!consisting!of!killing,!or!causing!serious!bodily!or!mental!harm!…!and,!second!…!the!existence!of!a!protected!group!being!targeted!by!the!authors!of!criminal!conduct.!!However,!the!crucial!element!of!genocidal!intent!appears!to!be!missing!…!Generally!speaking!the!policy!of!attacking,!killing!and!forcibly!displacing!members!of!some!tribes!does!not!evince!a!


specific!intent!to!annihilate,!in!whole!or!in!part,!a!group!distinguished!on!racial,!ethnical,!national!or!religious!grounds.116!

!So!it!is!the!“special!intent”!required!of!those!who!commit!genocide!that!the!Commission!

feels!the!Sudanese!Government!has!not!exercised.!!So!if!the!UN!sets!up!an!ad*hoc!court!to!

try!the!perpetrators!of!the!heinous!acts!being!committed!in!Darfur,!they!will!not!be!given!

jurisdiction!over!the!crime!of!genocide!and!thus,!no!defendants!will!be!charged.!

The!way!my!content!analysis!was!designed!takes!into!account!this!very!basic!idea!about!

the!nature!of!international!criminal!tribunals.!!Since!one!conflict!differs!completely!from!

another,!it!is!crucial!that!when!a!tribunal!is!set!up,!the!nature!of!the!conflict!is!taken!into!

account.!!In!other!words,!the!international!community!must!only!allow!these!ad*hoc!courts!

to!charge!the!accused!with!crimes!that!were!indeed!committed!during!the!course!of!the!

conflict!at!issue.!!Similarly,!it!was!important!to!consider!this!in!the!development!of!my!

coding!sheet!and!codebook!(see!Appendices!B!and!C!for!copies!of!both).!!If!I!had!ignored!

this,!it!would!have!jeopardized!the!credibility!of!my!work.!!!

My!coding!sheet!was!the!main!tool!used!to!log!key!pieces!of!information!from!each!

case’s!indictment,!sentencing!judgment,!and!appeals!judgment.!!The!four!most!important!

things!recorded!were!the!charges,!criminal!acts,!holding!of!the!court!on!each!count!and!

sentences!handed!down!to!those!who!were!found!guilty.!!Life!imprisonment!was!recorded!

as!55!years!similarly!to!how!it!was!done!in!Holá,!Bijleveld,!and!Smeulers’!study!on!the!

consistency!of!international!sentencing.117!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!116.!!“Report!on!Darfur,”!United*Nations!(2004):!4,!http://www.un.org/news/dh/!

sudan/com_inq_darfur.pdf.!117.!!Holá,!Bijleveld,!and!Smeulers!recorded!‘life’!as!55!years!for!two!reasons:!(1)!it!

coincided!with!the!maximum!number!of!years!an!ICTY/ICTR!defendant!had!been!sentenced!to!at!the!time!of!their!study!and!(2)!it!reflects!the!fact!that!the!average!age!of!ICTY/ICTR!defendants!at!the!time!of!their!conviction!is!40!years!or!older.!


Before!starting!my!content!analysis,!my!research!assistant!and!I!conducted!an!

intercoder!reliability!test!to!ensure!that!we!would!code!in!the!same!way.!!We!each!coded!

the!same!ten!cases!(seven!from!the!ICTY!and!three!from!the!ICTR)!and!then!compared!our!

answers.!!Our!accuracy!rate!was!94.3!percent.!!Of!the!122!cases!examined,!I!coded!50!and!

my!assistant!coded!72.!!Following!is!a!breakdown!of!what!I!found!as!a!result!of!my!content!

analysis.!

!

C! Key!Findings!

The!controversy!over!whether!a!hierarchy!of!seriousness!actually!exists!is!not!the!only!

debated!issue!in!connection!with!this!topic.!!Some!stakeholders!are!concerned!that!any!

acknowledgement!of!a!hierarchy!will!impact!how!seriously!international!courts!are!taken!

in!general.!!The!important!point!to!remember!is!that!even!assuming!war!crimes!is!the!least!

serious!in!the!hierarchy,!it!is!still!the!lesser!of!three!heinous,!evil!categories!of!crime.!!Any!

fear!that!acknowledging!this!hierarchy!will!result!in!war!crimes!being!dismissed!seems!

overstated.!

Generally!speaking,!the!data!compiled!by!content!analyzing!case!law!from!the!ICTY,!the!

ICTR!and!the!SCSL!supports!my!hypotheses!that:!

(a) There!is,!in!fact,!a!hierarchy!of!seriousness;!(b) The!criminal!acts!that!are!classified!as!genocide!do!actually!receive!the!most!

significant!penalties;!and!!(c) Offences!classified!as!crimes!against!humanity!result!in!more!serious!penalties!

than!those!classified!as!war!crimes.!!Before!calculating!the!results!of!my!content!analysis,!I!laid!out!the!hierarchy!of!seriousness!

I!expected!to!find.!!I!hypothesized!that!my!data!would!show!the!following!hierarchy!(listed!

from!least!to!most!serious):!


(a) War!crimes!(breaches!of!the!Geneva!Conventions!and/or!violations!of!the!laws!and!customs!of!war);!

(b) Crimes!against!humanity;!(c) The!crime!of!genocide;!(d) Crimes!against!humanity!and!war!crimes;!(e) The!crime!of!genocide!and!crimes!against!humanity;!and!(f) Genocide,!crimes!against!humanity!and!war!crimes.!

!This!hypothesized!hierarchy!makes!up!the!xAaxis!of!most!of!the!figures!that!illustrate!my!

findings.!!Combinations!of!crimes!are!included!because!defendants!are!often!charged!with!

and!convicted!of!an!array!of!crimes.!

The!figures!on!the!subsequent!pages!illustrate!my!findings!in!detail.!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!


Figure!3.6!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

Looking!at!the!average!initial!sentence!(the!pink!bars)!given!to!defendants!after!being!

convicted!by!a!trial!chamber,!you!can!see!a!clear!upward!trend.!!This!is!my!most!important!

finding!as!it!shows!that!those!convicted!solely!of!war!crimes!serve!the!least!amount!of!time!

while!those!convicted!of!genocide,!crimes!against!humanity!and!war!crimes!serve!the!most.!

The!xAaxis!of!Figure!3.6!shows!what!I!expected!the!ranking!in!terms!of!the!severity!of!these!

crimes!to!look!like.!!On!the!far!left!is!the!least!serious!single!charge!of!war!crimes!while!on!

the!far!right!are!the!cases!in!which!a!defendant!was!convicted!of!all!three!categories!of!

crimes.!!This!hypothesis!is!supported!by!this!data.!!More!importantly,!the!three!categories!

of!crime!showed!the!expected!hierarchy!when!charged!alone.!!The!yAaxis!of!this!chart!

shows!the!average!sentence!in!each!category.!!!

! Sentence!!! New!sentence!


Additionally,!this!chart!separates!initial!sentences!from!afterAappeal!(new)!sentences!

(illustrated!by!the!dark!blue!bars).!!Note!that!the!pattern!is!slightly!more!erratic!for!new!

sentences,!yet!a!similar!pattern!emerges.!!This!can!be!attributed!to!the!fact!that!a!

defendant’s!convictions!are!often!overturned!or!augmented!when!their!case!is!heard!by!an!

appeals!chamber.!!The!evolution!of!this!level!of!change!can!convolute!the!resulting!

hierarchical!patterns.!!There!was!no!way!to!adjust!for!this!aggravating!factor,!but!this!may!

be!an!area!for!future!research.!

In!summary,!the!data!shows!that!defendants!on!average!are!sentenced!according!to!this!

hierarchy.!!So,!individuals!who!are!convicted!of!war!crimes!are!sentenced!to!less!time!than!

those!who!are!convicted!of!crimes!against!humanity,!genocide!or!any!combination!of!these!

acts.!!Similarly,!defendants!who!are!convicted!of!war!crimes!and!crimes!against!humanity!

are!sentenced!to!less!time!than!those!convicted!of!crimes!against!humanity!and!genocide.!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!


Figure!3.7!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

Generally,!the!presence!of!a!plea!agreement!(illustrated!by!the!pink!bars)!does!not!

change!the!fact!that!those!individuals!who!are!convicted!of!solely!war!crimes!serve!the!

least!amount!of!time!while!those!convicted!of!genocide,!crimes!against!humanity!and!war!

crimes!serve!the!most.!!As!in!Figure!3.6,!the!xAaxis!of!Figure!3.7!shows!what!I!expected!the!

ranking!in!terms!of!the!severity!of!these!crimes!to!look!like.!!On!the!far!left!is!the!least!

serious!single!charge!of!war!crimes!while!on!the!far!right!are!the!cases!in!which!a!

defendant!was!convicted!of!all!three!categories!of!crimes.!!The!yAaxis!of!this!chart!shows!

the!average!sentence!in!each!category.!

Not!only!does!my!data!support!this!hypothesis,!it!supports!the!conclusion!that!

defendants!are!sentenced!according!to!this!hierarchy!even!when!they!reach!a!plea!

! Plea!agreement!!! No!plea!!!!!!!!!!agreement!


agreement!with!the!prosecution.118!!The!only!anomaly!with!this!finding!is!genocide;!when!a!

defendant!reaches!an!agreement!pleading!guilty!to!solely!genocide,!the!pattern!breaks!

away!a!bit!from!the!general!hierarchy.!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!118.!!When!a!defendant!does!not!reach!a!plea!agreement!(illustrated!by!the!dark!blue!

bars!in!Figure!3.7),!he!or!she!is!sentenced!according!to!the!general!hierarchy.!!This!is!illustrated!by!the!pink!bars!in!Figure!3.6.!


Figure!3.8!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

Showing!a!general!upward!trend!yet!again,!this!figure!illustrates!that!the!hierarchy!of!

seriousness!affects!sentencing!even!when!convictions!in!each!category!are!separated!by!

tribunal.!!As!in!Figures!3.6!and!3.7,!the!xAaxis!of!Figure!3.8!shows!the!six!possible!

convictions!or!combination!of!convictions!in!order!from!least!serious!to!most!serious.!!The!

yAaxis!shows!the!average!sentence!in!each!category.!!Each!set!of!colored!bars!corresponds!

to!one!of!the!three!tribunals!analyzed!in!this!thesis.!

Unexpectedly,!this!figure!also!shows!that!sentencing!has!been!pretty!consistent!across!

these!ad*hoc!courts.!!Having!data!that!supports!this!conclusion!is!an!unexpected!bonus!

since!this!thesis!does!not!ask!whether!or!not!international!sentencing!is!consistent.!!Since!

consistency!is!crucial!to!the!credibility!of!legal!systems,!it!is!critical!that!scholars!evaluate!

case!law!at!regular!intervals.!

! SCSL ! ICTY!!! ICTR!


!

Figure!3.9!!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

As!shown!above,!those!convicted!of!torture!as!a!war!crime!serve!less!time!than!those!

convicted!of!torture!as!a!crime!against!humanity—which,!in!turn,!means!that!crimes!

against!humanity!are!inherently!more!serious!than!war!crimes.119!!The!same!is!true!for!

those!convicted!of!murder!or!extermination!within!each!of!these!categories.!

For!those!convicted!of!sex!crimes,!however,!the!pattern!differs.!!These!criminals!tend!to!

receive!the!same!sentence!regardless!of!whether!their!crime!is!labeled!a!war!crime!or!a!

crime!against!humanity.!!In!other!words,!the!sentences!for!sex!crimes!are!not!distinguished!

by!the!category!of!the!acts!under!which!they!are!charged.!!This!may!have!to!do!with!the!

clear!stigma!attached!to!sexually!motivated!crimes!in!societies!around!the!world.!!Whether!

a!defendant!crime!constitutes!rape,!sexual!slavery,!enforced!prostitution,!forced!pregnancy,!

enforced!sterilization!or!any!other!form!of!sexual!violence,!they!are!usually!seen!in!a!

negative!light!by!both!law!abiding!citizens!and!their!fellow!convicts.!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

119.!!The!crime!of!genocide!is!not!part!of!this!illustration!because!when!a!person!is!charged!with!genocide,!no!specific!criminal!act!within!the!category!is!listed.!

! War!crime!!! Crime!against!!!!!!!!!!humanity!!


Figure!3.10!

!

! Sentence!!! New!sentence!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

Looking!just!at!the!left!three!columns!of!this!figure,!you!can!see!a!clear!upward!trend.!!

Those!convicted!of!one!count!serve!less!time!than!those!convicted!of!two!or!three!counts!

regardless!of!their!crime(s).!!This!is!true!of!both!sentences!handed!down!by!trial!chambers!

(illustrated!by!the!pink!bars)!and!those!handed!down!by!appeals!chambers!(illustrated!by!

the!dark!blue!bars).!!That!said,!a!defendant!being!convicted!of!four!or!more!counts!is!not!

determinative!of!his!or!her!sentence.!!In!other!words,!if!courts!take!this!factor!into!

consideration!at!all!during!sentencing,!they!only!do!so!in!cases!in!which!the!defendant!is!

convicted!of!one!to!three!counts.!!The!xAaxis!of!Figure!3.10!shows!the!number!of!counts!

defendants!were!most!commonly!convicted!of!across!the!122!cases!analyzed!in!this!study.!!

The!yAaxis!shows!the!average!sentence!in!each!category.!

This!data!and!finding!was!included!despite!the!fact!that!it!does!not!directly!relate!to!this!

study’s!primary!questions!about!the!existence!of!a!hierarchy!of!seriousness!and!its!effect!on!


sentencing.!!Despite!this,!it!is!interesting!to!see!what!effect,!if!any,!a!defendant’s!number!of!

convictions!has!on!sentencing!proceedings.!

Summing!up,!the!data!gathered!through!my!evaluation!of!122!cases!with!a!total!of!186!

defendants!across!three!ad*hoc!international!criminal!tribunals!supports!the!following!big!

picture!findings:!

(a) A!hierarchy!of!seriousness!exists!(Figures!3.6,!3.7,!3.8!and!3.9);!(b) Genocide!is!the!most!heinous!international!crime!(see!Figures!3.6,!3.7!and!3.8);!(c) Generally,!individuals!convicted!of!genocide!receive!the!lengthiest!prison!

sentences!regardless!of!whether!they!were!tried!at!the!ICTY,!the!ICTR!or!the!SCSL!(see!Figures!3.6,!3.7!and!3.8);!

(d) Those!convicted!of!crimes!against!humanity!tend!to!receive!lengthier!sentences!than!those!convicted!of!ordinary!war!crimes!regardless!of!whether!they!were!tried!at!the!ICTY,!the!ICTR!or!the!SCSL!(see!Figures!3.6,!3.7!and!3.8);!

(e) The!hierarchy!of!seriousness!effects!sentencing!even!when!a!defendant!reaches!a!plea!agreement!with!the!prosecution!(see!Figure!3.7);!

(f) The!hierarchy!of!seriousness!effects!sentencing!even!when!convictions!in!each!category!are!separated!by!tribunal!(see!Figure!3.8);!

(g) Sentencing!seems!to!be!consistent!across!the!ICTY,!the!ICTR!and!the!SCSL!(see!Figure!3.8);!

(h) Those!convicted!of!torture!as!a!war!crime!are!sentenced!to!less!time!than!those!convicted!of!torture!as!a!crime!against!humanity!(see!Figure!3.9);!!!

(i) Those!convicted!of!murder!as!a!crime!against!humanity!receive!lengthier!sentences!than!those!convicted!of!murder!as!a!war!crime!(see!Figure!3.9);!!

(j) Perpetrators!of!sex!crimes!on!the!other!hand,!seem!to!receive!nearly!the!same!prison!term!regardless!of!how!their!crime!is!labeled!(see!Figure!3.9);!and!

(k) Those!convicted!of!two!counts!are!sentenced!to!serve!more!time!than!those!convicted!of!only!one!count.!!Similarly,!those!convicted!of!three!counts!serve!more!time!than!those!convicted!of!only!two!(see!Figure!3.10).!

!With!these!findings!in!mind,!it!is!essential!to!now!evaluate!what!implications!these!findings!

have!for!courts!hearing!international!criminal!law!cases!currently!and!in!the!future.!!

Appropriately,!the!implications!of!this!research!are!outlined!in!the!following!section.!!

Opportunities!for!future!research!in!this!area!of!the!law!are!also!addressed!in!the!next!

section.!

!


D! Implications!of!Findings!

Stakeholders!in!the!international!legal!system!can!use!these!findings!to!better!understand!

the!seriousness!of!these!crimes!and!how!they!compare!to!one!another.!!This!will!make!

sentences!across!tribunals!and!courts!more!consistent.!!Most!importantly,!the!United!

Nations!and!the!ICC!should!acknowledge!the!existence!of!this!hierarchy!and!use!this!data!to!

develop!true,!definitive!guidelines!for!sentencing!in!international!criminal!law!cases.!!

Currently,!the!only!guideline!is!that!there!is!that!a!convict!can!be!sentenced!to!death—

leaving!every!other!possible!sentence!to!the!discretion!of!judges!assigned!to!these!cases.!!

As!judges!are!human!beings!from!a!variety!of!backgrounds!and!experiences,!the!lack!of!

guidance!in!these!cases!is!troubling.!!This!research!attempts!to!provide!data!that!supports!

the!establishment!of!such!sentencing!guidelines.!!Clear!patterns!have!emerged!and!they!are!

mostly!the!expected!patterns!that!were!a!part!of!the!hypotheses!for!this!research.!!!

This!is!not!to!say!that!further!research!is!not!necessary.!!There!are!ICTY,!ICTR!and!SCSL!

defendants!whose!cases!are!still!on!trial!or!in!the!appeals!process.!!Content!analyzing!

additional!cases!at!the!ICTY,!ICTR,!and!SCSL!will!provide!additional!strength!to!the!findings!

made!here.!!Studying!the!jurisprudence!of!the!ICC,!ECCC,!STL,!the!new!hybrid!African!

UnionASenegal!court,!and!national!courts!hearing!international!cases!will!also!strengthen!

my!findings.!

!

!!!!!!!


1( Concluding(Thoughts(

A! Major!Takeaways!

As!clearly!articulated!by!Judge!Li!in!the!Erdemović!case,!there!are!two!requirements!for!

conviction!of!the!type!of!charges!studied!in!this!thesis.!!These!are!(1)!evidence!that!a!crime!

was!committed!and!2)!an!understanding!of!the!circumstances!under!which!the!crime(s)!

took!place.!!These!guiding!principles!of!the!international!legal!system!have!helped!to!drive!

the!establishment!of!ad*hoc!tribunals!and!the!International!Criminal!Court!(ICC)!when!

knowledge!of!these!types!of!crimes!comes!to!the!attention!of!the!stakeholders!in!this!

system.!!Although!Judge!Li!also!argues!against!my!conclusions!about!the!significance!of!

a!hierarchy!of!seriousness,!his!principles!still!provide!a!framework!for!examining!whether!

such!a!hierarchy!is!revealed!in!the!classification!and!application!of!these!charges.!!In!other!

words,!he!may!believe!that!the!ranking!of!seriousness!does!not!matter,!but!that!does!not!

mean!that!it!is!not!there.!

It!was,!in!fact,!Judge!Li’s!examination!that!placed!early!doubt!on!the!distinction!between!

at!least!two!of!these!classifications:!crimes!against!humanity!and!war!crimes.!!He!

specifically!discussed!the!lack!of!clarity!in!the!severity!of!these!charges!as!it!related!to!the!

trials!of!Nazi!war!criminals!at!Nuremberg.!!And!as!described!in!his!dissenting!opinion,!

Judge!Li!might!have!been!more!comfortable!with!an!expansion!of!war!crimes!to!include!

crimes!against!humanity!than!with!a!separate!classification!altogether.!!However,!that!is!

not!how!the!charges!have!emerged!and!even!the!idea!of!crimes!against!humanity!as!an!

expansion*of*war*crimes*suggests!something!of!a!hierarchy!between!them.!


Determining!whether!this!system!has!effectively!created!a!ranking!of!seriousness!

between!genocide,!crimes!against!humanity!and!war!crimes!is!critical!to!evaluating!the!

consistency!of!past!sentencing!and!the!application!of!future!sentences!in!the!international!

legal!system.!!This!system!is!young!and!the!precedents!for!sentencing!are!few.!!Given!that!

there!are!multiple!international!tribunals!and!various!national!courts!hearing!international!

criminal!law!cases,!this!project!will!aid!the!courts!in!determining!appropriate!sentences!

absent!any!significant!precedents!from!within!their!own!jurisprudence!to!draw!upon.!

One!reason!that!a!hierarchy!of!seriousness!has!not!been!formalized!in!the!past!is!that!

some!believe!that!ranking!these!crimes!suggest!a!lack!of!seriousness!for!the!least!severe!

among!them.!!However!the!position!taken!here!is!that!this!apprehension!is!unjustified!for!it!

is!clearly!evident!that!even!war!crimes,!the!category!most!often!placed!at!the!bottom!of!this!

hierarchy!are!grave!offences!indeed.!!Those!charged!with!war!crimes,!though!often!

attempting!to!justify!their!heinous!acts!with!the!existence!of!an!armed!conflict,!have!been!

convicted!and!sentenced.!!And!even!if!those!sentences!have!been!lighter!than!the!sentences!

received!by!the!perpetrators!of!the!other!two!categories,!they!have,!as!shown!in!Figures!

3.6,!3.7,!3.8!and!3.9,!been!set!in!place!and!confirmed!on!appeal.!

What!has!emerged!through!this!study!is!a!clear!pattern!showing!a!ranking!of!these!

charges!and!that!ranking!was!as!expected!with!genocide!being!the!most!severe!

classification,!then!crimes!against!humanity!and!finally!war!crimes.!!Further!to!this!point,!

combinations!of!the!three!charges!have!been!treated!as!expected!with!those!combinations!

including!genocide!being!the!most!serious!whereas!the!combination!of!crimes!against!

humanity!and!war!crimes!appearing!visibly!less!serious.!


This!study!was!based!upon!a!mixed!methods!approach.!!In!addition!to!sentencing!

patterns,!the!content!of!statutes!and!commentaries!on!the!law!that!guide!courts!hearing!

international!criminal!law!cases!were!also!examined.!!Language!was!found!to!suggest!that!

the!hierarchy!again!exists!as!expected!with!phraseology!placing!genocide!at!the!top!of!this!

ranking.!!The!ranking!between!crimes!against!humanity!and!war!crimes!was!a!little!less!

clear.!!However,!since!many!stakeholders!suggest!that!crimes!against!humanity!are!as!

serious!as!genocide,!the!ranking!arises!yet!again.!

!

B! Policy!Recommendations!

The!interpretation!that!a!hierarchy!of!seriousness!exists!within!the!written!law!as!well!as!

evidence!of!the!same!in!the!ICTY,!ICTR!and!SCSL!case!law,!warrants!the!suggestion!of!policy!

recommendations.!!Ultimately,!this!research!hopes!to!convince!the!United!Nations,!the!ICC,!

current!and!future!ad*hoc!tribunals,!and!other!players!in!the!international!legal!system!to!

acknowledge!the!existence!of!the!hierarchy.!!It!is!time!to!set!aside!the!decadesAlong!debate!

among!judges!and!other!stakeholders!over!this!issue.!!It!is!clear,!particularly!from!my!

examination!of!ICTY,!ICTR!and!SCSL!case!law,!that!it!exists!and!that!it!has!affected!

sentencing!in!the!past.!!Only!benefit!will!come!from!clarifying!this!issue!as!clarity!will!lead!

to!a!greater!level!of!consistency!among!the!various!courts!trying!perpetrators!of!the!most!

heinous!international!crimes.!

The!written!law!itself!can!use!a!dose!of!clarity!as!well.!!Specifically,!the!United!Nations!

needs!to!clarify!whether!the!special!intent!associated!with!genocide!and!crimes!against!

humanity!renders!these!two!crimes!more!serious!than!war!crimes.!!Furthermore,!it!is!


crucial!to!understand!whether!the!crime!of!genocide!is!more!severe!than!crimes!against!

humanity!simply!because!of!the!discriminatory!element!to!genocidal!intent.!

Additionally,!the!law!should!be!amended!to!include!specific!sentencing!guidelines!for!

international!and!national!courts!hearing!international!criminal!law!cases.!!The!heavy!

discretion!given!to!international!judges!is!not!necessarily!a!problem.!!However,!

inconsistency!is!more!likely!when!judges!are!given!too!much!discretion.!!Therefore!the!

creation!of!sentencing!guidelines!that!align!to!the!hierarchy!of!seriousness!that!is!

confirmed!by!this!research!will!help!reduce!the!possibility!that!the!law!will!be!applied!

inconsistently.!!

!

C! Opportunities!for!Future!Research!

The!practicality!of!bringing!any!research!to!conclusion!will!usually!reveal!opportunities!for!

further!study!and!this!project!was!no!exception.!!Unfortunately,!there!are!new!atrocities!to!

review!in!Cambodia,!Lebanon,!Senegal!and!Darfur,!which!have!become!the!subject!of!new!

tribunals!or!will!likely!be!in!the!future.!!There!are!also!likely!to!be!additional!completed!

cases!in!the!three!tribunals!studied!here!very!soon!as!well!as!additional!courts!within!the!

international!legal!system!that!reasonable!scope!necessitated!excluding!from!this!body!of!

work.!!Finally,!there!are!additional!categories!of!criminal!acts!that!have!been!charged!in!

concert!with!the!three!classifications!reviewed!here!and!they!can!be!included!to!see!if!the!

patterns!found!herein!differ!in!any!way!with!their!inclusion.!

As!mentioned!this!study!was!based!upon!a!mixed!methods!approach.!!It!began!with!a!

review!of!the!pertinent!literature!but!there!undoubtedly!exists!more!literature!that!can!

provide!evidence!for!or!against!my!hypotheses.!!Further!review!may!shed!additional!light!


on!the!interpretations!of!the!relevant!literature!that!exists.!!It!might!also!uncover!additional!

work!that!is!pertinent!to!the!conclusions!drawn!herein.!!The!second!piece!of!this!endeavor!

was!a!content!analysis!of!ICTY,!ICTR!and!SCSL!case!law.!!Comparing!sentencing!across!

tribunals!and!each!of!these!categories!of!crime!alone!and!in!combination!with!one!another!

allowed!a!conclusion!to!be!drawn!as!to!whether!a!hierarchy!of!seriousness!exists!and!what!

effect!it!has!had!on!past!sentencing.!!But!again,!there!are!additional!courts!and!cases!that!

can!be!added!in!order!to!review!additional!content.!!Such!extensions!to!this!research!are!

expected!to!reveal!similar!patterns!but!one!cannot!know!this!for!certain!without!applying!

the!effort!across!more!material.!

Perhaps!the!most!interesting!area!for!future!exploration!is!the!one!which!was!

uncovered!by!comparing!initial!sentences!with!new,!postAappeal!sentences.!!As!already!

mentioned,!the!patterns!were!not!as!clearly!hierarchical!in!new!sentences!as!they!appeared!

from!those!imposed!initially.!!Logic!and!intuition!suggests!that!the!appeals!process!

convoluted!the!factors!affecting!sentencing!and!this!alone!could!have!explained!a!less!

hierarchical!pattern.!!But!only!further!study!can!provide!some!level!of!certainty!that!these!

were!the!intervening!factors!in!a!slightly!different!pattern!of!severity!among!these!charges.!

An!additional!possibility!for!future!research!would!be!a!review!of!the!same!cases!and!

charges!from!a!different!framework.!!For!example,!the!classifications!of!crimes!against!

humanity!and!war!crimes!can!both!be!broken!down!further!into!specific!criminal!acts.!!

Those!acts!have!each!been!defined!and!those!definitions!can!be!the!subject!of!additional!

study.!!The!importance!of!intent!was!also!revealed!as!part!of!this!research!and!again!this!

factor!can!be!the!basis!for!further!research.!


The!findings!of!this!work!have!established!that!a!hierarchy!exists!in!at!least!this!subset!

of!charges!and!court!proceedings.!!However,!it!is!incumbent!upon!continued!research!to!

ensure!that!those!same!patterns!emerge!across!more!case!law,!ad*hoc!tribunals,!legal!

documentation!and!other!agents!of!a!system!in!its!infancy,!thus!providing!for!consistency!

and!purpose!within!the!international!legal!system.!

!

D! Acknowledgments!

I!would!like!to!thank!my!thesis!advisor,!Dr.!Richard!Fox,!for!dedicating!a!considerable!

amount!of!his!time!and!attention!to!help!me!develop,!refine,!write,!and!edit!this!thesis.!!I!

would!also!like!to!thank!Professor!David!Glazier!at!Loyola!Law!School!for!his!help!refining!

my!topic!and!editing!my!thesis.!!Additionally,!a!thank!you!is!owed!to!Dr.!Feryal!Cherif!and!

Dr.!Evan!Gerstmann!for!their!contributions.!

Dr.!Ann!Millin!at!the!U.S.!Holocaust!Memorial!Museum!in!Washington!D.C.!and!several!

members!of!the!museum!staff!are!also!owed!my!gratitude.!!My!interest!in!this!body!of!

research!was!born!from!the!invitation!to!participate!in!their!summer!2012!leadership!

summit!for!college!students!on!hate!speech,!propaganda!and!civic!engagement.!!It!was!

there!that!I!first!began!thinking!about!international!crimes!in!terms!of!their!severity.!!Dr.!

Millin,!in!particular,!was!so!supportive!in!our!correspondence!since!the!summit.!!!

I!also!want!to!thank!my!family!and!friends!who!mentored!and!supported!me!

throughout!the!yearAlong!process!of!writing!this!thesis.!!!Finally,!I!would!like!to!thank!my!

research!assistant!Nicole!Goss!for!helping!me!with!the!execution!of!both!parts!of!my!study.!!

She!was!an!invaluable!asset!to!this!project.!

!


Appendices(

A! List!of!Content!Analyzed!Cases!by!Tribunal!

I! International!Criminal!Tribunal!for!the!former!Yugoslavia!

1. Prosecutor*v.*Aleksovski,*Case*No.:*IT`95`14/1*2. Prosecutor*v.*Babić,*Case*No.:*IT`03`72*3. Prosecutor*v.*Banović,*Case*No.:*IT`02`65*4. Prosecutor*v.*Blagojević*&*Jokić,*Case*No.:*IT`02`60*5. Prosecutor*v.*Blaškić,*Case*No.:*IT`95`14*6. Prosecutor*v.*Bobetko,*Case*No.:*IT`02`62*7. Prosecutor*v.*Bralo,*Case*No.:*IT`95`17*8. Prosecutor*v.*Brđanin,*Case*No.:*IT`99`36*9. Prosecutor*v.*Češić,*Case*No.:*IT`95`10/1*10. Prosecutor*v.*Delić,*Case*No.:*IT`04`83*11. Prosecutor*v.*Deronjić,*Case*No.:*IT`02`61*12. Prosecutor*v.*Dokmanović,*Case*No.:*IT`95`13a*13. Prosecutor*v.*Đorđević,*Case*No.:*IT`05`87/1*(on*appeal)*14. Prosecutor*v.*Dukić,*Case*No.:*IT`96`20*15. Prosecutor*v.*Erdemović,*Case*No.:*IT`96`22*16. Prosecutor*v.*Furundžija,*Case*No.:*IT`95`17/1*17. Prosecutor*v.*Galić,*Case*No.:*IT`98`29*18. Prosecutor*v.*Gotovina*et*al.,*Case*No.:*IT`06`90*19. Prosecutor*v.*Hadžihasanović*&*Kabura,*Case*No.:*IT`01`47*20. Prosecutor*v.*Halilović,*Case*No.:*IT`01`48*21. Prosecutor*v.*Haradinaj*et.*al.,*Case*No.:*IT`04`84*22. Prosecutor*v.*Jelisić,*Case*No.:*IT`95`10*23. Prosecutor*v.*Jokić,*Case*No.:*IT`01`42*24. Prosecutor*v.*Kordić*&*Čerkez,*Case*No.:*IT`95`14/2*25. Prosecutor*v.*Kovačević,*Case*No.:*IT`97`24*26. Prosecutor*v.*Krajišnik,*Case*No.:*IT`00`39*&*40*27. Prosecutor*v.*Krnojelac,*Case*No.:*IT`97`25*28. Prosecutor*v.*Krstić,*Case*No.:*IT`98`33*29. Prosecutor*v.*Kunarac*et*al.,*Case*No.:*IT`96`23*30. Prosecutor*v.*Kupreškić*et*al.,*Case*No.:*IT`95`16*31. Prosecutor*v.*Kvočka*et*al.,*Case*No.:*IT`98`30/1*32. Prosecutor*v.*Limaj*et*al.,*Case*No.:*IT`03`66*33. Prosecutor*v.*Marinić,*Case*No.:*IT`95`15*34. Prosecutor*v.*Martić,*Case*No.:*IT`95`11*35. Prosecutor*v.*Milan*Lukić*&*Sredoje*Lukić,*Case*No.:*IT`98`32*36. Prosecutor*v.*Milošević,*Dragomir,*Case*No.:*IT`98`29/1*37. Prosecutor*v.*Milošević,*Slobodan,*Case*No.:*IT`02`54*38. Prosecutor*v.*Mrđja,*Case!No.:!ITA02A59*


39. Prosecutor*v.*Mrkšić*et*al.,*Case*No.:*IT`95`13/1*40. Prosecutor*v.*Mucić*et*al.,*Case*No.:*IT`96`21*41. Prosecutor*v.*Naletilić*&*Martinović,*Case*No.:*IT`98`34*42. Prosecutor*v.*Nikolić,*Dragan,*Case*No.:*IT`94`2*43. Prosecutor*v.*Nikolić,*Momir,*Case*No.:*IT`02`60/1*44. Prosecutor*v.*Obrenović,*Case*No.:*IT`02`60/2*45. Prosecutor*v.*Orić,*Case*No.:*IT`03`68*46. Prosecutor*v.*Perišić,*Case*No.:*IT`04`81*(on*appeal)*47. Prosecutor*v.*Plavšić,*Case*No.:*IT`00`39*&*40*48. Prosecutor*v.*Popović*et*al.,*Case*No.:*IT`05`88*(on*appeal)*49. Prosecutor*v.*Rajić,*Case*No.:*IT`95`12*50. Prosecutor*v.*Ražnatović,*Case*No.:*IT`97`27*51. Prosecutor*v.*Šainović*et*al.,*Case*No.:*IT`05`87*(on*appeal)*52. Prosecutor*v.*Sikirica*et*al.,*Case*No.:*IT`95`8*53. Prosecutor*v.*Simić*et*al.,*Case*No.:*IT`95`9*54. Prosecutor*v.*Stakić,*Case*No.:*IT`97`24*55. Prosecutor*v.*Strugar,*Case*No.:*IT`01`42*56. Prosecutor*v.*Tadić,*Case*No.:*IT`94`1*57. Prosecutor*v.*Talić,*Case*No.:*IT`99`36*58. Prosecutor*v.*Tolimir,*Case*No.:*IT`05`88/2*(on*appeal)*59. Prosecutor*v.*Vasiljević,*Case*No.:*IT`98`32*60. Prosecutor*v.*Zelenović,*Case!No.:!ITA96A23/2!

II! International!Criminal!Tribunal!for!Rwanda!

61. Prosecutor*v.*Akayesu,*Case*No.:*ICTR`96`4*62. Prosecutor*v.*Bagambiki*&*Imanishimwe,*Case*No.:*ICTR`97`36*63. Prosecutor*v.*Bagaragaza,*Case*No.:*ICTR`2005`86*64. Prosecutor*v.*Bagosora,*Case*No.:*ICTR`96`7*65. Prosecutor*v.*Barayagwiza,*Case*No.:*ICTR`97`19*66. Prosecutor*v.*Bikindi,*Case*No.:*ICTR`2001`72*67. Prosecutor*v.*Bisengimana,*Case*No.:*ICTR`2000`60*68. Prosecutor*v.*Bizimungu*et.*al.,*Case*No.:*ICTR`2000`56*(on*appeal)*69. Prosecutor*v.*Bizimungu*et.*al.,*Case*No.:*ICTR`99`50*70. Prosecutor*v.*Elizaphan*Ntakirutimana*&*Gérard*Ntakirutimana,*Case*No.:*ICTR`96`17*71. Prosecutor*v.*Gacumbitsi,*Case*No.:*ICTR`2001`64*72. Prosecutor*v.*Gatete,*Case*No.:*ICTR`2000`61*(on*appeal)*73. Prosecutor*v.*Hategekimana,*Case*No.:*ICTR`2000`55*74. Prosecutor*v.*Kabiligi*&*Ntabakuze,*Case*No.:*ICTR`97`34;*ICTR`97`30*75. Prosecutor*v.*Kajelijeli,*Case*No.:*ICTR`98`44A*76. Prosecutor*v.*Kalimanzira,*Case*No.:*ICTR`2005`88*77. Prosecutor*v.*Kambanda,*Case*No.:*ICTR`97`23*78. Prosecutor*v.*Kanyabashi,*Case*No.:*ICTR`96`15*(on*appeal)*79. Prosecutor*v.*Kanyarukiga,*Case*No.:*ICTR`2002`78*80. Prosecutor*v.*Karemera*et.*al.,*Case*No.:*ICTR`98`44*(on*appeal)*


81. Prosecutor*v.*Karera,*Case*No.:*ICTR`2001`74*82. Prosecutor*v.*Kayishema*et.*al.,*Case*No.:*ICTR`95`1*83. Prosecutor*v.*Mpambara,*Case*No.:*ICTR`2001`65*84. Prosecutor*v.*Muhimana,*Case*No.:*ICTR`95`1B*85. Prosecutor*v.*Munyakazi,*Case*No.:*ICTR`97`36A**86. Prosecutor*v.*Musema,*Case*No.:*ICTR`96`13*87. Prosecutor*v.*Muvunyi,*Case*No.:*ICTR`2000`55A*88. Prosecutor*v.*Nahimana,*Case*No.:*ICTR`96`11*89. Prosecutor*v.*Nchamihigo,*Case*No.:*ICTR`2001`63*90. Prosecutor*v.*Ndayambaje,*Case*No.:*ICTR`96`8*(on*appeal)*91. Prosecutor*v.*Ndindabahizi,*Case*No.:*ICTR`2001`71*92. Prosecutor*v.*Niyitegeka,*Case*No.:*ICTR`96`14*93. Prosecutor*v.*Nizeyimana,*Case*No.:*ICTR`2000`55*(on*appeal)*94. Prosecutor*v.*Nsabimana*&*Nteziryayo,*Case*No.:*ICTR`97`29*(on*appeal)*95. Prosecutor*v.*Nsengimana,*Case*No.:*ICTR`2001`69*96. Prosecutor*v.*Nsengiyumva,*Case*No.:*ICTR`96`12*97. Prosecutor*v.*Nshogoza,*Case*No.:*ICTR`2007`91*98. Prosecutor*v.*Ntagerura,*Case*No.:*ICTR`96`10*99. Prosecutor*v.*Ntawukulilyayo,*Case*No.:*ICTR`2005`82*100. Prosecutor*v.*Nyiramasuhuko*&*Ntahobali,*Case*No.:*ICTR`97`21*(on*appeal)*101. Prosecutor*v.*Nzabirinda,*Case*No.:*ICTR`2001`77*102. Prosecutor*v.*Nzabonimana,*Case*No.:*ICTR`98`44D*(on*appeal)*103. Prosecutor*v.*Renzaho,*Case*No.:*ICTR`97`31*104. Prosecutor*v.*Rugambarara,*Case*No.:*ICTR`2000`59*105. Prosecutor*v.*Ruggiu,*Case*No.:*ICTR`97`32*106. Prosecutor*v.*Rukundo,*Case*No.:*ICTR`2001`70*107. Prosecutor*v.*Rutaganda,*Case*No.:*ICTR`96`3*108. Prosecutor*v.*Rwamakuba,*Case*No.:*ICTR`98`44C*109. Prosecutor*v.*Semanza,*Case*No.:*ICTR`97`20*110. Prosecutor*v.*Seromba,*Case*No.:*ICTR`2001`66*111. Prosecutor*v.*Serugendo,*Case*No.:*ICTR`2005`84*112. Prosecutor*v.*Serushago,*Case*No.:*ICTR`98`39*113. Prosecutor*v.*Setako,*Case*No.:*ICTR`2004`81*114. Prosecutor*v.*Simba,*Case*No.:*ICTR`2001`76*115. Prosecutor*v.*Zigiranyirazo,!Case!No.:!ICTRA2001A73!

III! Special!Court!for!Sierra!Leone!

116. Prosecutor*v.*Brima,*Kamara,*and*Kanu,*Case*No.:*SCSL`04`16*117. Prosecutor*v.*Charles*Taylor,*Case*No.:*SCSL`03`01*(on*appeal)*118. Prosecutor*v.*Foday*Saybana*Sankoh,*Case*No.:*SCSL`03`02*119. Prosecutor*v.*Fofana*and*Kondewa,*Case*No.:*SCSL`04`14*120. Prosecutor*v.*Johnny*Paul*Koroma,*Case*No.:*SCSL`03`03*121. Prosecutor*v.*Sam*Bockarie,*Case*No.:*SCSL`04`04*122. Prosecutor*v.*Sesay,*Kallon,*and*Gbao,*Case!No.:!SCSLA04A15*


B! Coding!Sheet!

Coder:!_______________________!!!!

Internal!Case!No.:!__________!!!Case:!__________________________________________________________________________!!Case!No.:!_____________________________!!Court:! ! ICTY! ! ICTR! ! SCSL!!Presiding!Judges!(Trial!Chamber):!!_______________________________________,!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Opinion!–!Majority!!!!!or!!!!!Dissenting!(circle*one)!!_______________________________________,!!! !Opinion!–!Majority!!!!!or!!!!!Dissenting!(circle*one)!and!_______________________________________! !Opinion!–!Majority!!!!!or!!!!!Dissenting!(circle*one)!!Presiding!judges!(Appeals!Chamber):!!_______________________________________,! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Opinion!–!Majority!!!!!or!!!!!Dissenting!(circle*one)!!!_______________________________________,! !! !Opinion!–!Majority!!!!!or!!!!!Dissenting!(circle*one)!_______________________________________,! !! !Opinion!–!Majority!!!!!or!!!!!Dissenting!(circle*one)!!!_______________________________________,! !! !Opinion!–!Majority!!!!!or!!!!!Dissenting!(circle*one)!and!_______________________________________! !Opinion!–!Majority!!!!!or!!!!!Dissenting!(circle*one)!!Prosecutor:!_______________________________________!!Year!of!Indictment:!__________!☐ Check!here!if!the!indictment!has!been!partially!redacted.!!Year!of!Trial!Chamber!Decision:!__________!!Year!of!Appeals!Chamber!Decision:!__________!!!!!!!!!!!!!Note:*If*case*is*currently*on*appeal,*write*“n/a.”!!Number!of!Defendants:!__________!!!!!!!!!!!


Defendant:!_______________________________________!Defendant’s!Gender!(circle*one):! ! Male! ! Female!!Notes:!!1. If*the*counts*are*not*numbered*“1,*2,*3…”*please*cross*out*the*numbers*on*the*chart*below*

and*renumber*the*lines*so*that*they*are*consistent*with*the*indictment.!!2. If*count*was*withdrawn,*write*“WITHDRAWN.”*3. If*count*has*been*redacted,*write*“REDACTED.”**4. If*charge*is*Complicity*in*Genocide,*Conspiracy*to*Commit*Genocide,*or*Genocide,*no*

specific*criminal*act*will*be*listed.*So,*write*“n/a”*under*“Criminal*Act.”*!Count! Charge! Criminal!Act! Holding!

1! ! ! !2! ! ! !3! ! ! !4! ! ! !5! ! ! !6! ! ! !7! ! ! !8! ! ! !9! ! ! !10! ! ! !11! ! ! !12! ! ! !13! ! ! !14! ! ! !15! ! ! !16! ! ! !17! ! ! !18! ! ! !19! ! ! !20! ! ! !

!Indictment!Withdrawn/Proceedings!Terminated!(circle*one):! ! Yes! ! No!Plea!Agreement!Reached!(circle*one):! Yes! ! No!!Sentence:!__________!Years’!Imprisonment!!!Was!the!defendant’s!sentence!changed!as!a!result!of!an!appeal*(circle*one)?! !Yes! ! No!!If!yes,!what!is!the!defendant’s!new!sentence?!__________!Years’!Imprisonment!!!


C! Codebook!

Charges:! !Use!“ATTEMPT”!for!the!charge:!“Attempt!to!commit!acts!punishable!as!contempt!of!the!tribunal.”!!Use!“BREACH”!for!the!charge:!“Grave!breaches!of!the!Geneva!Conventions!of!1949.”!!Use!“CAH”!for!the!charge:!“Crime!against!humanity.”!Use!“COMPLIC”!for!the!charge:!“Complicity!in!genocide.”!!Use!“CONSPIR”!for!the!charge:!“Conspiracy!to!commit!genocide.”!Use!”CON”!for!the!charge:!“Contempt!of!the!tribunal.”!Use!“GEN”!for!the!charge:!“Genocide.”!Use!“GENEVA”!for!the!charge:!“Violation!of!Article!3!common!to!the!Geneva!Conventions!and!of!Additional!Protocol!II.”!Use!“INCITE”!for!the!charge:!“Direct!and!public!incitement!to!commit!genocide.”!Use!“OTHER”!for!the!charge:!“Other!serious!violation!of!international!humanitarian!law.”!Use!“WAR”!for!the!charge:!“Violation!of!the!laws!or!customs!of!war.”!!Criminal!Acts:** *Use!“CHILDREN”!for!the!following!punishable!acts:!

(a) Conscripting!or!enlisting!children!under!the!age!of!15!years!into!armed!forces!or!groups!or!using!them!to!participate!actively!in!hostilities.!!

Use!“CIV!ATTACK”!for!the!following!punishable!acts:!!(a) Attacks!on!civilians;!!(b) Collective!punishments;!(c) Deliberate!attack!on!the!civilian!population!and!individual!civilians;!!(d) Unlawful!attack!on!civilians;!!(e) Unlawfully!inflicting!terror!upon!civilians;!!(f) Violence!to!life!and!person;!(g) Violence!to!life,!health!and!physical!or!mental!wellAbeing!of!persons;!(h) Violence!to!life,!health!and!physical!wellAbeing!of!persons,!as!part!of!an!armed!

internal!conflict;!(i) Willfully!causing!great!suffering!or!serious!injury!to!body!or!health;!(j) Willfully!causing!serious!injury.!

Use!“CONFINE”!for!the!following!punishable!acts:!(a) Imprisonment;!(b) Taking!civilians!as!hostages;!!(c) Taking!of!hostages;!!(d) Unlawful!confinement;!!(e) Unlawful!confinement!of!a!civilian;!!(f) Unlawful!confinement!of!civilians.!

Use!“DEPORT”!for!the!following!punishable!acts:!(a) Deportation;!(b) Unlawful!deportation!or!transfer;!(c) Unlawful!transfer!of!a!civilian.!

Use!“DESTRUCT”!for!the!following!punishable!acts:!


(a) Appropriation!of!property;((b) Destruction!or!willful!damage!done!to!institutions!dedicated!to!education!or!

religion;((c) Destruction!or!willful!damage!done!to!institutions!dedicated!to!religion,!charity,!

education,!the!arts!and!sciences,!historic!monuments!and!works!of!art!and!science;((d) Destruction!or!willful!damage!done!to!institutions!dedicated!to!religion,!charity!and!

education,!the!arts!and!sciences,!historic!monuments!and!works!of!art!and!science;((e) Devastation!not!justified!by!military!necessity;((f) Extensive!destruction!and!appropriation!of!property!not!justified!by!military!

necessity!and!carried!out!unlawfully!and!wantonly;((g) Extensive!destruction!not!justified!by!military!necessity!and!carried!out!unlawfully!

and!wantonly;((h) Extensive!destruction!of!property;((i) Pillage;((j) Pillage,!as!part!of!an!armed!internal!conflict;((k) Plunder;((l) Plunder!of!private!property;((m) Plunder!of!public!or!private!property;((n) Seizure,!destruction!or!willful!damage!done!to!institutions!dedicated!to!religion;((o) Unlawful!and!wanton!extensive!destruction!and!appropriation!of!property!not!

justified!by!military!necessity;((p) Unlawful!attack!on!civilian!objects;((q) Wanton!destruction!of!a!city!or!devastation!not!justified!by!military!necessity;((r) Wanton!destruction!of!cities,!towns,!or!villages;((s) Wanton!destruction!of!cities,!towns,!or!villages,!or!devastation!not!justified!by!

military!necessity;((t) Wanton!destruction!of!dwellings!or!other!installations!that!are!used!only!by!the!

civilian!population,!including!places!of!religious!worship;((u) Wanton!destruction!of!villages,!or!devastation!not!justified!by!military!necessity.!(

Use!HUMAN!for!the!following!punishable!acts:!(a) Intentionally!directing!attacks!against!personnel!involved!in!a!humanitarian!

assistance!or!peacekeeping!mission.!Use!“INHUMANE”!for!the!following!punishable!acts:!

(a) Inhumane!acts;!(b) Inhumane!acts!against!persons!as!part!of!a!widespread!and!systematic!attack!

against!a!civilian!population!on!political,!ethnic!or!racial!grounds;!(c) Inhumane!actsAother!than!murder;!(d) Other!inhumane!acts;!(e) Other!inhumane!acts!against!the!Tutsi(s)!as!part!of!a!widespread!and!systematic!

attack!against!a!civilian!population!on!political,!ethnic!or!racial!grounds.!Use!“KILLING”!for!the!following!punishable!acts:!

(a) Extermination;!(b) Extermination!of!civilians,!as!part!of!a!widespread!and!systematic!attack!against!a!

civilian!population!on!political,!ethnic!or!racial!grounds;!(c) Extermination!of!persons!as!part!of!a!widespread!and!systematic!attack!against!a!

civilian!population!on!political,!ethnic!or!racial!grounds;!


(d) Killing!and!causing!serious!bodily!or!mental!harm!to!members!of!the!Tutsi!population!with!the!intent!to!destroy,!in!whole!or!in!part,!a!racial!or!ethnic!group;!

(e) Killing!and!causing!violence!to!health!and!to!the!physical!or!mental!wellAbeing!of!civilians!as!part!of!an!armed!internal!conflict;!

(f) Murder;!(g) Murder!of!civilians,!as!part!of!a!widespread!and!systematic!attack!against!a!civilian!

population!on!political,!ethnic!or!racial!grounds;!(h) Murder!of!persons!as!part!of!a!widespread!and!systematic!attack!against!a!civilian!

population!on!political,!ethnic!or!racial!grounds;!(i) Murder!of!the!ten!Belgian!soldiers!from!UNAMIR!as!part!of!a!widespread!and!

systematic!attack!against!a!civilian!population!on!political,!ethnic!or!racial!grounds;!(j) Violence!to!life,!health!and!physical!or!mental!wellAbring!of!persons,!in!particular!

murder!as!well!as!cruel!treatment!such!as!torture,!mutilation!or!any!form!of!corporal!punishment;!

(k) Willful!killing.!Use!“PER”!for!the!following!punishable!acts:!

(a) Persecution!on!political,!racial!or!religious!grounds;!(b) Persecution!on!political,!racial!or!religious!grounds,!as!part!of!a!widespread!and!

systematic!attack!against!a!civilian!population!on!political,!ethnic!or!racial!grounds;!(c) Persecution(s).!

Use!“SEXUAL”!for!the!following!punishable!acts:!!(a) Outrages!upon!personal!dignity;!(b) Outrages!upon!personal!dignity!including!rape;!(c) Outrages!upon!personal!dignity,!in!particular!humiliating!and!degrading!treatment;!(d) Outrages!upon!personal!dignity,!in!particular!humiliating!and!degrading!treatment,!

rape!and!indecent!assault,!as!part!of!an!armed!internal!conflict;!(e) Rape;!(f) Rape!as!part!of!a!widespread!and!systematic!attack!against!a!civilian!population!on!

political,!ethnic!or!racial!grounds;!(g) Rape!of!Tutsi!civilians,!as!part!of!a!widespread!and!systematic!attack!against!a!

civilian!population!on!political,!ethnic!or!racial!grounds;!(h) Rape,!in!particular!humiliating!and!degrading!treatment;!(i) Rape,!which!includes!other!forms!of!sexual!assault;!(j) Sexual!slavery;!(k) Sexual!slavery!and!any!other!form!of!sexual!violence;!(l) Violence!to!life,!health!and!physical!or!mental!wellAbeing!of!persons,!in!particular,!

outrages!upon!personal!dignity,!in!particular!humiliating!and!degrading!treatment,!rape,!enforced!prostitution!and!any!form!of!indecent!assault.!

Use!“SLAVE”!for!the!following!punishable!acts:!!(a) Enslavement;!(b) Slavery;!(c) Unlawful!labour.!!

Use!“TERR”!for!the!following!punishable!acts:!(a) Acts!of!terrorism;!(b) Terror.!

Use!“TOR”!for!the!following!punishable!acts:! !


(a) Cruel!!treatment!and!torture;!(b) Cruel!treatment;!(c) Humiliating!and!degrading!treatment;!(d) Inhumane!treatment;!(e) Torture;!(f) Torture!as!part!of!a!widespread!and!systematic!attack!against!a!civilian!population!

on!political,!ethnic!or!racial!grounds;!(g) Torture!or!inhumane!treatment.!

*Holdings:!Use!“G”!for!the!holding:!“Guilty.”!Use!“NG”!for!the!holding:!“Not!guilty.”!

Comparing the Severity of International Crime

Documents

Transcript of Comparing the Severity of International Crime