Communication in the Classroom - Preparing a Functional Language Cse for Teachers - J.B. HEALTON

7/31/2019 Communication in the Classroom - Preparing a Functional Language Cse for Teachers - J.B. HEALTON

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22 /. B. Heatonform may in fact provide a platform from which to launch themifthere is time. What the system does ensure is that if there are only a fewspare minutes between classes, then the hard-pressed observer will befreed to deal with wha t canno t be so effectively dealt with on pap er . . .oral guidance for the teacher where glaring pronunication errors havemarred the observed class. 'The Teacher Observed' suggests the strongpossibility of a sequel project 'The Observer Observed'but that isanother story.Based on a prizewinning entry for the English-Speaking Un ion E nglish Language C om -petition, 1979.

Communicationin the Classroom:Preparing a FunctionalLanguage Course for TeachersJ . B. HEATONRE SE A RCH IN T O interpersonal interaction outside the classroom hasconstantly underlined the complex nature of communication. In theclassroom as well, communicative behaviour often seems too complexand transient to be handled adequately by an observer unfamiliar withall the subtleties and nuances of meaning which have been developedbetween the teacher and the pupils over many lessons. However,because the classroom offers a more highly structured speech situationthan most ordinary speech situations, it has recently been used toprovide a descriptive system capable of coping with various forms ofdiscourse. Whereas 'in day-to-day conversation, complex rules pertain... within the classroom the mechanisms are much more apparent'(Sinclair, 1975).

Moreover, although in ordinary speech situations outside the class-room people constantly monitor their language at a sub-conscious levelin order to avoid misunderstandings, and intuitively apply self-correcting devices, inside the classroom a far more conscious anddeliberate monitoring of communication by the teacher usually takesplace. In a typical lesson, the teacher constantly checks to find out if thepupils understand what is being communicated to them. In addition, heusually prompts the pupils, corrects their responses, and repeats and re-phrases statements, exerting different kinds of control over the class-room talk.

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Communication in the Classroom 23A useful term for referring to such use of language in the classroom ismetacommunication, in the sense used by Stubbs (197 6): i.e. the type ofcommunication used to check whether messages have been received

and understood. Such metacommunication is highly characteristic ofmuch teacher talk, constituting a large and important part of teaching.Furthermore, both teacher and pupils have specific expectations con-cerning such use of metacommunication in teaching.The ma terials which will now be described are concerned largely withmetacommunication. They constitute an attempt to devise a relevanttraining programme aimed at preparing Chinese-speaking teachers ofmathematics, science, physical communication, art, and music inprimary schools to teach their subjects in the medium of English. Allthe teachers using the materials had previously completed their teacher-training course in Chinese at the Institute of Education in Singapore.Although most had attained at least a minimum level of proficiency inEnglish, few were able to speak English with any degree of fluency andeven fewer used English in their daily lives. Many had complained ofbeing ill at ease when handling ordinary classroom communication inEnglish, often feeling that their position was continually beingthreaten ed as a result of their inability to use language effectively.

Consequently, in addition to a component comprising English formathematics, science, etc., a component on metacommunication wasincluded in the training programmes and relevant materials were pre-pared. These materials, which relied heavily on role-playing and simula-tion exercises, concentrated on the specific language functions related toclassroom management.The following outline describes briefly the conten ts of the twelve un itsin the course, indicating examples of the various language functionsidentified for detailed treatment and practice.Unit 1: Introductions in the classroom and related language functions involvingthe identification of individual pupils.Un it 2: Making polite requests in the classroom, giving orders and formulatinggeneral rules of behaviour, conduct, etc.Un it 3: Establishing attention signals and controlling pupils' attention.Un it 4: Questioning in the classroom (as part of a general teaching strategy):i) Yes/No questions, ii) or questions, and iii) W h questions. Also simplify-ing questions to conform to appropriate content and language difficultylevels.Unit 5: Handling pupils' responses: accepting, correcting, and rejecting pupils'

answers.Unit 6: Repeating and re-phrasing questions and answers as well as reportingclass discussions and comments.Unit 7: Telling pupils how to do things and giving written instructions (includingsimplifying and clarifying instructions).Unit 8: Refusing and giving (qualified) permission.Unit 9: Using different types of questions to monitor the various levels of thepupils' understanding of what is being taught: recall, comprehension,application, invention, and evaluation questions.Unit 10: Warning pupils and giving advice.

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24 J. B. HeatonUnit 11: Giving reasons and explaining: cause and effect (Like the other units,this unit concentrates on the language functions required for helping andmonitoring classroom management rather than on attempting to teachthe language necessary for handling knowledge related to particular

subjects.)Unit 12: Stating intentions, making suggestions, expressing degrees of probability,and speculating about future happenings.Although examples of the various functions have been categorisedhere, it must be remembered that familiarity with the full context inwhich a function occurs is usually essential for interpreting thatfunction. It is thus not always possible to determine what com-municative function is being performed without the complete context inwhich a particular utterance actually occurs. For example, the utter-

ance 'Did you hear what I said, Eng Boon?' may be a request for infor-mation, an attempt to gain the attention of the pupil, or even a warning.Thus, a mere surface description of an utterance taken out of contextmay often be misleading. The full meaning of the utterance willprobably depend upon something which has been said much earlier (oris abou t to be said later), involving 'conditional relevance' (Edw ards andFurlong, 1978).Furthermore, a particular utterance may have more than onefunction and serve several purposes simultaneously. For example, theutterance 'What did Rani do a moment ago?' may serve to establishattention, to monitor a pupil's response (to check that he has under-stood), and even to warn a pupil not to be inattentive in futureall atthe same time. In most cases, however, an utterance has clearly aprimary function: hence the attempt to identify and isolate the variousfunctions for teaching purposes in the programme described.The practice material in each unit ranges from highly structured exer-cisessuch as dialogue re-arrangement, the completion of dialogues

and written texts (i.e. cloze passages), the correction of ungrammaticalstatements, and the simplification of questionsto role-playing andclassroom application exercises (involving such tasks as the writing ofrules, reports, and letters). Important exercises which occur in everyunit include practice in listening comprehension, reading aloud, andasking questions. Phonological points are treated wherever appro-priate, particularly features of stress and intonation, e.g. the variousintonation patterns in yes/no questions, Wh questions, and questiontags; sentence stress in such patterns as 'D o be quiet' , 'Can anyone tellme? ' 'Can you tell me, R an i', 'T ha t's a/m ost right'.An attem pt is also m ade to include provision for the teaching of thosesentence structures and grammatical items most appropriate to the par-ticular function on which the unit is bas ed. F or exam ple, Unit 1 imme-diately suggests the teaching of spatial prepositions, Unit 2 imperativesand the position of adverbs, Unit 4 interrogatives, Unit 5 reportedspeech, Unit 7 the passive voice and the modals should, ought to, andmust, etc. However, the whole question of the association between

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Communication in the Classroom 25functions and exponents is a very complex one. If a certain function hasseveral exponents, crucial decisions must be made concerning the selec-tion of the most important exponents for teaching at a particular stage.In such cases, what criteria can be applied to determine whichexponents should be introduced first and which exponents should bepostponed for later treatment? Conversely, if a particular grammaticalexponent has several functions, which function should be chosen toexemplify that exponent? These questions remain as yet largely un-answered, as do other questions relating to the frequency of occur-rence of particular expo nents with certain functions.

Perhaps the most important feature of each unit is the flow-chartwhich accompanies the key dialogue and serves to introduce thefunction to be practised. Flow-charts are used in the materials toprovide a visual outline of the situation being practised in the keydialogue. Each flow-chart shows clearly how particular 'speech acts'com bine to form a 'speech event' (Dell Hy m es, 1967). Th e variousalternatives which can take place after each speech act are given, andthe student is able to see immediately the outline of the event and thesituation in w hich it is developed .

As there can be a large number of possibilities after a certain speechact, it is never claimed that each flow-chart is capable of showing all thepossibilities in a speech event: clearly, almost anything can happen. It isargued, however, that each flow-chart in the programme shows themost common alternatives which can be used. Moreover, by providingthe student with the bare outline of the event and situation in simplevisual terms, each flow-chart serves to make him much more aware ofwh at might take place in a typical classroom encou nter. In the materialsflow-charts are used primarily to avoid the rigidity normally associatedwith classroom dialogues and drills by showing that real-life com-munication between the teacher and his pupils is rarely a matter of theprovision of a stimulus to elicit a fixed response. Since there is con-siderable freedom of choice in what can be said at any particular pointin the flow-chart both by the teacher and by the pupil, various routesthrough the flow-chart are possible and thus different conversations canbe produced by different gro ups in different circu m stances. The finalconversation produced from a flow-chart is determined entirely by theroles and the needs of those participating in the dialogue.

The example which follows shows how a flow-chart is used to makestudents more fully aware of what is taking place in classroom inter-action. After listening to the dialogue and answering some questions onit, the students are required to listen to it again and to trace the speechacts through the flow-chartKey dialogueT : W hat is the chief cause of waves in the world's oceans? (PA US E) Ro han .P : The m oon, sir .T : No , the moon causes the tides. W hat causes wavesi Can you remember?

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26 /. B. HeatonP: The wind.T: Good. What causes waves, Yit Cheo ng?P: The wind.T: Yes. Waves are mostly caused by the wind blowing across the surface of the ocean.Follow the dialogue through the flow-chart, inserting the missingnumber in each blank as you listen.

(i )T. isksquestion

(2)Pupil answerscorrectly(3 )P. gives vagueor partlycorrect answer

(4 )Pupil giveswrong answer

(5 )T. askspupil torepeatanswer

(6)T. praisespupil

(10)T. praisespupil (andrepeatsanswer)

X(11)T. asks otherpupil to repeatanswer (forclass to hear)

(7)T. accepts partof answer andasks probingquestion

(8)T. repeatsquestion(stressing anykeywords)

1(9)T.re-phrasesquestionto help pupil

(12)Pupil nowanswerscorrectly

(13)Pupil stillgives wronganswer

(14)T. praisapupil (andmay repeatanswer)

(15)T. addressesanother pupil

The students are then asked to construct their own conversations(working in pairs or small groups), following at first given numbersthrough the flow-chart. In this way, the conversation is controlled forpractice purposes, while at the same time the students have consider-able freedom in formulating what they want to say in the way they wantto say it. Later, control can be relaxed by allowing students to make upmuch freer conversations without the use of the numbers.

Example of controlled conversation (7-e\ with num bers):You ask what causes tides. One pupil says that it is the weather and another pupilsays that the moon and sun causes tides. You want the pupil to say that it is thegravitational force (or pull) of the moon and sun which causes tides.( 1 , 4 , 8 , 1 3 , 1 5 , 1 , 3 , 7 , 1 2 , 1 4 )

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Com munication in the Classroom 27Experience resulting from use of the material described here has con-firmed the basic need for a more flexible and relevant approach tolanguage teaching along the lines indicated, taking into account the

communicative competence of the students who undertake these re-training programmes. Moreover, it has been felt that the opportunitiesfor micro-teaching arising from the use of the materials have not onlyimproved students' techniques but have also changed some of their per-ceptions in teaching.It is hoped that further classroom research in this area may eventu-ally provide some of the answers to questions regarding not only theextent to which various teachers differ in their use of meta-communication in the classroom but also the extent to which the func-

tions involved are used in different ways in different languages.Select Bibliography (Including references quoted)Allen, Patrick (1977) 'Structural and functional models in language teaching' in TESLTalk,%, 1,(5-15), Ontar io.Allwright, R., A. Stokes, G. P. Loftus, J. M. MacFarlane and M. F. McTear (1975)Working Papers: Language Teaching Classroom Research, Department ofLanguage and Linguistics, University of Essex, Unpublished.Barnes, Douglas (1969) 'Language in the secondary classroom* in Barnes, D., J. Brittonand H. Rosen, Languag e, the Learner and the School, Harmondsworth, Penguin.Barnes, Douglas (1976) From Comm unication to Curriculum, Harmondswor th ,Penguin.Brown, George (1975) Microteaching: a program me of teaching skills, London,Methuen.Coulthard, Malcolm (1977) 'Classroom interaction' in Coulthard, Malcolm, AnIntroduction to Discourse Analysis, London, Longman.Delam ont, Sara and David Ham ilton (1976) 'Class room research: A critique and a newapproach' in Stubbs, Michael and Sara Delamont (eds.) , Explorations in ClassroomObservation, Lond on, John Wiley.Flanders, N. A. (1970) Analysing Teaching Behaviour, Reading, Mass., Addison-Wesley.Edwards, A. D. and V. J. Furlong (1978) The Language of Teaching: Meaning inClassroom Interaction, London, Heinemann.Gallagher, J. J. and M. J. Aschne (1963) 'A preliminary report on analyses of class-room interaction' in Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 9 (183-194).Hargle, O. D. W. (1978) 'The importance of teacher questions in the classroom' in

Educational Research, 20, 2 (99-102).Hymes, Ddl (1967) 'Models of the interaction of language and social setting' in Journalof Social Issues, 23, 2.Mehan, Hugh (1974) 'Accomplishing classroom lessons' in CtcoureL, Aaron V. et al.,Language Use and School Performance, New York, Academic Press.M ohan, Bernard and Naomi K atz (1977) 'Com mu nicative competence and flowcharts'in TESL Talk, 8, 1 (25-31), On tario.Searie, John R. (1969) Speech Acts: An Essay in the Philosophy of Langua ge,Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.Sinclair , J. McH. and R. M. Coulthard (1975) Toward s an Analysis of D iscourse,London, Oxford University Press.Stubbs, Michael (1976) 'Keeping in touch: some functions of teacher talk' in Stubbs,Michael and Sara Delamont (eds.), Explorations in Classroom O bservation, London,John Wiley.Stubbs, M ichael (1976) Language, Schools and Classrooms, London, M ethuen.

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Communication in the Classroom - Preparing a Functional Language Cse for Teachers - J.B. HEALTON

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