Communication about/for development results in public cooperation iniciatives

urb-al IIIOficina de Coordinación y Orientación - OCO

Communicating about/for development results in public cooperation initiativesOlga del Río

03 Methodological guides URB-AL III

Communicating about/for development results in public cooperation initiatives

This document has been produced withinthe framework of a European Uniongrant. The content of this document isthe exclusive responsibility of the authorand should not in any way be considereda reflection of the position held by theEuropean Union.

Editor: URB-AL III ProgrammeTravessera de les Corts 139-151Pavelló Mestral, 4, 08028 BarcelonaTel. +34 934 049 470Fax +34 934 022 473E-mail [email protected]

© Publisher: Diputació de Barcelona(URB-AL III Programme Orientation andCoordination Office)

Editorial Board: Jordi Castells, Octavi de la Varga, Eduardo Feldman, Sara Sotillos, Carla Cors and Verónica SanzEditing: Directorate of Communication,Diputació de BarcelonaDesign: Estudi Josep BagàLD: B. 33209-2012

Olga del RíoDoctor in Communication Sciences (Autonomous University of Barcelona, UAB) with over 20 years’ experience in international cooperation for development. She is a researcher specialising in cooperation for development, democratic governance and human rights, gender in development, communication and ICT for development, as well as methodological tools and social research. She is a lecturer at the Autonomous University of Barcelona and the University of Girona. Academic coordinator of the Barcelona module of the European professional specialisation Master’s Degree in Inter-Mediterranean Mediation and consultant for the European Commission and the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), among others.

Communicating about/for development results in public cooperation initiativesOlga del Río


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Contents

9 Prologue

11 Chapter 1: Communication, development and international cooperation 11 1.1. Information and communication on the international cooperation

agenda 15 1.2. Communicating about/for development results 19 1.3. Communication, decentralised cooperation and public policies 25 Chapter 2: Communicating for development in cooperation programmes/

policies 25 2.1. Communication for development and social change 30 2.2. Incorporating communication into cooperation programmes/policies 44 2.3. Strategic planning of C4D and incorporation into the LFM 55 2.4. Indicators and sources of verification 61 Chapter 3: Communicating about the results of cooperation programmes/

policies 61 3.1. Communicating about development results 63 3.2. Drawing up a plan for communicating about results 89 Bibliography and other available resources 95 Appendix 101 Glossary

List of tables and charts

13 Principles of managing for development results (MfDR) 16 Conceptual framework for communicating for and about results 17 Principal characteristics of communicating about and for development results 19 Contextualisation of decentralised cooperation 26 Conceptual framework for communicating for and about results 27 Interrelation and interdependence between communication structures and communication processes 32 Communication interventions in different stages of the programme/policy 39 Differences between programme objectives, behavioural objectives and communication objectives/results in a public policy for integrating people with AIDS 41 Types of participants for C4D strategies 43 Matrix for analysing participants/stakeholders/audiences 51 Analysis of the map of participants/stakeholders and initial strategies 52 Communication planning matrix 54 Strategic framework for communication in programme/policy planning 62 Conceptual framework for communicating for and about results 64 Graphical representation of communication planning 73 Examples of the tone of the message

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75 Advantages and disadvantages of communication media and channels 81 Example schedule for a communication plan 83 Example budget for a communicating for development strategy

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The Orientation and Coordination Office (OCO) of the URB-AL III Programme produces a collection of Methodological Guides which are the result of work and exchanges with various projects and the lessons learned over the course of running the programme. These guides cover a wide range of topics such as: monitoring, evaluating and communicating projects, the construction of local public policies in Latin America, the effect these policies have on social cohesion and the definition of city strategies that incorporate a vision of social cohesion.

This guide, Communicating about/for development results in public cooperation initiatives, aims to contribute knowledge and tools to help effectively and efficiently communicate the results and impact of decentralised cooperation programmes and projects with particular focus on local public policies, which are understood as being medium and long-term processes.

In the last decade, aspects linked to information and communication have taken on an important role in the international agenda in general and in the cooperation agenda in particular. Nevertheless, in practice we find that communicating cooperation projects and programmes does not usually form a core part of the strategy behind them, and this has a negative impact on both the development and implementation of these projects and on the understanding of their effects among the citizens who benefit from them, the actors

participating in them and the donors themselves.

In view of this situation, the OCO identified a need to publish a methodological guide that would help to contextualise the role of communication in the international cooperation system, and to contribute elements and tools to optimise and enhance the value of the impact made by public cooperation initiatives.

The arguments in this document are founded on the idea that incorporating communication into all of the stages of the project or programme cycle is fundamental for guaranteeing democratic ownership, accountability and management based on development results.

Leading on from this, the guide reflects on the current dichotomy between communicating about results and communicating for results, and suggests that complementarity between both types of communication, in line with the principal international cooperation agencies, may be the best solution.

Communicating about results –the most traditional and commonly used type in practice– is comparable to corporate communication, and usually centres on disseminating information about outputs or final results, without touching on the other stages of the programme or project. This strategy squanders the potential that communication has for increasing the likelihood of success in development

Prologue

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processes, which is why we are shifting towards the idea of communication for results, a novel vision that uses communication as a cross-cutting tool for achieving the project or programme’s development goals.

Here at the OCO we are confident that the guidelines offered by this document will be a useful aid to designing effective and efficient communication strategies.

Jordi Castells, Director of International Relations at Diputació de Barcelona and General Coordinator of the Orientation and Coordination Office of the URB-AL III Programme

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1. Communication, development and international cooperation

1.1. Information and communication on the international cooperation agenda

After the WSIS (2003 and 2005), various issues linked to information and communication came up on the international agenda and on the cooperation agenda in particular. Moreover, several agreements guide the international cooperation agenda; among them we would highlight the Paris Declaration and the Accra Agenda for Action on aid efficiency, the approach of human rights-based development (HRBD) and the Millennium Development Goals (MDG).

1.1.1. Communication and development effectiveness

Despite the fact that information and communication are not explicitly mentioned in the Paris Declaration (2005) or the Accra Agenda for Action (AAA 2008), both are implicit, as their recommendations cannot be carried out unless communication is a key component. This is particularly true with regard to democratic ownership, accountability and management based on development results.

Communication and democratic ownership

Ownership is a principle according to which partner countries exercise effective authority and leadership over their

development policies and strategies, and coordinate the development actions that form part of these policies, thereby reducing the role of the donor countries. This is closely linked to governance, which means that this ownership must be taken by citizens, communities, local authorities, civil society, research centres and the private sector.

Accra marked an important change: ownership could no longer be defined as the product of bilateral conversations between governments and donors, but must instead include a process of dialogue with beneficiaries and citizens.

Communication and accountability

Accountability implies a commitment between donors and partners to accept mutual responsibility for development results, based on a process of reviews and assessments whereby both parties are accountable for their performance to each other and to their respective citizens.

The Accra Agenda for Action affirms that transparency and accountability are essential elements of development results. They lie at the heart of the Paris Declaration, in which it was agreed that countries and donors would be mutually accountable to each other and to their citizens.

Putting into practice this shift towards downward accountability –from governments to citizens– instead of upward accountability –from governments to donors– continues to

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be one of the greatest challenges facing international cooperation. It is also the area in which activity is most intense both among donors, such as with the Development Assistance Committee of the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), and among civil society. In both cases, almost all the strategies designed to ensure that governments are accountable to their citizens involve information and communication processes. Information and communication are playing an increasingly central role in ensuring that citizens understand where funds allocated for their benefit/development are being spent. Without this understanding, and without the capacity to communicate their own perspectives on whether they feel that this spending is correct and efficient, there can be no accountability.

Several multilateral organisations are working in this area, such as the OECD, which has set up an observatory on accountability, the Public Governance Committee (PUMA). Currently, UNESCO has its own project on e-Governance which is working to achieve transparency in the management of the world’s governments and democracies. In the United Nations System, the United Nations Online Network in Public Administration and Finance has a division, Public Economics and Public Administration (DESA), which helps public administrations with accountability, “Public Sector Transparency and Accountability: Making it Happen”.

In civil society, some of the most important international organisations which, in turn, set the benchmark for resources and producing material, methodologies and proposals on accountability, are Article 19, Access InfoEurope, and the Centre for Law and Democracy. Another important non-governmental organisation is the Global Transparency Initiative (GTI), which provides studies and methodological tools for analysing the transparency of global information.

International Right to Know Day (September 2011), Access InfoEurope and the Centre for Law and Democracy launched the first detailed analysis of the legal framework of the right to information (RTI) in 89 countries throughout the world. The results are highly heterogeneous, but deficient in general terms.

Communication and managing for development results1 (MfRD)

Managing for development results (MfDR) is a strategy based on sustainable improvements in development performance. It provides a coherent framework for development effectiveness in which performance information is used to improve decision making and includes practical tools for strategic planning, risk

1 A development result is the product, effect or impact (whether planned or not, positive and/or negative) of a development intervention. OECD-WB (n.d.).

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management, progress monitoring, and outcome evaluation.

As can be seen, MfDR requires the administration and systematic use of information to support management. A study by the OECD (2009) on this matter maintains that donors are responsible for aligning and harmonising their strategies for communicating for and about development results in order to support partner countries. Partner countries, in turn, should increase their capacity to incorporate communication into managing for development results. This could include a common communication platform about and for results in order to guarantee coherence and avoid duplication.

1.1.2. Communication and the Millennium Development Goals (MDG)

Although there is no specific goal or objective for democratic governance, the Millennium Declaration recognises that good public governance is a fundamental requisite for achieving the MDG. If democratic governance is considered the best interpretation of good governance, this includes establishing, applying and supervising laws, rules and regulations, and ensuring that government policies are put into practice with transparency and honesty, providing public services in a way that meets the needs of the population, creating conditions for investment and trade in order to promote an increase in employment and income, and allocating resources and distributing wealth. The demand for democratic governance calls for “empowered and engaged citizens”, i.e., people who are

Principles of managing for development results (MfDR)

Source: OCDE-WB n/d:10.

1

5

4 3

2

Focus the dialogue on results

Use results information for learning and supporting decision making

Align programming, monitoring, and evaluation of the results

Manage for, not by, results

Promote and maintain simple reporting and information processes

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able to participate in their government’s political processes and policy debates (PANOS 2007a).

In democratic systems of government, the fundamental role of communication is to ensure that “supply” coincides with “demand” in public governance. In terms of demand, communication can help citizens’ voices be heard and allow them to participate in public debates, as well as express their own needs and concerns. The supply, in turn, permits greater informed participation in policies that genuinely respond to these needs and concerns. Improving information on the application and supervision of public policies increases transparency and citizens’ autonomy to contribute to the adoption of responsible policies (UNDP 2007).

The UNDP, in its 2007 report, The MDGs as a Communication Tool for Development, considered that, once adapted to the national and local context, the MDG framework has the potential to work as a development communication tool. At the same time, it states that improving public dialogue on the Millennium Development Goals could help them to be achieved.

The MDG were designed to be easily communicated to anyone and everyone interested in development. This audience includes the donor community, governments and those in charge of drafting responsible national and local policies, as well as the impoverished populations and those excluded from

society which the goals aim to benefit. And, if the MDG are to be meaningful for excluded and marginalised populations, these people must be able to discuss national and local priorities. According to the previously mentioned report (UNDP 2007), the first step on a global level would be to make the MDG national priorities through participatory processes. The second step would be to build people’s capacities to use the MDG in order to enforce their rights and remind governments of their responsibilities.

1.1.3. Communication and development in the United Nations System

Since 1988, the United Nations has had a specific forum for communication for development (C4D) which provides a space for deliberation and recommendations to the Secretary General in this area: the United Nations Round Table on Communication for Development.

In 1996, at the initiative of UNESCO, the United Nations General Assembly adopted a resolution on “Communication for Development”, which, among other things, highlighted the need to support reciprocal communication systems that facilitate dialogue and enable communities to express themselves, voice their aspirations and interests, and participate in decisions related to their development. The General Assembly recognised the significance of the fact that policymakers and decision-makers place greater importance on

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communication for development and it encouraged them to include this as an integral part of developing projects and programmes.

The Round Tables (from the eighth to the tenth) make up the third phase, based on the UN’s renewed commitment to greater collaboration among organisations and to a more themed approach that aims to demonstrate the importance of C4D in achieving the United Nations’ development priorities, as expressed in the Millennium Declaration and the Millennium Development Goals (MDG).

It should be noted that the ninth and tenth Round Tables (2004 and 2007) concluded that the MDG cannot be achieved without “good communication”, and they highlighted the need for new strategies and tools that will be developed to support the objectives (UNDP-World Bank 2009). Furthermore, the tenth Round Table on Communication for Development recommended the systematic incorporation of C4D into development planning and evaluation processes

(UNDP-Oslo Governance Centre 2007).

1.2. Communicating about/for development results

Over time, and in the light of the results of evaluations on the success and impact of programmes aimed at development and the fight against poverty in the last 50 years, it can be seen that changes or the perpetuation of “attitudes” are a key factor that is directly linked to the success or failure of these programmes and, in particular, to their sustainability, whether they are projects of a productive, sectorial, organisational or any other type.

On the other hand, there are two basic uses of information and communication in the framework of the international development cooperation system. A traditional vision, limited to promoting the corporate visibility of partners and donors, and a second (relatively new) vision that uses communication as a tool for

Some recommendations in the Rome Consensus (World Congress on Communication for Development Rome, Italy, 27 October 2006)

1. National development policies should include specific communication for development components.

2. Development organisations should include communication for development as a central element at the inception of programmes.

3. Strengthen the communication for development capacity within countries and organisations at all levels. This includes: people in their communities, development specialists and other staff, and capacity-building and academic programmes.

5. Adopt and implement policies and legislation that provide an enabling environment for communication for development – including free and pluralistic media, the right to information and to communicate.

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achieving development goals. The successes achieved, particularly in the area of health, led to organisations such as DAC-OECD to form a group of experts on this issue. This group concluded that communication should be incorporated into the entire project management cycle and not be used exclusively for disseminating the final results of the programme (OECD 2008). The following diagram shows the similarity between the communication cycle and the MfDR cycle, and suggests the basis for greater synergy between them.

As a result of the previously mentioned working group, the OECD (2008) distinguished between “communicating about results” and “communicating for results” in development. Although in practice there is a considerable overlap between these two approaches and it is often difficult to identify the boundary between them, the emerging view is

that they are both complementary but have different objectives, strategies and requirements.

Conceptual framework for communicating for and about results

Source: OECD 2009.

Communicating for results

Communicating about results

Feedback

Setting goals, agreeing on targets and strategies

Service delivery/ Results

Allocation of available resources

Monitoring and evaluation

Reporting to the public


Feedback

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Communicating about development results Communicating for development results

Comparable with “Corporate Communication” Comparable with “Strategic Communication” or “Communication for Development” (C4D)

Objective: communicate the results/impact achieved by the programme. Debate about whether it is useful for development results or only for the institution

Objective: use of communication to achieve the programme’s development goals

Presence: used to disseminate information at the end of the programme Presence: communication is incorporated into the entire programme cycle, from the initial analysis to the final evaluation

Visibility tool, corporate image and publicity. In the worst cases, political or electoral communication. In the best cases, communicates accountability

Management tool to increase the probability of success in development processes. Framed within managing for development results (MfDR)

Short-term vision Medium to long-term vision

Target audience: focused on “public opinion”, donors and other levels of government

Target audience: focused on the beneficiaries of the programme and other interested parties, including political leaders, civil servants, non-governmental organisations, socioeconomic stakeholders, universities and development cooperation partners/donors

Role of the communicators: packaging and providing information about results (top-down). Incorporating publicity and public relations strategies

Role of the communicators: they play an important role in setting goals and strategies and allocating resources, a part of which are dedicated to communicating for results

Most of the efforts made by international cooperation are concentrated in this area, which is usually a central element of terms laid down by partners and donors

Currently a minority choice due to a lack of awareness among decision-makers of its potential, the lack of specialist resources and the cost of measuring its impact

Principal characteristics of communicating about and for development results

Source: created by the author.

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Both types of communication can work together, and this complementarity is backed by important actors in international cooperation such as the OECD, the World Bank, and various UN and bilateral cooperation agencies. The exclusive use of communicating about results in development programmes and/or public policies is wasting the potential of communication for increasing the

chances of success in development processes, as well as their sustainability.

The box below presents an example of incorporating communication about and for development into a European Union programme.

EXAMPLE: Communication strategy for the 2nd Peace Laboratory in Colombia

Programme of the European Union, the Government of Colombia Social Action and the Supra-Departmental Association of Municipalities in the Alto Patia Region (ASOPATIA)Taken from the GLOBAL OPERATING PLAN OF THE 2nd PEACE LABORATORY

Communication strategy

A central aim of the Peace Laboratory is to build a community of Colombians who, together with their institutions, generate the political conditions for overcoming armed conflict and building a culture of peace. Formulating a cross-cutting communication and dissemination strategy for the principles, actions and results expected from the Peace Laboratory, framed within the specific dynamics of each region, is considered a main priority for achieving this aim. This strategy should go beyond simple visibility and will instead centre on the criterion of communication for development as an integral part of the programme and its projects, with the aim of generating a sense of identity and belonging among the beneficiaries of these programmes and projects.

In this regard, the communication strategy should seek to build a new form of managing information media based on peaceful coexistence, the democratic construction of a culture of peace and the management of regional conflict. Communication should be seen as a means of boosting the social processes supported by the Peace Laboratory and as a generator of identity. Likewise, there should remain a historical record of the project that systematises the conception, implementation experience and evaluation of the entire 2nd Peace Laboratory programme.

The Laboratory’s communication strategy includes the definition of a set of principles on the generation, analysis and dissemination of information; the conversion of this into useful knowledge and, finally, the transformation of the knowledge generated into better and more qualified decisions, that facilitate the successful execution of the Laboratory and its projects in each region, as well as increase its national and international impact.

This series of actions should contribute significantly towards achieving the goals and ensuring the credibility, effectiveness and sustainability of the Peace Laboratory. The strategy is guided by the Communications Unit, a Training Unit and the Regional Observatories that interact and provide continuous feedback in order to generate actions that lead to achieving the objectives and, therefore, towards building peace.

Taken from the website of the Second Peace Laboratory (Colombia).http://www.laboratoriodepaz.org/publicaciones.php?id=28908

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1.3. Communication, decentralised cooperation and public policies

Decentralised cooperation is a relatively new phenomenon in international development cooperation and one which is particularly dynamic in the framework of relations between the European Union and Latin America. The European Union was the first to incorporate decentralised cooperation into its cooperation programmes, and also the first actor to adopt this approach after it was incorporated into the agreements of the 4th Lomé Convention, signed in 1989 with African, Caribbean and Pacific countries (Del Huerto 2004:21-22).

The European Commission defines

decentralised cooperation as a “new approach to cooperation that seeks to establish direct relations with the bodies of local representation and to stimulate these bodies’ capacity to create and execute development projects with the direct participation of the population groups concerned, taking into consideration their interests and their points of view on development” (EC 1992).

The European Consensus on Development, as well as other documents and resolutions adopted by the European Union, highlight the role that local governments can play as important stakeholders in promoting development, fundamentally because

Contextualisation of decentralised cooperation

Source: Martínez and Sanahuja 2010:47.

External action area

Decentralised cooperation

Social movements

Decentralised governments in the north

Design of development cooperation

policies

Top-down participation

Bottom-up participation

Design of development

policies

Top-down participation

Bottom-up participation

Civil society in the north

Decentralised governments in the south

Civil society in the south

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of their accumulated experience and their potential role in driving change, preventing conflicts and supporting decentralisation processes, among other relevant aspects (European Commission 2008).

1.3.1. Challenges and limitations of decentralised cooperation

The challenges and limitations of decentralised cooperation stem partly from the challenges and limitations of development cooperation in general, as well as from its specific characteristics. The added value and potential of decentralised cooperation raises multiple challenges of its own and regarding its role in the international development cooperation system. Martínez and Sanahuja (2010) identified some of these challenges and limitations:

(i) The proliferation of stakeholders, the fragmentation of aid and spiralling costs are features shared by all types of cooperation, but this is emphasised in decentralised cooperation. To manage these problems, further progress must be made towards acting on the commitments made in Paris and Accra on aid effectiveness at a local level instead of just discussing them, incorporating the criteria of harmonisation, complementarity and division of labour into the task, as well as aligning it with the partners’ agenda and promoting democratic ownership.

Harmonisation requires the shared generation and use of relevant information, in addition to dialogue between partners and donors in order to establish common agreements. Aligning partners and donors is based equally on the exchange of information and on having fluid and efficient communication channels. Democratic ownership requires citizens to take ownership, and for this to happen communication actions to inform and talk with citizens are necessary.

However, managing information and communication does not usually form part of the design of decentralised cooperation programmes or policies.

(ii) Another important challenge is the fact that the development of an institutional framework and an increase of resources for decentralised cooperation have not been accompanied by a similar development of capacities, procedures and instruments for carrying it out. Thus, further progress is needed in managing for development results and accountability – aspects in which communication plays a central role.

(iii) Furthermore, the cooperation plans of decentralised actors have been, on occasions, overambitious in terms of the management capacities of those implementing them, and there is a notable absence of mechanisms that make monitoring and evaluation possible. These

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limitations are reflected in the difficulty of measuring the impact of projects/policies. On numerous occasions decentralised cooperation programmes have not created baselines or conducted analyses (participative or not) which include indicators that enable the impact at the end of the programmes to be assessed, which, in turn, hampers the evaluation of the programme’s success or failure, the resulting capacity-building and the dissemination of the successes achieved, among others.

The consequences of not including indicators of “communicating for development”, regarding changes in perceptions, knowledge, behaviour, etc., also impedes the measurement of “intangibles” in development processes, which are vital for their sustainability.

(iv) Decentralised cooperation helps bring local governments greater internationalisation, which can encourage increased participation in global governance. However, to do this they must resist the temptation to just capitalize on this international projection and instead increase their contribution on the international stage, systematising and disseminating their own experiences, as well as building proposals that enrich the debate and incorporate regional actors into the international scene.

(v) Another challenge facing decentralised cooperation is the emphasis on everything relating to extending, deepening and promoting a medium to long-term strategic vision, going beyond instrumental exchange to build alliances committed to development processes. Likewise, the aim is to encourage citizen participation and build capacities in all the stages of the programmes/policies, strengthening their role as individuals with rights and that of their governments as duty-bearers, and thereby reinforcing the “rights-based approach” in programmes/policies.

(vi) Finally, a limitation and a challenge at the same time is the absence of a shared definition that precisely identifies what is and what is not decentralised cooperation. This difference of views affects the consolidation of one of decentralised cooperation’s added values –its contribution to democratic governance– as the participation of local actors from civil society in territorial development processes depends on the vision held by the partners and not on the culture and specific added value, despite the contributions in this area made by different international agreements and declarations.

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1.3.2. Communication in the management of local public programmes/policies

Communication is, by definition, an interactive process, which is why it is equally important to generate information and implement communication channels from the municipality (local government) towards the population as it is to empower the population so that they can request pertinent information and communicate with the municipality to express their opinions and proposals.

The communication model adopted by a municipality is closely linked to the model of local development, which defines the place that citizens and institutions occupy within it. Likewise, in principle, decentralised cooperation programmes are linked to the local government’s development model. However, they should also be consistent with the principles that guide international development cooperation, which involves the effective democratisation of management and the impact of the programmes on citizens, as well as on the model of local development itself. These principles also affect cooperation programmes’ communication models and this may generate tensions or inconsistencies between them and the municipalities’ (local governments’) communication models.

The role of communication in local programmes/policies encompasses different areas:

/ Inform, the different audiences identified

(internal and external) and public opinion, about any of the stages of a public programme/policy: i) information about the identification of a problem/need/right; ii) information about the process of defining the programme/policy; iii) information about the objectives sought and the strategies planned for achieving them; iv) information about the resources, support and actors involved in carrying out the programme/policy; v) information about the processes and progress in implementing the programme/policy; vi) information about the evaluation and results obtained.

/ Raise awareness, with the different audiences identified and public opinion, about aspects considered relevant to the programme/policy, fostering democratic and social values (solidarity, respect, tolerance, equity, shared responsibility). For example, raise awareness in the media about the need to include development issues on the local media agenda, raise awareness in businesses about their environmental responsibility, raise the public’s awareness about saving energy, rejecting violence, etc. This can be done using various strategies, techniques and formats that will be discussed in later chapters.

/ Develop skills and capacities in the general population or specific groups: communication is a powerful tool for creating and strengthening skills and capacities for local development. There are many tried and tested strategies used in programmes/policies for fighting poverty,

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productive development, promoting health, improving the environment, etc., that are usually grouped together under the umbrella of “communication for development” and which will be detailed in later chapters.

/ Generate participation and social mobilisation: communication can contribute to developing people’s (inhabitants, leaders, authorities and civil servants) communication skills and those of organisations in order to become stakeholders in their own development processes and to establish the dialogues between municipalities and citizens that are vital for the success of development programmes/policies.

/ Communicate the goals and achievements of the development programme/policy: numerous authors indicate that communicating development results contributes to those development processes, provided that the messages and images transmitted are in harmony with the goals being sought.

The following chapters in this guide discuss these aspects in greater depth, developing them further and suggesting techniques and tools for their implementation.

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2. Communicating for development in cooperation programmes/policies

2.1. Communication for development and social change

The analysis of programmes to fight poverty has demonstrated that the effectiveness of human development processes (and, therefore, of development cooperation) depends to a great extent on the effective flow of information/communication between citizens and governments (national and local). This two-way flow of communication has been identified repeatedly as a defining characteristic of good communication in development contexts (BBC-WST 2010).

For UN advisor Alfonso Gumucio (2007), there are many challenges facing the future of communication for development and social change, among them, the challenge of naming things, the challenge of developing the discipline, and, finally, the difficulty of legitimising communication for social change among the large bodies and governments (national and local) and the D-NGOs that make decisions on development.

Regarding this last point, Gumucio indicated that specialists in C4D need to be legitimised and elevated in the hierarchy of development organisations, referring to the need to position communication for development and social change at the top of the agenda in these organisations, which also calls for a new profile of communicators with a strategic vision of communication for social change, placed at the heart of decision-making and not, as is currently

the case, as “spokespersons” for decisions made by others.

2.1.1. What is communication for development and social change?

Communication for development responds to various approaches and methodologies with a common vision: using communication to achieve development results. It is an emerging discipline still under construction, but it has demonstrated its effectiveness particularly in public policies and programmes linked to fighting poverty, and in policies in the area of health.

Despite there currently being many different positions regarding the definition of communication for development, in this guide we have used the concept as the general framework of reference regarding the potential of communication in human development processes.

It could be said that communication for development (C4D) is the use of processes, techniques and communication media to help a population gain full awareness of its situation and of its options for changing, resolving conflicts, achieving consensus, planning actions for sustainable development, acquiring the knowledge and skills necessary to improve their conditions and that of the society in which they live, as well as increasing the effectiveness of institutions (FAO 2010).

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Communication for development and social change helps to improve the effectiveness of development processes in the following ways:

/ It contributes to open and inclusive public dialogue (national and/or local) on policy options. This leads to greater and more informed participation in policymaking by significant segments of the population. The result is increased support and commitment for the strategy that is agreed.

/ It manages expectations. It allows people to adjust their expectations to a vision of a process based on the recognition of the economic and political context, which can help local governments.

/ It promotes transparency and accountability. Open and inclusive dialogue contributes towards better

governance and democratic legitimacy. Citizens can follow the progress of the policies.

/ It creates or deepens a public culture of citizen–government dialogue. Such a culture has enormous benefits all round for the development agenda.

The following chart illustrates the interrelation and interdependence between communication structures and communication processes. Press freedom, the defence of transparency and accountability are prerequisites. Therefore, press freedom influences the functioning of the different types of communication (public, private and community), which, in turn, have an impact on the real processes of communication for development.

A communication process aimed at producing social change through participation, knowledge-sharing and

Conceptual framework for communicating for and about results (the aspects covered in this chapter are circled)

Source: OECD 2009.



Feedback







Feedback

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political debate depends on free-flowing communication.

Communication for development and social change fosters the active participation of the key stakeholders in a development process and proposes the necessary flow of communication at all levels, for example, vertically between the participants in national, regional and community plans, and horizontally among peers, such as members of the community, civil society organisations, non-governmental organisations, authorities and decision-makers.

2.1.2. . Principal strategies and tools of communication for development

This section briefly presents the main focuses of communication for development: i) communication for social change; ii) advocacy; iii) behaviour change communication.

Communication strategies employ perspectives ranging from the psychosocial viewpoints of learning theories to the communication media, but dialogue and the active participation of the public are essential elements of communication for development. Many programmes have centred on the individual as the focus of change (Singhal 2003), but it has been demonstrated that to change behaviour on large scale it is important to take into account cultural

Communicating about development results

Communication context

Press freedom

/ Transparency

/ Accountability

Communication context

Social change

/ Participation

/ Social and political dialogue

/ Sharing knowledge

/ Behavioural change

Channels

/ Public

/ Private – Commercial

/ Community

/ Print, electronic and audio-visual media (radio-TV-ICT)

/ Fiction - Theatre

/ Folk media

/ Interpersonal

/ Others

Interrelation and interdependence between communication structures and communication processes

Source: DANIDA 2007:8.

Note: «Folk media” are communicative activities not mediated by communication forms and channels, such as street performance, songs, theatre, puppet shows and fairs.

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values, social norms and structural inequalities. Good communication strategies must also be aware of the political and legislative environment.

Communication for social change

Communication for social change is a process of public and private dialogue aimed at empowerment through which people define who they are, what they want and how they can get it (Gray-Felder and Deane 1999). This approach highlights the importance of horizontal communication, the role of people as agents of change and the need for negotiation skills and building alliances (UNDP 2011; CSFC 2003).

It is an approach that seeks to improve people’s lives, amplifying the voices of the voiceless and strengthening their presence in the public domain (Gumucio 2004). It is a model that seeks to empower people rather than persuade them, with a group focus that aspires to principles such as tolerance, self-determination, equality, social justice and active participation. It is a strategy that leads to collective action, which can result in individual and/or collective changes (Beltrán 2005).

According to Gumucio (n.d.), the five essential conditions present in the process of communication for social change are:

/ Community participation and ownership.

/ Language and cultural pertinence.

/ Generation of local content.

/ Use of appropriate technology.

/ Networking and convergence.

Communication for social change uses participative techniques to generate the process of communication within communities, with the aim of allowing people to create their own agendas for change. This process includes the presence of an expert as a catalyst. Although it is more firmly based on dialogue, this strategy employs different communication media, either traditional or modern, depending on the characteristics and needs of each group (UNDP 2011).

But, how is a communication for social change intervention built? UNICEF, for example, in its communication strategy for social change in the case of actions linked to HIV/AIDS, uses a combination of three synergistic strategies: i) public defence and promotion (advocacy) to put the issue on the agenda and influence decision-makers; ii) social mobilisation, to form broad social alliances with organisations of civil society; iii) behaviour change communication, with the aim of increasing shared information, knowledge acquisition, discussion within communities and families, and of facilitating informed behaviour among individuals and groups.

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Communication for public promotion and defence (advocacy)

Advocacy for development is a combination of actions designed to put an issue on the agenda, influence public policies, gain social acceptance and the support of the system for a particular goal or programme (Servaes and Malikhao 1993).

It involves gathering and structuring information persuasively, communicating the case to those in positions of responsibility and other potential supporters, including the public, through interpersonal and media channels, and generating actions that raise support for the goal being pursued from social institutions and decision-makers.

The main actors of advocacy include the state and civil society, the private sector and international cooperation.

It focuses, above all, on councillors or policymakers at local, national and international level, with the idea that “winning them over to the cause” helps bring about the social changes being sought. According to the model proposed by UNICEF (2009), social advocacy has three important results on change: on policies, on the system and on democracy.

The most commonly related categories are:

/ Institutional strengthening. Lines of action focused on areas within the organisation that need reinforcing in

order to carry out more effective advocacy work.

/ Strengthening alliances. Lines of action linked to the work of other organisations, networks and people and the elements that are needed to make the alliances that are formed stronger or more solid, including some of the actions related to the secondary audience.

/ Increasing the political will of decision-makers. Lines of action directly focused on the target audience in the first instance, but also on secondary audiences, and to turning threats into opportunities.

Behaviour Change Communication (BCC)

In the last thirty years, Behaviour Change Communication (BCC) has moved from the small-scale IEC model (information, education, and communication) to take its place in national/local strategic communication programmes. The aim of BCC is to empower people and to provide communities with options for their wellbeing and enable them to act on these options.

BCC views social change and individual change as two sides of the same coin. From this perspective, behaviour change communication is defined as “... the well planned and organised use of communication techniques and resources (media and non-media) to promote development, through a change of attitude and/or behaviour, disseminating the necessary information and generating the active and conscious participation of all

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those involved, including beneficiaries, in the process” (FAO 2002:3).

The UN Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) (2002) presented five stages of the behaviour change process: i) presenting the message; ii) knowledge/understanding of the message; iii) ownership/approval of the message; iv) decision to unite with the message content; v) implementation/actioning the message content, and vi) promoting the “behaviour” detailed in the message.

In the community, BCC is about changing behaviour, but framed within a context and some personal factors (cultural, social and economic) which take on greater importance, including: i) knowledge (so that people do not act through ignorance); ii) attitudes (so that people and communities work to create the right conditions for the behaviour being pursued); iii) behaviour and practices (in order to reduce the known risks to people and the community), and iv) to foster interpersonal and promotional communication (so that people can encourage others to act positively both in private and in public).

2.2. Incorporating communication into cooperation programmes/policies

The presence of communication in development planning can be found in three basic “formats”:

a) Projects/programmes that are exclusively about communication, such as a project with the development goal of “increasing the Latin-American population’s level of information about the Millennium Goals”. It is unusual to find projects of this type.

b) Projects that incorporate a “communication sub-strategy” in the programme/policy planning. Despite there still being few projects that incorporate communication as a sub-strategy, this format has experienced the biggest increase over the last decade.

c) Projects that incorporate cross-cutting communication. This type is the rarest, owing to the methodological difficulty involved in including cross-cutting communication in project cycle management in general.

In any case, communication should be a tool for achieving development goals.

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2.2.1. Steps for incorporating communication into the programme/policy cycle

Incorporating communication into development programmes is an important resource for managing for development results. To increase the likelihood of success of development processes and/or actions, communication should ideally be present throughout the entire project cycle management process or the policy cycle, and it should integrate and complement the structure of the programme, and be reflected in the projected resources.

The support communication provides development is only as effective as the programme/policy itself. Even the most carefully designed communication strategy will fail if the project’s goals are not clearly defined, if there is not broad consensus among the stakeholders involved, or if the activities are not correctly applied.

For a development communication strategy to be well defined it must be present in all the stages of the programme or policy cycle. In each of these stages communication plays a role that affects the likelihood of successfully achieving the development goals set by the programme/policy.

Furthermore, the stakeholders and beneficiaries must be involved in designing the communication strategy.

Given that development programmes/policies are implemented in specific contexts, it is important that the “problematic situation” and the “desired situation” are identified in a way that allows suitable planning to take place at the start and, later, confirmation of just how successful the project was in terms of achieving its objectives and the effect it had on the target groups.

The path (strategy) to achieving the objectives is based on obtaining a series of results (or sub-strategies) by carrying out certain activities that will require resources (human, material, technical and time). In addition to the internal factors mentioned earlier, the success or failure of the project will also depend on external factors that should be equally well identified in order to minimise uncertainty and risks.

The analysis required in order to incorporate communication into the programme/policy cycle involves two stages.2 The first consists of reviewing the operational components of the programme. The second stage is to identify the main strategic communication objectives linked to the phase of the programme/policy cycle. This will provide an essential basis for developing a realistic and comprehensive communication strategy, including an action plan. Below, we present five examples of the main communication objectives for different stages.

2 Mozammel and Schechter 2005.

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Source: Mozammel and Schechter 2005 [adapted by the author].

Communication interventions in different stages of the programme/policy

Preparation Evaluation

Identification

Negotiation

/ Operational-communication analysis vis-a-vis the aims of the programme/ Initial draft of communication strategy and action plan vis-a-vis the development goals/ Sensitisation workshops and consultation/ Identification of communication functions /capacity/ Manage expectations

Appraisal

/ Identify and cost out line items based on action plan/ Modify action plan/ Assign budget to the communication intervention/ Manage expectations

/ Assess the contribution of communication to the development goals/ Conduct participatory impact evaluation/ Dissemination of new knowledge

Implementation and supervision

/ Preparation and implementation of communication campaigns/ Material production/ Training (facilitators, journalists, etc)/ Management Information System and other M&E* tools (at all levels)/ Stakeholder networking/ Communication for appraisal and learning

/ Stakeholder consultation/ Beneficiary analysis/ Communication assessment/ Manage expectations of the programme /policy

/ Articulate differences/ Define conditions/ Manage expectations

C4D in the programme/policy cycle

* M&E: monitoring and evaluation.

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Operational characteristics Strategic communication objectives

1. Participatory planning

Participatory planning is key to building trust, ownership, understanding, and commitment by stakeholders to operational objectives, processes, and other stakeholders. It is also fundamental for ensuring periodic evaluation of the programme and adjustment. The main objectives of communication activities in this process include the following:/ Build awareness among and sensitise direct and indirect stakeholders by discussing

objectives, scope, processes, roles, responsibilities, benefits, tradeoffs, and other issues./ Build ownership and contribute to operational effectiveness. Ensure that all direct

and indirect stakeholders are made aware of the operational context and institutional arrangements and are given the opportunity to provide input.

/ Build trust by initiating new interaction and communication channels among stakeholders, improving relations among groups with a tradition of mistrust.

/ Identify the scope and style of project-related messages and possible tools and means of delivery.

2. Community development committees and subcommittees to manage programmes and policies

Communication activities related to the selection and operation of local development committees are designed to ensure a transparent and continuous information flow within the community and between the community and other major stakeholders in implementation processes. This information flow is designed to prevent capture by elites and provide realistic opportunities for all members of the community to contribute to the development process by becoming aware of involvement opportunities and by providing insights, knowledge and constructive criticism. Communication activities will also help to:/ Identify existing power dynamics in each community and help determine whether a new development committee should be formed./ Establish criteria for appointment to the new development committee./ Facilitate community-wide awareness of the roles and responsibilities of the development committee with respect to the community, local committees, and other institutions involved in the project, including local government.

3. Participatory appraisal, planning, and monitoring and evaluation

The participation of the beneficiaries in appraisal, planning, and monitoring and evaluation is fundamental in order for citizens to understand and reflect upon the design, management, and implementation activities related to the programme. Communication processes should facilitate the ongoing exchange of information among the stakeholders involved in order to leverage the broad host of local capacities, and ensure that development priorities are based on a collective vision of all members rather than the interests of certain elites. Communication activities must be transparent and participatory. They should also:/ Establish community recognition./ Facilitate participatory community-wide discussions of local development vision and priorities./ Ensure community-wide awareness of the advantages, disadvantages and benefits of each potential subproject./ Facilitate community-wide participation in auditing, accountability, and measuring results in the context of the subproject cycle./ Facilitate community-wide awareness, and critical reflection regarding successes, failure, challenges, and opportunities associated with project management and implementation

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Programme/policy planning is one of the most important stages: the likelihood of attaining development goals largely depends on it but, paradoxically, it is one of the stages that attracts the least attention and resources. Decentralised cooperation and public policies are often applied in haste and do not always follow all the necessary steps, or include all the elements required for good planning.

Experience shows that the presence of communication in the design and planning phase of a programme/policy has an important influence on quality.

2.2.2. Identifying and preparing a programme/policy

An in-depth understanding of the situation, knowledge, skills, perceptions, attitudes, behaviours and context of the territory is fundamental for identifying/establishing development and communication priorities.

This analysis of the situation is sometimes called the “baseline” or “diagnosis”: it is essential for being able to take informed, and not arbitrary, decisions, and for overcoming the usual excuses for not carrying it out, such as that the problem

4. Management of programme funds

Communication activities should convey clear messages about budgeting, and report the responsibilities of all those involved with the management of funds. These activities should establish:/ Clear understanding among all community members of the rights and responsibilities associated with obtaining and managing funds./ Clear understanding among local government authorities and other stakeholders of the community’s rights with respect to fund management./ Clear understanding among all members of the community of accountability obligations./ Awareness among all local businesses of opportunities for subcontracting and project involvement./ Awareness within the community of challenges, opportunities, and successes associated with disbursing and allocating funds.

5. Exchange and capacity-building

It is one of the major areas in which strategic communication is an enabling factor. A regular and systematic communication approach can not only bring communities together socially, it can also foster the development process by sharing knowledge and experiences.The main communication objectives include the following:/ Integrate general programme objectives and processes among the beneficiaries./ Facilitate the sharing of knowledge and experience of the development process among communities and involved stakeholders by institutionalizing a systematic process of dialogue and building capacities./ Promote participation and involvement in the development process by local media to facilitating exchanges by communities (through use of various media channels).

Source: Mozammel and Schechter 2005 [adapted by the author].

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is already well-known (without having done a systematic analysis and made it available to all the stakeholders involved), or that it is felt that establishing a baseline will cost too much time or money.

Against all recommendations, today there are still a great number of cooperation programmes being launched without a situation analysis, ignoring the fact that working without a good baseline: i) prevents the people affected/beneficiaries from gaining access to systematised knowledge of their own situation that they should have formed part of, thus undermining one of the principles of international cooperation which is participation; ii) it complicates (or prevents) managing for development results (MfDR).

Situation analysis

The situation analysis includes analysing various aspects linked to the development goals the programme/policy hopes to contribute to. It should include the following aspects:

/ Global view of the problem, describing the relevant global instruments for tackling the problem and the context of the central issues guiding the international agenda, such as the MDG, HRBD, development effectiveness, gender equality and governance.

/ Analysis of the problem in the country, using the available data. Identify the existing legal framework and public

policies, and the development of their application. Identify previous programmes to address the issue/problem/right in question.

/ Analysis of the problem in the local environment: identify the extent to which people feel they are affected by the problem; use the programme documents and local knowledge, as well as existing local statistics, as much as possible. Divide up the affected population according to different aspects, such as geographical area, cultural or religious groups, socioeconomic status, age and gender.

/ Analysis of the context: it is also important to bear social/cultural factors and attitudes in mind when analysing the underlying causes of the problem and in order to understand why people behave in a particular way. Look into the socio-cultural and economic factors maintaining existing behaviour (positive and negative). This answers the “why” question. If the aim of a programme is to end a harmful practice, for example, child marriages or child labour, it is important to discuss not only the harmful effects of the practice, but also who benefits and how. To be effective, the communication strategy will need to address both the benefits and risks of harmful practices as well as the barriers to adopting positive practices. (UNICEF 2008)

Finally, as part of the context analysis, identify which organisations are working on the issue in the region, and take into account what is being done or has been

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done by international cooperation agents (multilateral, bilateral, decentralised) and the private sector (communication media, religious groups and other groups and collectives).

An in-depth understanding of the situation, knowledge, skills, perceptions, attitudes, behaviours and the context of the participants in the community or the affected groups is essential for establishing communication priorities.

Programme analysis

A subsequent step in creating the communication project (or sub-matrix) is to analyse the programme/policy designed to address the problem/right in question, in order to insert it into the communication strategy. The aim of the programme analysis is to identify the way in which communication can help to achieve the objectives and/or results pursued, which is the first step towards building and justifying a communication strategy.

The situation and the programme analyses should form the basis on which to determine who the participants/stakeholders will be. The goal of this analysis is to identify groups based on different criteria and the role each of them plays.

Stakeholder analysis

A stakeholder can be any individual, group of people, institution or company likely to have a connection with a particular project/programme. At this

point it should be checked that the programme includes a stakeholder analysis which: i) identifies any stakeholder(s) likely to be affected (positively or negatively) by the project and the way in which they are affected, at community, local and national level; ii) understands the stakeholders’ roles, interests, relative power and capacity for participation; iii) identifies the stakeholders’ position, i.e., beneficiary/victim of cooperation/conflict, vis-a-vis the project and among each other, and then design intervention strategies suited to the different positions held; iv) interprets the results of the analysis and defines how they can be incorporated into the project design.

This analysis is important in terms of communication in two ways: i) it enables the social communication media to be incorporated as “actors” in their role as creators of “public opinion” and/or mediators, in so far as they are likely to become allies, neutral or opponents of the project or programme, and ii) it allows us, in the subsequent steps of the methodology, to identify and plan which recipients (target groups) the project will address and the focus (what we want to “change” in the recipient) in the case of wanting to influence the media.

The stakeholders may include: i) interpersonal communication channels/spaces (a religious organisation in the community/neighbourhood, for example), ii) organisational/institutional communication loops (union or public institution channels of communication

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which the beneficiary population has access to), and iii) the mass media (local or national, written or audiovisual, etc). All of these can be incorporated into almost all projects as social mediators. Doing this will provide stakeholders with an opportunity to detail their “potential contribution to the project’s goals”, just like all the other actors.

In cases where this analysis has not been done, an initial assessment should be carried out and included in the project document.

Participant behavioural analysis and objectives

To identify behavioural objectives it is necessary to start by looking at the aims of the programme and clarifying the key behaviours that are required (and by whom) in order to achieve those aims. If the programme that requires the communication strategy does not have clearly defined behavioural objectives and participants, it would be advisable to carry out actions addressing this need with the partners, communities and stakeholders.

Identifying behavioural objectives is important for planning programmes for social and behavioural change, and it is not only a communication problem. Establishing sound behavioural objectives involves them not only being SMART (specific, measurable, attainable, relevant and time-bound), but also clearly indicting “what” behaviour that is being sought and “by whom”.

Among the questions that could be included in a behavioural analysis, are:

/ Which “behavioural” problem(s) should be addressed? Which people/group(s) exhibit

SMART, but without yet being a behavioural objective

SMART, which identifies who is exhibiting which behaviour

12 months after the start of the project field activities, XX% of the babies in the District “Y” are being exclusively breast-fed during their first six months of life

12 months after the start of the project field activities, XX% of the mothers of the newborns who participated in the “YYY” programme, breast-fed their babies exclusively (without additional liquids or solids) during the first six months of the baby’s life

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each of these “behavioural” problems?

/ Do men and women exhibit different behaviour patterns related to problem X?

/ What are the consequences of the specific behaviour(s)? What form do these consequences take for each of the groups/people identified?

/ What are the desirable behaviours for each of the groups/people affected positively or negatively by the behaviours or by the changes in behaviour?

/ What are some of the barriers (patriarchal, cultural, religious, social, of uses and customs, financial, political) hampering the potentially “ideal” or acceptable behaviour?

/ What existing factors could encourage “ideal behaviour”?

/ What behaviours and practices need to be promoted? And in which groups?

/ Who are the partners and allies that we need to involve?

/ What gender stereotypes are there?

Setting behavioural objectives should be based on a participatory process with the affected population and with the guidance of experts. Given that achieving behavioural change calls for complex processes that go beyond providing information, the list of behaviour change objectives should be kept very short so that it is manageable and attainable in one programme. The changes identified can be short, medium and long term, as they are processes of social change.

The process of raising awareness and adopting behavioural changes works better if the social groups affected participate actively and if the process is based on relationships of trust.

The behaviours of the primary (PP), secondary (SP) and tertiary (TP) participants should be analysed and selected. The lessons learned from communication for development teach us that training and sensitisation alone are not enough to ask people to change their practices – for example, by recycling household waste or saving water. Changing practices requires (UNICEF 2008):

/ As far as possible, that the group selected to change its practices should participate in identifying the problem and in proposing the solution.

/ A basic knowledge of information about new practices and how to carry them out.

/ Arousing interest in the new practice and linking it to values and lifestyles.

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/ Carrying out preliminary trials with the innovative practices and allowing the affected population to evaluate their usefulness and impact.

/ The acceptance and commitment of the group affected.

One procedure suggested for carrying out a participatory evaluation of the problems and needs is through a reference study of the beneficiaries’ knowledge, attitudes and practices (KAP).

A KAP survey should analyse not only the behaviours of the primary participants –such as taking their children to be vaccinated, washing their hands, child-rearing practices, condom use and practicing bio-safety measures in poultry farms– it also includes support behaviours and the practices of the secondary and tertiary participants selected –such as the communication skills of health workers, the conduct of grandmothers with regard to breast-feeding and immunisation, promotion actions by community, local,

and national leaders to support registering births, journalists’ responsibility and skills for providing sufficient and balanced coverage of the issue, etc.

Differences between “behaviour change objectives” and “communication objectives”

Identifying the behaviour change objectives required for the success of the programme is not the same as identifying the communication objectives (as we will see later on). The “behaviour” analysis should be conducted in order to assess at what stage the participating groups are in terms of their level of awareness/knowledge/practice of the desirable behaviours. This will help to position the communication activities and messages according to the “behaviour change stages”.

In addition, communication objectives are not usually the same as those of the project or programme. Achieving the communication objectives/results is a necessary condition, but in itself is not

Differences between programme objectives, behavioural objectives and communication objectives/results in a public policy for integrating people with AIDS

Objectives of the “People living with AIDS (PLWA)” programme Behavioural objectives Communication objectives/results

1. Promote the rights of PLWA assuring a supportive legal environment.

1. Strengthen the capacity of civil society organizations (CSOs) to take strategic action to bring legal change to assure all rights with equality.

1. Through advocacy, local authorities will assure the rights of PLWA particularly related to health care and education (objective).

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enough. Above we provide an illustration of the development of a hypothetical programme of communication objectives, starting with the aims of the corresponding programmes and the behaviour change objectives.

Analysis of the participants/stakeholders

After carrying out the situation analysis and programme analysis it is necessary to analyse the participants/stakeholders in order to establish the communication objectives and results, which will be the next step.3

3 However, in order to maximise the efforts this analysis should be reviewed and adapted once said objectives and results have been defined, as should the approach and tools that will be used.

The aim of the analysis is to identify the relevant groups of participants, their characteristics and the resources that each group may have access to in order to achieve and maintain the desirable behaviour(s). Addressing the programme objectives for each group requires different communication strategies, messages and channels for dialogue.

A first step would be to identify all the participants/stakeholders. There are different options, sometimes linked to different communication for development strategies. UNICEF (2008), for example, suggests placing the participants/stakeholders in three concentric circles, with the primary participants4 (PP) in the

4 It is important to bear in mind that in programmes that use behaviour change strategy, the primary beneficiary in the programme is not always the

Source: adapted from UNICEF 2008.

2. Guarantee that PLWA have easy access to quality health and educational services.

2. Service providers in health and education sectors provide PLWA with easy access to quality service with dignity and equality

2.1. Health care providers in maternal health services who participate in programme activities treat and advise HIV positive women and their children with dignity and equality (result).2.2. School management and local government ensure enrolment of all children irrespective of their or their parents’ HIV status (result).

3. Reduce social and cultural stigmatisation of PLWA.

3. Families and other social actors in their locality accept the participation of PLWA in family, social and cultural events without facing stigma or discrimination.

3.1. Relevant religious, social and community groups discuss HIV/AIDS, compassion, myths and misconceptions at regular meetings, and hold events at least once a year to promote understanding for PLWA and their families (result).3.2. Journalists deliver accurate, evidence-based and balanced reporting on PLWA (result).

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centre and the secondary and tertiary actors in the outer circles.

KAP analysis of the participants/stakeholders

Once the participants and the behavioural objectives have been identified, a more thorough KAP5 analysis should be

primary participant. In the case of child vaccina-tion the main beneficiaries are children; however, as this vaccination depends on the “behaviour” of the parents, these are the primary participants/stakeholders.

5 For this analysis, it is useful to use recent survey data – especially that which identifies knowledge, attitudes and practices linked to the issue. Useful tools and techniques for identifying the participants and the relationships between them include, among others, direct observation, interviews, group discussions, sociograms, etc.

conducted, studying aspects such as (1) behaviours and attitudes, (2) socio-cultural data; (3) interests; (4) uses, consumption and communication networks; (5) power and influence, and (6) position with regard to the programme objectives and strategies. To do this, a double-entry matrix is recommended to provide a broad overview that should be complemented by the research and respective report delving deeper into the most relevant aspects.

Types of participants for C4D strategies

Source: created by the author based on UNICEF 2008.

Primary participants (PP)(e.g. mothers/fathers and children who need to be vaccinated)

Secondary participants (SP)(e.g. SP1: other women in the family; SP2: health workers; SP3: NGO workers; SPn)

Tertiary participants (TP)(e.g. TP1: policymakers assigning resources; TP2: religious leaders; TP3: professional associations that influence health services; TP4: the media; TPn)

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As already mentioned, the first step is to identify the primary (PP), secondary (SP) and tertiary (TP) participants needed in order to maximise the impact of the programme. Once this analysis has been completed the relevant information should be used for defining the behaviour change objectives of the programme in question and, as far as possible, this should be gathered in a participatory way thereby initiating, at this point, the use of communication to achieve the objective.

(1) Behaviours and attitudes: this involves including the behaviours to be changed that were selected in the previous phase. They should be included in the matrix in order to provide an overview that allows these behaviours to be related to the specific participants, as well as to the rest of the information required to define the communication strategies.

Attitudes to different aspects of people’s lives are directly linked to the perceptions they have of themselves and of any of the elements that make up the reality of their lives. These perceptions are determined by objective aspects, such as the “situation” (material conditions of their lives) and the “position” (power relationships with other people and groups).

(2) Socio-cultural aspects: socio-demographic information relevant to the issue/problem/right in question should be collected, such as gender

and age, socioeconomic status, level of studies, language, etc.

(3) Interests: this refers to analysing to what extent the interests of the primary, secondary and tertiary actors may be affected, either favourably or unfavourably, in objective terms, as this could (potentially) influence how willing the actors in question are to commit themselves to helping or hindering efforts to achieve the goals being sought. The recommendation in this case is to use a scale between (+2), where there is a high level of interest in obtaining results, and (-2), where the level of interest in hampering the goals of the project is equally high.

(4) Communication uses, consumptions and networks:6 an important step in the BCC planning process is carrying out a communication analysis. This includes identifying the communication networks within the community. The service providers will need to work with these communication networks to bring about the change in behaviour or maintain correct conducts. Communication channels may include community media and popular media. It is crucial at this stage to find out how the different channels are used, by whom, when and for what purpose.

6 See UNDP 2006 for further development.

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Some of the questions that could be asked in the communication analysis include the following:

/ Who are the primary and secondary audiences being addressed? Which communication channels are the most exposed to the target audiences and can help us reach them?

/ Who are the partners and allies that must commit to carrying out the communication intervention?

/ What existing opportunities or new associations are there for working with?

/ What types of media will be most cost-effective for reaching the planned audience?

(5) Power and influence: means the authority a specific actor has in the decision making required to achieve the goals and results of the development programme, i.e., how

Participants1

(1)Behaviours and

attitudes

(2) Socio-cultural

aspects

(3) Interests2

(-2 to +2)

(4)Communication

uses and networks

(5)Power3

(1 to 3)

(6)Programme objectives

position4

(-3 to +3)

Primary Participant 1

Primary Participant 2

Primary Participant «n»

Secondary Participant 1

Secondary Participant 2

Secondary Participant «n»

Tertiary Participant 1

Tertiary Participant «n»

Matrix for analysing participants/stakeholders/audiences


1. If necessary, the actors can be identified by name, institution and position. This table should gather the information in the way that is most useful for the people carrying out the analysis.2. With -2 being a high level of interest in hindering the goals of the programme / -1, an interest in hampering the goals/ 0, neutral / +1, an interest in achieving the goals of the

programme / +2, a high level of interest in achieving the goals of the programme.3. With 1 being a strong influence / 2, an average influence / 3, a weak influence.4. With -3 being totally against / -2, fairly against / -1, relatively against / 0, neutral / +1, slightly in favour/ +2, quite in favour/ +3, totally in favour.

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much influence the person has over achieving the goals. This may refer to public or private, formal or informal power, governments or even other members of the family or community. A scale of 1 to 3 can be used.7

(6) Position on the programme objectives and strategies: meaning the attitude of the actor in question regarding attaining the development goals and results. This attitude could range from totally against (-3) to totally in favour (+3), with average rankings (and with 0 being a neutral attitude), therefore, one scale can be used to indicate the direct position of the target audiences with regard to the strategies the development programme aims to use and not with regard to the issue in general.8

7 With 1 being a strong influence / 2, an average influence / 3, a weak influence.

8 For example, there may be people who agree with the need to strengthen HIV prevention projects, but not that this should be done by integrating HIV and reproductive health programmes.

2.3. Strategic planning of C4D and incorporation into the LFM

In this stage, the results of the previous analyses should be used, firstly, to clarify whether a communication strategy is needed and, secondly, if it is needed, to design an “environmental” communication strategy that contributes to the development process sought.

To do this, the communication strategy should be incorporated into the project cycle design and management planning phase, which will in turn allow it to be incorporated into the entire structure of the programme, and into the monitoring and evaluation of the actions.

The process of planning, implementation and monitoring communication should be carried out in conjunction with the communities affected by the development programme. This already forms part of the communication for development (C4D) strategy, since it involves analysis, reflection, dialogue and participation in taking decisions that concern them.

The planning matrix is the backbone of the project design (document) which incorporates the basic information about a development action.

Including communication as an “expected outcome” in a logical framework matrix (LFM) involves describing the situation expected as the final result of a communication intervention in terms of a verifiable change or result in one or several selected target groups and it

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Intervention logic Objectively verifiable indicators (OVI) Sources of verification (SOV)

General objective: Improve women’s situation and conditions.

Specific objective: Reduce levels of gender violence in Panama.

Increased by a % the level of awareness and rejection of domestic violence among the general population and among women in particular in Panama by the end of the project.

Comparative analysis (sample population survey before and after project actions).

Result 1: Established universal public policies that encourage prevention, attention and protection of women against gender violence throughout Panama.

Result 2: Improved police and judicial coverage of prevention, attention and protection of victims of gender violence.

Result 3: Panamanian women made aware of their human rights and the existing resources against gender violence.

1. 50% of women exposed to the message.2. 10% increase in the number of women who know their rights.3. 10% increase in the number of women associated with organisations working in areas linked to women’s rights.4. X% increase in the number of women who know about the public and private resources available against gender violence.5. X% increase in the number of women using the resources available against gender violence.

1-4. Survey of a sample of the Panamanian population.

5. Statistics/records of the bodies that offer prevention, attention and protection services.

Result 4: Panamanian population (men and women) is informed and rejects gender violence.

Result 1 activities

Result 2 activities

Result 3 activitiesA.3.1. Participatory research to learn about the views on gender violence and human rights, on the context and on the communication ecosystems, that allows primary and secondary target groups (recipients), as well as the aim (what needs to be “changed”), to be selected/segmented.A.3.2. Determined the type of approach for each target group (interpersonal communication, training on rights, social marketing, social mobilisation, etc.).A.3.3. Created the key messages for each of the (primary and secondary) target groups.A.3.4. Selected communication channel(s) (institutional; information and communication media; socio-traditional or socio-cultural channels; commercial channel).A.3.5. Designed and implemented strategy operation.

Source: Del Río 2006.

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should meet the following requisites: it must be specific, measurable, appropriate, realistic and time-based. In this case it will be implemented through activities and could be expanded in the relevant sub-matrix, if necessary.

As can be seen, results three and four (shaded in the table) are specifically communication for development results. The activities necessary for achieving them follow the usual methodological procedure, but should in turn be pertinent and suitable for a communication for development strategy. In this case we have highlighted some of the activities required in order to guarantee that together they enable us to achieve the desired results.

Start at the beginning: participation

Stakeholders’ participation in decision making during the entire project cycle (planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation) most likely leads to (Blackman 2003): i) greater effectiveness; ii) increased responsibility; iii) improved efficiency; iv) better sustainability; v) greater empowerment and self-sufficiency; vi) increased transparency and accountability, and vii) greater equality.

It is essential to include the gender perspective throughout the programme, and doing this requires incorporating it into the participation strategy. Participation can bring existing conflicts to light (in objective terms, regardless of whether there is awareness of the

conflicts themselves or not), for example between men and women. Experience shows that programmes in which women are highly involved in decision making9 occasionally cause resistance and rejection by men and, all too often, the solution is to avoid this situation, leaving women’s participation for “later” and thus wasting an opportunity to increase effectiveness. However, this is not the only case of a conflict of interests that may arise. The solution is not to avoid these issues, but instead to include strategies for mediation, negotiation and conflict resolution (IFAD 2010).

9 Using varied mechanisms and existing tools to do so.

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Define the aim and objectives of the communication for development

The objectives, results, activities and indicators derive from the strategies or

the combination of strategies selected for each of the development or behavioural goals that were defined. The design and planning of a development programme begins by formulating the objectives to

Experiences

/ In the field of development planningThe district of Comas, in the north of Lima, was founded in 1961. It has a population of approximately half a million inhabitants, most of them living in poverty. Prior to the design of the Integrated Development Plan, the municipal authorities of Comas (elected for three consecutive periods) had been making progress towards deconcentrating and decentralising the district: it was divided into 14 zones, Zone Offices were created, Zone Government Councils were elected, creation and coordination was promoted through Working Groups. In this context, in September 1999 the municipal authorities launched an initiative to create the Comas Integrated District Development Plan to the year 2010. The drafting of the Integrated Development Plan was promoted by the District Municipality of Comas, with the initial support of the NGOs Alternativa and Calandria and the Metropolitan Planning Institute of the Municipality of Lima. Building on this baseline, all the organisations and institutions and the general population were invited to participate in the process. Roughly four thousand representatives and 400 organisations and institutions from all over the district were involved in formulating the plan.

The process of organisation and planning took various moments into account:i) Campaign “Let’s build the future of Comas together”, as part of which a wide range of informative and motivational material (calendars, videos, modules for journalists, banners, panels, murals) was produced.ii) Competitions and creativity workshops to promote the best district development initiatives and proposals.iii) Planning workshops, dealing with the following issues: formulating a Development Vision, drawing up the Strategic Lines and Objectives, defining the Programmes and Projects, and institutionalising the plan.

The planning process included the Working Groups that had been created previously (the Childhood Management Committee, the Youth Panel, the Gender Consultation Panel, the Health and Environment Panel). The management model that was approved was led by the District Development Assembly, the District Development Council, the Thematic Consultation Panels (9 groups) and the Government and Local Development Councils (14 zones).

/ In the field of participation in the proposalAn interesting experience of citizen participation through communication media took place in Lima during mayor Ricardo Belmont’s second term (1995).Owing to cuts in revenue and a shortage of resources, the Municipality of Lima was forced to prioritise certain civil works in the city that had already been planned.To do this, the mayor, Ricardo Belmont, could think of no better solution than to call a “local television consultation” so that Lima’s inhabitants could decide for themselves which civil works should be carried out.The consultation began in May 1995, broadcast by a commercial television channel (RBC Televisión, owned by the mayor, Belmont). A continuous publicity campaign was run on this channel (in programmes and adverts) featuring the three civil works projects that were being proposed: The Dos de Mayo highway interchange (cost: 14,419,000 New Soles), the Higuereta highway interchange (cost: 11,520,000 New Soles), and the El Agustino highway interchange (cost: 5,907,000 New Soles).There was massive participation by Lima’s residents who sent their votes (by letter to the television channel and the municipality) and as a result it was decided to build the highway interchange at Plaza Dos de Mayo. This was inaugurated on 29 August 1995 and is known today as the “The Dos de Mayo Cloverleaf”.

Source: Castañeda 2005.

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be achieved and the results expected from the programme’s actions.

The communication objectives or results should basically indicate the social change and expected behaviour in the knowledge, attitudes and practices (behaviours) of the primary, secondary and tertiary participants, relative to the development problem in the participating groups as the final outcome of the communication programme.

While developing the communication strategy, the programme’s behavioural objectives should be reviewed, with the aim of identifying the role that communication can play in achieving these objectives. Sometimes the behavioural objectives and the communication objectives are the same, but not necessarily. For example, a communication objective could range from “being informed” all the way to “social change”.

If the programme does not have clearly defined behavioural or social change objectives, it is not possible to design its communication strategy.

Just as with any type of objective or results, communication goals should be SMART. The objectives will be easier to monitor and evaluate if they are structured using clear words and actions that lend themselves to being measured.

The objectives to be achieved are defined in terms of each group of primary, secondary and tertiary participants,

regarding attitudes and behaviour. (For example, this could be in terms of greater understanding of the role and increased use of recycling waste by people in charge of managing household waste, the positive involvement of teachers in talking about caring for the environment and encouraging students to separate waste in their homes, the active participation of local authorities –providing containers for separating waste–, some journalists that keep track of the progress being made towards sustainable waste management in the area, etc.).

Communication for development goals is usually linked to:

/ Promoting awareness.

/ Informing and sensitising.

/ Recommending solutions.

/ Identifying barriers to and the benefits of social changes and of a behaviour.

/ Strengthening capacities for conducting situation analyses, understanding the underlying causes, identifying cultural and religious aspects.

/ Building capacities for the correct use of tools, processes, etc.

/ Accessing and using relevant information.

/ Improving communicative capacities, giving people a voice, expressing opinions, etc.

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/ Promoting social norms and ethical behaviour, tolerance, etc.

/ Promoting actions aimed at legislative, political, social and cultural changes (advocacy).

/ Promoting social mobilisation.

/ Promoting new behaviours by any type of participant (political leaders, journalists, teachers, public workers in different sectors, members of civil society, religious figures, academics, etc.).

/ Identifying and disseminating the benefits of practices or social changes.

/ Encouraging dialogue, negotiation and conflict resolution.

/ Persuading.

/ Promoting uses and practices.

/ Monitoring, involving, convincing, or neutralising participants depending on their interest and position regarding the programme.

/ Strengthening alliances with organisations, networks and people to drive forward the advocacy process.

/ Strengthening institutions.

/ Increasing the political will of the target audience.

/ Establishing alliances.

/ Promoting legislative and political changes.

For example, in the case of an irrigation programme, the communication objectives* would be those that support achieving the goals, such as: / Build capacities among smallholders for exercising their rights to water. / Empower local administrations so they can meet their obligations to respect, promote and protect smallholders’ water rights. / During the first year, inform at least 65% of the smallholders in X, Y and Z districts about the procedures and benefits of an irrigation system using tube wells. / During the first year, reduce the proportion (from the current 54% to 20%) of smallholders in districts X, Y and Z who misunderstand and/or have mistaken ideas about the cost and technical requirements of digging wells. / At the end of the second year, increase the proportion (from the current 32% to 50%) of smallholders who have positive attitudes towards the practical and simple use of the irrigation system to water their crops, in districts X, Y and Z. / Persuade the smallholders in districts X, Y and Z to use the water in the wells to water their crops, and to increase this practice from the current 20% to 35% in two years. / Raise awareness and promote social responsibility in the companies that manage and market irrigation water. / Build capacities among journalists to encourage and facilitate public debate. / Inform donors and the general public about the progress made towards the responsible management of irrigation water and the benefits this has for the whole area. / Empower teachers and encourage them to incorporate into the pertinent subjects an explanation and analysis of new irrigation uses and technologies, the joint responsibility for managing water resources, as well as rights and duties in this regard.

* It should be noted that the different types of objectives may occupy positions of objectives, results, activities or indicators when incorporated into the Logical Framework Matrix, as will be seen later.

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Selecting communication approaches and strategies

As we saw in the previous chapter, there are different strategies, approaches and tools for communicating for development. The decision about how many and which of them to use, combined in which way and for which primary, secondary and tertiary participants, depends on the results of the research and analysis phase conducted by the programme team, the relevant specialists and the participants and beneficiaries themselves. There is no magic formula and each combination will be unique given that it responds to specific views, baselines, attitudes, expectations and contexts.

As previously mentioned, to define the most appropriate strategies or the combination of strategies, it is necessary to review the results of the analysis phase in order to: i) decide which communication components are suitable, and ii) shape the components to meet the communication objectives.

Thus, there are different ways to approach and define communication for development strategies. Three of them are presented below: a) an approach based on the stakeholders’ interests and position; b) an approach based on the communication dimensions, and c) an approach based on the strategic vision.

a) Approach based on the stakeholders’ interests and position

The data obtained from the KAP analysis

(see previous chapters) will provide information (and ratings) about the participants’/stakeholders’ “interests” and “position” thus enabling a graph to be created which identifies the first approaches based on both aspects, such as for example (FIPF 2009):

/ Convince: for participants/stakeholders who are highly interested in the results of the programme but hold an intermediate position, it is necessary to increase their knowledge of the issue or problem and demonstrate that the programme is the right solution. For these types of strategies it is very important to build trust and credibility among the audience towards the organisation or network implementing the programme. This strategy could include actions such as seminars of experts, forums, sensitisation workshops, specialised material, private meetings, etc.

/ Persuade: for participants/stakeholders with a position in favour of the objectives and results of the programme, but with only average interest, it is necessary to demonstrate that the cause has the support of the sectors of the population that they are interested in. This strategy may include actions such as public events, mass mailings, forums of experts, newspaper articles, signing releases, communication campaigns, etc.

/ Neutralise: for participants/stakeholders who are not in favour or are totally against the programme and who have a strong interest in hampering it, it is necessary to counteract their efforts. This task is highly sensitive and the use of

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unethical practices or victimisation of the programme’s opponents must be avoided at all costs. Although neutralisation strategies are important, it is not recommended that these form the backbone of the communication strategy or advocacy, as this would promote reactive and not proactive actions.

This strategy could include generating banks of arguments and counterarguments, monitoring proposals, support groups, etc.

/ Monitor: for participants/stakeholders who are against the programme, but have little or average interest in it, it is important to systematically monitor their actions to recognise movements towards other sectors of the audience map, especially an increase in their interest against the programme’s achievements. This strategy may include analysing legislative journals, monitoring the media, etc.

/ Involve: participants/stakeholders who are quite or totally in favour of the programme and who have a strong

Analysis of the map of participants/stakeholders and initial strategies

Source: FIPF 2009:117.

Strong interest

Little interest

Totally against

Neutralise

Monitor

Involve

Persuade

Convince

Totally in favour

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interest in its achievements should be included in the project to promote the initiative. This inclusion may take many forms and does not necessarily have to be public or formal; the most important thing is that this audience takes ownership of the programme’s goals. This strategy could include personal meetings, generating specialised spaces (such as parliamentary groups), capacity-building workshops, specific material, consultancy, etc.

b) Approach based on the communication dimensions

In this approach, the first decision to be made when designing the strategies for each specific audience relates to the communication dimension that will be addressed by each strategy. The most common communication dimensions are (UNICEF 2006):

/ Inform, sensitise and motivate action.

/ Develop skills/capacities.

/ Generate participation and social mobilisation.

/ Communicate the aims and accomplishments of the development

Specific development goal or expected outcome: Objectively verifiable indicators:

Public/stakeholders

Communication objectives/results

Information and sensitisation Capacity building Participation and social

mobilisation Dissemination of the project

Objectives/ results

Outputs and

activities

Objectives/ results

Outputs and

activities

Objectives/ results

Outputs and

activities

Objectives/ results

Outputs and

activities

Primary participants 1

Primary participants 2

Secondary participants 1

Secondary participants 2

Etc.

Communication planning matrix

Source: UNICEF 2006.

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project.

A matrix linking the participants/stakeholders and the communication dimensions is provided to facilitate using

this approach to planning. As can be seen, the matrix includes the dissemination of the project, which incorporates both publicising the activities the programme/policy carries out as well as disseminating the

EXPERIENCE: Information and active citizen programme: a strategy for including disadvantaged young people

This project is led by the Youth and Employment Department of Murcia City Council and receives funding from the European Commission, in the framework of its Youth in Action Programme. This project aims to create a meeting point for young representatives of organisations of young people with sensory disability (mainly blind and deaf people), local authority youth services, youth information centres, youth information networks and organisations of people with sensory disability in Europe and Latin America, in which they can discuss, analyse and propose the measures, experiences, benefits and phenomena which boost the involvement of all young people without exclusion, especially those affected by a sensory disability.The initiative seeks to prevent any kind of discrimination in the drafting and application of strategies relating to youth information and in the creation and dissemination of this information. Among the results the project hopes to achieve are the adaptation of youth information services to young people with sensory disabilities, the involvement of these young people in youth information centres and services and the strengthening of their associations.There are 56 young representatives from eight organisations of young people with sensory disability from nine countries in Europe and Latin America involved in the project, as well as two Youth Information Networks: CIDJ, in France, and Red Camaleón, in Colombia

Communication strategies:The activities in this project aim to promote permanent communication and exchange between local bodies and organisations specialising in youth information and associations of young disabled people, all of which are well established and have years of experience in this matter. Through these activities it is hoped to produce the effective multiplication of the objectives and results of the project. These activities include:

/ A seminar on Exchanging Best Practices in Youth Information as a strategy for including disadvantaged young people in Murcia. / An exchange between young people on the issue of youth information as a strategy to include young people and on the media’s impact on the transmission of intercultural values and the inclusion of young people in Cuenca (Ecuador). / A seminar on the evaluation of the project: “Working together: Information, young people and citizens”, carried out in Cartagena de Indias (Colombia)./ Drafting a methodological manual on structured dialogue between young people and public bodies for launching Youth Information Services as a strategy to include young people with sensory disability.

The Youth in Action Programme, within the framework of which this initiative was implemented, is a call for countries not belonging to the European Union. Its fundamental objective is to propose the measures, experiences, benefits and phenomena that boost the involvement of all young people without exclusion, but especially those affected by a sensory disability, in Youth Information Centres, establish actions addressed to young people and for young people with sensory disability to improve access to information and raise awareness among these young people about using information and communication technologies

Source: Website of Murcia City Council’s Youth Service.

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development results obtained. This aspect is explored in greater detail in chapter three, which is dedicated to “communicating about development results”.

Specific objective: Specific objective indicators:

Expected outcome: Expected outcome indicators:

Area for intervention: (e.g., sustainable management of domestic waste)

Communication strategy

Target audience(who it is aimed at)

Key existing knowledge, attitudes

and behaviours Key communication

messages Communication channels

Behaviour Change Communication

Primary audience

List the MAIN audience to address in order to get results.

List, in order of priority, EXISTING knowledge, attitudes and behaviours that affect the expected outcome.

/ Keep in mind the format of the message and the tone used to deliver messages.

/ Message design will depend on the type of media to be used.

Do NOT list all and every type of channel.

ONLY list those that will be the most appropriate and effective for the intended audience.Secondary

audience

List other people of importance to the primary audience.

Social mobilisation/ change

List all those actors who can support and influence BOTH the primary and secondary audiences.


/ Keep in mind the format of the message and the tone used to deliver messages.

/ Message design will depend on the type of media to be used.

Keep in mind the goal of the communication, whether it is for the BCC, social mobilisation or advocacy.

Select the channel only after doing a communication channel analysis.

Advocacy

List all those actors/people who are in a position to make decisions that affect the implementation of the programme and that impact on the outcome.


/ Keep in mind the format of the message and the tone used to deliver messages./ Message design will depend on the type of media to be used.

Strategic framework for communication in programme/policy planning

Source: UNFPA 2006:37.

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c) Approach based on the strategic vision

By way of a reminder, the main strategies for communication for development that were presented in part one of this chapter are: communication for social change, behaviour change communication and advocacy.

The UNFPA proposes a (sub)matrix for systematising communication for development strategies.

2.4. Indicators and sources of verification

In order to measure the results of a communication intervention it is necessary to gather reference data so that the changes can be monitored.

It is sometimes considered too expensive and complicated to control the result of communication interventions, as this often involves carrying out broad research and studies that require external technical consultation. To adapt the monitoring system to the available human and financial resources, it is better to identify a smaller number of significant and useful indicators, even if they cannot provide exact measurements, rather than create a long list that is impossible to manage.

On the other hand, it should be mentioned that the communication approach or strategy chosen often influences the type

of indicators that are required. Thus, indicators are linked to the development goals, the communication objectives and the strategies employed.

2.4.1. Objectively verifiable indicators of communication

Objectively verifiable indicators (OVI), which are the instrument that allows us to visualise the extent to which a specific objective and the expected outcome have been achieved, should be linked to the baseline created in the analysis phase.

It is important that the indicators chosen are:

/ Objective: they must not depend on the point of view of the person measuring them.

/ Relevant/pertinent: they measure what the programme is trying to achieve.10

/ Specific: expressed in quantity, quality, and time.

/ Measurable and with available information.

/ Reasonable: in terms of resources (money, staff experience and time).

10 For example, if an objective is to “increase the use of health services”, the indicator should be the number of consultations that people made and not the number of services created.

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/ Interesting: for the donors, citizens and other public.

/ Non-sexist: they incorporate the gender perspective.

The table above shows some common categories of indicators related to communication for development.

2.4.2. Sources of verification for the indicators

With regard to sources of verification, many cases call for a “baseline” to be established during the analysis phase to serve as a starting point and which can be compared in the monitoring and evaluation stages in order to gauge the relevance, effectiveness, efficiency and impact of the communication for development that was applied.

Example sources of verification

/ Internal reports, institutions’ annual reports, the research study or reports,

Indicators of impact (linked to the objectives)

Indicators of process (linked to the results)

Indicators of output (linked to the activities)

/ Percentage of members of the target group who express the knowledge, attitudes and beliefs that form part of the messages.

/ Percentage of members of the target group who have acquired the skills included in the messages.

/ Percentage of members of the target group who will discuss these messages.

/ Percentage of members of the target group who have adopted the behaviour presented in the messages.

/ Changes in the scale of the development problem (incident rates, for example).

/ Social, legislative, political, cultural changes generated.

/ Number of legislators who maintained or changed their position in favour of the legislative proposal.

/ Spaces for dialogue generated.

/ Capacities built/strengthened among the owners of the rights and duty-bearers.

/ Number of legislators sensitised to the importance of legislative change (displayed by age and political party).

/ Number of organisations that support the documents with language proposals created for decision-makers.

/ Number of legislative committees that attended strategic discussion meetings that were held. / Number of workers correctly trained.

/ Number of communication messages and materials produced, by type, during a specific period.

/ Number of communication messages and materials distributed, by type, during a specific period.

/ Percentage of members of the target group reached by the messages.

/ Number of analyses/discussions carried out.

/ The material created in line with the required quality standards.

/ Number of mailings.

/ Real distribution of the messages in the planned periods.

/ Percentage of the target group exposed to the messages.


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epidemiological reports...

/ Statistics provided by public services, population censuses, etc.

/ The media (using a content analysis).

/ Texts: laws, decrees, orders, directives, programmes, protocols, etc.

/ Delivery receipts and road maps, etc.

Example methods and techniques for monitoring and evaluation

/ Collecting statistical data; reviewing the documentation.

/ A content analysis and monitoring the media (press review).

/ Field visits, meetings, encounters, occasional seminars.

/ Focus groups; surveying a sample using a questionnaire, panel, individual or group interviews, observation.

In all cases, the most reliable results are provided by using a combination of means of verification within the research context.

2.4.3. Example of incorporating communication into an environmental management programme/policy

As an example, below we present a matrix showing the objectives of a communication strategy, a selection of the expected outcomes and the activities, some of the associated indicators and means of verification.

Communication strategy for an environmental management programme

Examples of specific objectives Sample indicators Example means of verification

Create links between project and participating communities.

Percentage of community members aware of the project purposes.

Quantitative and qualitative analyses (survey, focus group discussions, semi-structured interviews).

Create awareness of the risks associated with environmental mismanagement.

Percentage of community members able to identify three cases of environmental mismanagement.


➜

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Create awareness of the impact on tourism and the benefits of environmental management in terms of quality of life in participating communities.

Percentage of community members able to identify three ways in which tourism is affected by environmental mismanagement.Percentage of community members able to indicate measures to improve life through effective management of the environment.


Output Sample indicators Example means of verification

Project communities. List of local expectations and demands.

Progress reports.

X community members informed of the various risks of environmental mismanagement.

Number of home visits undertaken by extension workers. Number of audiences.

Progress reports.

X community members informed of the benefits of environmental management and how to improve quality of life.

Percentage of the community members aware of the effect of environmental management.

Qualitative and quantitative surveys.

Activities Sample indicators Example means of verification

Implementation of x number of community meetings.

Number of participants (men/women) attending community meetings.

Progress reports. List of participants...

Training of teachers to provide capacity building for community members.

Number of teachers attending workshops and providing environmental capacity building for the community.

Capacity building reports.

Implementation of popular theatre performances.

Number of community members exposed to popular theatre performances on relevant environmental issues.

Listed number of audiences.

Production of five-minute video on water, waste, and risks.

Number of mass media channels having shown the video and number of times shown. Exposure to the video: number of participants, of workshops and of schools.

Agreements with media institutions.Progress reports. Workshop reports.

Source: DANIDA 2007

➜

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The aims of the programme are: to establish and strengthen the management of protected areas, water and sewerage, property registration, local government structures and capacities, and promote incentives for private sector participation in the sustainable management of tourism in Isla de la Bahía.

The development of the communication plan, which continues on from this matrix, is detailed in the next chapter “Communicating about results”.

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3.1. Communicating about development results

There has been a change in the basic or traditional model of transmitter/receiver communication, based on its linear or sequential mode, in which the transmitter sends a message and the receiver receives it. The new scenario leads us to a model of transmitter/ receiver-transmitter/receiver. We all become both transmitters and receivers, or “transceivers”.

The key lies in creating communication that is relevant (strategic), easy, exciting, closer and participatory, interpersonal, global (without borders), operational (aimed at action), in real time and for everybody. We must be strategic in our way of acting and interacting, refraining from interrupting people with things they are not interested in to become part of what they are interested in.

As agreed in the Joint Action Plan on Visibility,11 the primary objective of visibility activities is to communicate the “positive results of the partnership”. In addition to mentioning the contributions made, visibility activities should concentrate on the conclusions and effects of the results of the action.

11 Agreed by the main international donors and multilateral agencies.

3.1.1. What is communication about development results?

As discussed in the previous chapter, there are two large areas in communicating development processes that are linked to project cycle management. This chapter focuses on communicating about development results.

Communicating about results is what the programme/policy says about itself, using all the communication resources it has available. This approach requires real substance to ground itself on. This real substance consists of providing evidence of the programme/policy’s performance by presenting its output, services and day-to-day activities.

This evidence emerges from the programme/policy’s monitoring and evaluation system. The definition of the strategy for communicating results is the last step in designing the evaluation plan.

Defining a communication strategy should be a group task shared by the evaluation team and the local stakeholders participating in the process, and within this framework decisions should be made regarding three basic points: the audience, the content to be communicated and the media for communicating (Rodríguez Sosa and Zeballos 2007).

3. Communicating about the results of cooperation programmes/policies

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Communicating about development results can involve two strategies:

(i) Public relations and marketing: inform citizens about the results of a local government action, in a framework of collaboration with decentralised cooperation, responding to a strategy more geared towards public relations or marketing than development. In this strategy, the local government and decentralised cooperation “take over” the process, the results and/or impact, offering a passive image of the benefitting population and downplaying the contributions of all the participants.

(ii) Transparency and accountability: inform citizens about the development results obtained by the programme/policy, a product of decentralised cooperation, in an exercise in transparency,

accountability and visibility of the achievements of development. In this strategy, communicating the development results contributes/may contribute towards the development goals, making the messages and images transmitted flow in the same direction as the development goals being sought, and the different stakeholders and beneficiaries are accorded the appropriate merit.

In general, communicating the results of programmes/policies follows the first option, it does not involve all of the stakeholders, and it is not in harmony with policies on participation, it does not constitute a “management style” as, although it is recognised as a citizen’s right, it has not yet been incorporated as an obligation (organised and conducted) of the programme/policy.

The second option does incorporate

Source: OECD 2009.

* This conceptual framework is discussed in detail in chapter one.



Feedback







Feedback Conceptual framework for communicating for and about results*

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this rights-based approach, and transparency and accountability are the programme/policy’s duty, as mentioned in various international agreements. This approach, which goes beyond viewing communication as simply institutional public relations, forces the need for quantitative and qualitative data to be made available and accessible in order for this communication to be founded on it.

3.1.2. Challenges and limitations of communicating results in decentralised cooperation programmes/local public policies

The image and position of municipal management in the decentralised cooperation programme is one of the aspects that most concerns the authorities. The experience gathered so far has revealed some limitations in municipalities’ communication culture:

/ There is a partial view of communication and its potential, which leads to a narrowing of its scope in public relations, issuing press releases and in marketing.

/ There is an absence of quality evaluations12 which provide evidence

12 The local political culture in some countries –both European and Latin American–, gives rise to public programmes/policies formulated without baselines, without indicators and without evaluations that allow the development results they achieve to be identified and quantified.

of the impact, output and results of the programme/policy.

/ There is no connection between the impact/output/results of the programme and the larger national and international development goals which the programme supposedly contributes towards.

/ There is a tendency to personalise the image of the municipal programme/policy.

The challenges facing a plan for communicating results are: i) to be systematic, i.e., be the result of a deliberate decision-making process regarding the objectives, strategies and procedures and, ii) to be holistic/comprehensive, i.e., that it affects the entire programme/policy involving all its members and audiences (internal and external), fostering synergy so that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts.

3.2. Drawing up a plan for communicating about results

Adopting and designing a strategic communication plan is an important step in any programme/policy. Communication planning brings advantages such as helping to achieve the goals that have been set, focusing the day-to-day work and prioritising activities.

Before starting work on the plan it is important to secure the involvement

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and support of the programme/policy’s management team, clearly defining the responsibilities within it, and explaining to them the reasons for carrying out the plan.

3.2.1. What are the stages of drawing up a communication plan?

A communication plan is divided into four large sections: analysis, strategy, actions and audit. Given that in each of these areas it is necessary to take different aspects into account, the ten stages for designing a communication plan are defined in the following sections:

Graphical representation of communication planning

Source: INAP 2011.

1Environmental analysis

9Audit and monitoring

10 Evaluation

2 Objectives 3 Audiences 4 Messages 5 Strategies 6 Actions

7 Schedule

8 Budget

Research

1. Strategic management 2. Institutional communication - Corporate communication - External communication3. Media relations4. Citizen services 5. Internal communication

Primary

Society Organisation

Secondary Primary How?Language?

Tone?Channels?Secondary

Questionand answer

€

Internal External

Physical performance

Financial performance Impact Result

Indicators

Local

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(1) Study of the environment: analysis and research

(2) Objectives

(3) Target audience

(4) Message (of results)

(5) Strategy (formalise the messages, channels, media)

(6) Communication actions (strategic, institutional, media, citizen services, etc.)

(7) Schedule

(8) Budget

(9) Indicators for monitoring and evaluation

As previously mentioned, the plan for communicating development impact/results/outputs is based on the information obtained from monitoring and intermediate evaluations (process) or from the final evaluation (outcomes and potential impact)13 of the results of the programme/policy to be communicated.

13 Strictly speaking, the impact can be identified prospectively, but given that this involves the medium to long-term imprint left by the programme/policy, this can only be confirmed by ex post evaluations, and, therefore, it is difficult to communicate while the programme is being run or immediately after it has ended.

3.2.2. Analysis/research

To create a communication plan it is essential to conduct a communication analysis. This analysis is linked to the scope of the plan to be implemented. It is recommended that the communication plan be comprehensive and therefore include:

/ The internal level: communication with internal audiences such as partners, workers, experts, suppliers, facilitators, service providers, other areas of the municipality, etc., and

/ The external level, i.e., communication with the population, inter-institutional communication and mass communication.

Despite its importance, this analysis is not always done. This mistake is the first communication error, as only the person responsible for communication will have full knowledge of the situation. Everybody else, including those in charge of the programme, the partners and the staff, will be left in the dark. The most frequent arguments for not carrying out the analysis are a lack of time or resources, without taking into account the fact that not conducting an analysis is very likely to affect the effectiveness and efficiency of the programme.

Furthermore, this analysis provides the “baseline” from which the plan can be monitored and evaluated. This information is vital in institutional terms, both for the international cooperation

66

system, and for accountability. The difference between actions to communicate the results of a programme/policy being considered as simply a promotional expense or instead as a programme investment stems from the availability of key information provided by the evaluation of the plan, which must invariably be built on the baseline.

To achieve this, the analysis must include:

In this way it is possible to achieve better and more efficient strategic management of the communication resources available to the programme/policy for informing and influencing its audiences, which

in turn enables greater coherence and a strong synergy between all the communicational aspects.

3.2.3. Defining the objectives

The objectives of the communication plan are divided into strategic (long-term) and tactical (short-term) aims. All of them vary depending on the objectives and priorities set by the programme/policy,

and they are defined by the problems and opportunities identified in the situation prior to analysis. Likewise, they may vary according to the audiences, and they respond to the needs and expectations

Areas Content (checklist)

Analysis of the general context of the programme/policy

What opportunities and/or threats with regard to communication should be taken into account within the institution? And, outside the institution?

Communication analysis of the programme/policy itself

Which communication channels are being used? What media/tools have been used? What is the content of the information being transmitted? To which internal and external audiences? With what aim? Who creates/administrates it? What communication skills do the staff have? Do they know what expectations the recipients have?

Communication analysis of the programme/policy audiences

Who are the programme/policy’s audience? How have they been affected by the programme/policy? What knowledge do they have? What are their communication uses and consumptions?

Communication analysis of the interlocutors and stakeholders

What communicative relations does the programme/policy have with regional and central governments? And with the other programme partners? And with the donors and international cooperation? And with other decentralised stakeholders such as civil society, churches, universities, businesses, etc.?

Analysis of the relations and presence with/in the media and public opinion

What relations does the programme/policy have with the media? What presence does the programme/policy have in the media? What is public opinion on the issue? And about the programme/policy?

Source: created by the author based on Castañeda 2005.

67

identified and systematised in the analysis.

The objectives are the goals we aim to achieve with the communication plan. An objective should express what we want to achieve, why and for whom. A common general objective14 of a plan for

communicating results would be precisely this: “Communicate/inform/disseminate/raise the visibility of the impact, results and outputs generated by programme/policy X to [the relevant audiences]”.

Using these general objectives as a starting point, some specific objectives can then be set, for which in many cases

14 When designing objectives it is very helpful to use verbs such as increase, achieve, change, maintain, establish, etc. that indicate the desired outcome. On the other hand, promote, coordinate, contribute are terms that express ways and means of achieving that result.

it is necessary to segment audiences and content in order to emphasise those results considered important for each one.

3.2.4. Identifying the target audiences

Segmenting the internal and external audiences is essential for drawing up a communication plan. The prior analysis carried out will have provided information about the information needs and expectations, as well as the communication use and consumption habits of the different audiences and stakeholders.

In most programmes/policies the audiences and stakeholders include the following groups:

Examples of the specific objectives of a communication plan

/ Ensure a steady flow of information and raise awareness of the objectives and processes of the programme/policy (while it is being carried out)

/ Disseminate information among the international cooperation actors about the effectiveness of the programme/policy and the quantity and quality of the results obtained

/ Increase the visibility among citizens of the new services offered by the local health system

/ Publicise among the population the advances provided by the programme/policy in terms of the Millennium Goals and equality between men and women

/ Promote the use of a waste management system among residents in district X

/ Be accountable for the investments made by the programme/policy

/ Inform the stakeholders about the outputs and outcomes generated by the programme

/ Disseminate information about the local development processes generated by the programme/policy


68

/ The programme/policy management team.

/ The mayor’s office and other related local government areas, including the municipal communication office.

/ Regional and central governments, as well as local delegations of the different ministries affected/interested.

/ The population directly or indirectly benefitting or affected.

/ Social and opinion leaders.

/ Civil society: non-governmental organisations, universities and academics, unions, the private sector, professional organisations, etc.

/ Local and national media: press, radio, TV, social networks of a general nature or specific to the programme/policy issue.

/ International cooperation actors: decentralised, bilateral and multilateral cooperation.

3.2.5. The messages: which results should be communicated and how to specify them?

The results, the perceptions and the needs of the audiences and the communication contexts can be extraordinarily diverse, which makes creating the messages one of the most important yet complicated parts of designing the communication plan.

In addition, the concept of the “message” has a broad meaning that ranges from the “core idea” to be transmitted, to the motto or slogan of a publicity campaign.

The communication specialist who designs the plan should work with multiple “messages” that range from the content of the results/impact/output to be communicated to adapting this content to the different audiences, tools, channels and formats. A well-developed message should focus on the audiences, the objectives and the results that need to be communicated.

Ideally, the different messages for each group of audiences or stakeholders should be developed through exercises such as brainstorming sessions or small consultation groups with the programme personnel. In most cases, however, the programme/policy’s expert in communication develops the messages with the help of journalists, publicists or public relations experts. Sometimes, the programmes/policy’s senior officials or some of the stakeholders propose the messages.

What development results should be communicated?

First of all, when creating the messages for communicating development results it is important to bear in mind that the list may be endless if one attends to them literally without placing them

69

within the “development goals”15 they contribute to and that should be detailed in the programme/policy design. Linking the programmes/policies to the bigger development goals is a mandate that comes from international agreements and the development cooperation policies of the partner countries in the north and south.

These development goals are:

/ The Millennium Development Goals (MDG).

/ The effectiveness and quality of Official Development Assistance (ODA) linked to the Paris Declaration and the Accra Agenda for Action.

/ The cross-cutting theme16 of democratic governance and human rights.

/ The cross-cutting theme of gender equality.

/ The cross-cutting theme of environmental sustainability.

This assumes that any decentralised cooperation programmes/policies responds to at least one of the aspects indicated.

Thus, whatever results, outputs and/or impact of the decentralised cooperation

15 These development goals are usually found in the planning matrix for the programme/policy.

16 Of cooperation in general, and the European Union’s cooperation policy in particular.

programmes/policies need to be communicated, they should be linked to one/several of the abovementioned development strategies.

The first question is to identify which development goal(s) do the results, outputs and/or impact of the programme/policy implemented contribute to? This will be the backbone of the plan for communicating results.17

How to specify the results in order to communicate them?

The second step to communicating the results, outputs and impact of development is to actually identify these elements. To do this, it is necessary to analyse the changes that have been made vis-a-vis the problem or need that the programme/policy was designed to address.

As indicated in the previous chapter,18 it is important to differentiate between the development goals, behavioural objectives and the communication objectives. The behavioural results and the communication results (linked to their relevant objectives) are means/

17 In the case of contributing to more than one development goal, it is possible to prioritise one of them as the central theme or use several of them; the decision should be taken when the communication plan is being designed, as seen later in this document.

18 See chapter 2, section 2.2.2. Differences between “behaviour change objectives” and “communication objectives”.

70

processes for achieving the development goals and results, which are what govern the programme/policy in question and give it meaning.

A plan for communicating about development results should focus its principal message on the development goals/results that were achieved and not on the behavioural or communication objectives or outcomes. This does not mean, however, that behavioural or communication results cannot be used as part of the discourse in secondary messages, or for specific audiences or in specific communication media.

Where can the information about the development results achieved be found in order to communicate it?: the evaluation process will identify the development results that have been obtained and provide evidence (impact, processes, outputs) of these results,19 and it should link the results to the larger internationally agreed development goals which all the programmes within the international cooperation system (which decentralised cooperation belongs to) should contribute to.

19 It should be noted that both the design of a programme/policy –in the framework of international development cooperation–, and its evaluation, invariably include its contribution to the larger development goals defined in international agreements and development cooperation policies.

As we know, evaluation is one of the most important stages20 in the public policy cycle and in project cycle management. The unit of public action under evaluation is usually the programme. Evaluating programmes as “bundles” of defined resources aimed at mitigating the state of a greater problem is more practical than evaluating general policies (Delgado Godoy 2009). So, for example, it is not usually the public policy on education that is evaluated but the different programmes that make up this policy instead.

Monitoring and evaluating programmes/policies is based on indicators which are present in several stages of the public policy cycle. Indicators have two functions: one is descriptive (providing information about a specific situation and its evolution over time) and the other is evaluative (estimating the effects of an intervention). In both cases they are likely to be communicated, whether as an impact, outcome or output.

20 The main stages of the public policy cycle are: i) identifying and defining problems (analysis and drawing up a baseline in PCM); ii) formulating policies (the design in PCM); iii) adopting the decision (the cooperation agreement and ODA); iv) implementation (execution in PCM); v) evaluation (monitoring and evaluation in PCM).

71

3.2.6. Defining the strategy

The messages cannot be the same for all audiences and contexts. It is advisable to ask yourself questions about the message that you want to transmit: How is the programme/policy perceived? What does the audience already know about it? What do they need to know? What do you want to say to the audience? Who is the best person (source) to take this message to the audience?

Basic characteristics of effective messages

When talking about messages we are not referring exclusively to the written text of the message but to the sum of the audio,

graphic, visual, etc. elements that it is formed of. However, the main weight of the message usually rests on the text.

In general, effective messages are considered to meet several prerequisites:

/ They are simple and concise.

/ They use appropriate language.

/ The content is in accordance with the format.

/ They come from a credible messenger (spokesperson)/source.

/ The tone and language are coherent

Type of result to be communicated Types of indicators* and information offered Examples

Impact The sources of information are the indicators of impact (i.e., those linked to the general objective of the programme/policy): they provide information about the consequences for local development in the medium to long term.

(1) Generation of sources of income and productive fabric (MDG, fight against poverty, economic development, economic rights, etc.)

(2) Access to education/reduction of inequality between girls and boys in access to education (MDG, universal education and gender equality, right to education, human rights)

(3) Reduction of environmental pollution (MDG, improve environmental sustainability, right to a healthy environment...)

Outcomes(Processes)

The sources of information are the indicators linked to the specific objectives (outcomes): they provide information about the benefits generated for the target groups, which in addition to results are also about processes in terms of the development goals and, therefore, about impact.

(1) Number of cooperatives that have the capacity and competitive systems of management, production and marketing in the territory, jobs created by the cooperatives that were set up, etc.

(2) Ratio of girls to boys that finish primary education in rural zones in the municipality, rates of schooling and/or literacy

(3) Increase in recycling household waste in the municipality

Outputs The sources of information are the indicators linked to the expected results (outputs): they provide information about the immediate and specific consequences of the activities and the resources used, necessary in the process of achieving the results.

(1) Cooperatives created/formed, number of cooperative members trained in management, marketing, etc., number of new agreements signed with businesses, entrepreneurs trained

(2) Schools built, teachers trained, girls and boys schooled, coverage of school vaccinations

(3) Awareness campaigns carried out, type and number of recycling bins

Source: created by the author.* EC - EuropeAid 2004.

72

with the message.

/ They tell stories about real people or cases.

/ They are new, fresh and surprising.

/ They offer the audience a clear benefit.

The language consists of the words chosen to communicate the message. Is it the most appropriate language for your target audience?

The message should be assigned to a source. It is best to choose sources that add credibility to the message in the eyes of the target audience: an expert, a political authority figure, a moral or religious leader, a colleague, a development agent, etc. Obviously, this calls for an understanding of the criteria for credibility in the area the message will be transmitted.

The tone of the message requires a choice being made about the orientation, or the nature of the “call”, of each message so that it will have maximum influence on the target group. Generally speaking, this choice is based upon the known characteristics of the target group and lessons learned elsewhere. Depending on these factors, a choice can be made from the following tones (or a combination of them) (FAO, 2002):

/ An emotional message (a call to such emotions as love, fear, anxiety, security) as opposed to a rational message (a call to logical arguments, or proof););

/ A positive message (which shows that there is a favourable solution to the known risk) as opposed to a negative message (which presents the dark and threatening situation which would arise if the target group does not follow the desired course of action);

/ A call to the group (group pressure) as opposed to a customised call (personalised arguments);

/ A humorous message (humour makes a message pleasant) as opposed to a serious message (rigorous, too formal)

/ A single-minded message as opposed to a message with several points of view (in the form of a debate, or clashing ideas);

/ A message with a definitive conclusion (i.e. the desired conclusion) as opposed to a message with an open-ended conclusion (allowing the target group to reach its own conclusion and make its own opinion);

/ A repetitive message (which repeats the message several times) as opposed to a unique message (sent only once).

The code of conduct on images and messages relating to the Third World21 provides a series of practical guidelines

21 Drawn up by D-NGOs, with the collaboration of their counterparts and other cooperation actors and approved by the General Assembly of the Liaison Committee of Development NGOs to the European Union in 1989.

73

for creating messages, including among them:

/ Avoid catastrophic or idyllic images.

/ All people must be presented as human beings and their cultural identity and their dignity must be preserved.

/ Accounts given by the people concerned should be presented rather than the interpretations of a third party.

/ People’s ability to take responsibility for themselves must be highlighted.

/ The internal and external obstacles to development should be clearly shown.

/ The degree of interdependence and the notion of joint responsibility in underdevelopment and in good

development should be emphasised.

/ The causes of poverty (political, economic or structural) should be apparent in the message in order to enable the public to understand the mechanisms and to encourage them to get involved in actions aimed at change and social transformation.

/ Messages should avoid all forms of discrimination.

Finally, it should be mentioned that the messages should be tested before being used and, when there is more than one, the relevant order and timing should be decided.

Examples of the tone of the message Emotional:

/ Solidarity will lead us forward! (love) / AIDS kills! (fear)

Reason:/ Inequality between men and women affects our development and violates human rights/ Production cooperatives generate employment and improve people’s living conditions

Positive: / The sustainable management of forests prevents forest fires and generates wealth/ The construction of 10 schools will guarantee access to education to all children

Negative: / The lack of sewerage systems is contaminating our rivers and damaging the health of the population / Carrying on with bushfires will make the soil unproductive in the end

Collectives/group: All couples use contraception, why don’t you?

Individual: For those who want to wait a while before having another child, there is a method for each person

Definitive conclusion: Report gender violence!

Open conclusion: There are several solutions to the risks of AIDS

Source: created by the author based on FAO 2002.

74

Which channels and media should be used?

The communication channel and media should be determined for each target group or audience. The selection criteria for communication channels and media are:

/ The data obtained from the analysis of uses and communication networks in each participating group.

/ The objectives and results being sought.

/ Accessibility and affordability for the target audience.

/ The popularity of the channel and/or source among the target audience.

/ Credibility: the channel should be seen as credible and trustworthy by the target audience.

/ The size of the audience.

/ The complexity of the message.

/ Geographical coverage.

/ The cost-effectiveness analysis (strengths and weaknesses of different types of media).

/ The impact.

/ Participation: some channels and media encourage more participation by the target audience than others.

It is important to stress that communication channels should not be confused with communication media. In communication for development we find the following channels:

/ Institutional channels: the recognised public and private bodies such as the political and administrative apparatus, education systems, networks of development workers, NGOs, etc.

/ The media: old and new information and communication technologies such as television, radio, printed press, posters and Internet.

/ Socio-traditional and socio-cultural channels: opinion leaders and other informal networks, the various forms and opportunities of traditional popular and inter-personal communication.

/ Commercial channels: the marketing circuits for common products such as supermarkets, shops, bookshops, kiosks, pharmacies, etc.

With the elements detailed above it is possible to create a communication plan (and subsequently, a media plan). Each of the media and channels has its own strengths and weaknesses; the table below attempts to characterise them, starting with the most important aspects.

75

Advantages and disadvantages of communication media and channels

Type

of

chan

nel

Scop

eTy

pe o

f m

essa

ge (s

impl

e/co

mpl

ex)

Adap

tabi

lity

Cost

Poss

ibili

ty o

f in

tera

ctiv

e us

e

TVCa

n re

ach

very

larg

e au

dien

ces

at

the

sam

e ti

me,

if e

lect

ricit

y an

d eq

uipm

ent

are

avai

labl

e an

d th

ere

is a

dequ

ate

rece

ptio

n.

Beca

use

of it

s br

oad

scop

e it

is

mai

nly

used

to

prov

ide

gene

ral

info

rmat

ion/

new

s/en

tert

ainm

ent

for

larg

e au

dien

ces/

sim

ple

mes

sage

s/ p

ublic

ser

vice

an

noun

cem

ents

.

Easy

for

the

gen

eral

pub

lic.

Dif

ficu

lt t

o ad

apt

for

smal

ler

and

mor

e sp

ecif

ic c

ultu

res,

lang

uage

s, et

c.

The

prod

ucti

on f

acili

ties

are

ex

pens

ive

to in

stal

l and

run

. Pr

oduc

tion

cos

ts c

an b

e hi

gh,

alth

ough

thi

s is

redu

ced

by n

ew

tech

nolo

gies

and

bro

adca

stin

g vi

a In

tern

et. P

urch

asin

g ai

rtim

e fo

r co

nten

t ca

n be

pro

hibi

tive

ly

expe

nsiv

e. F

or t

he u

ser,

the

cost

of

the

rece

iver

is h

igh

but

cons

umpt

ion

is f

ree.

Aver

age,

alt

houg

h im

med

iate

fe

edba

ck f

rom

the

aud

ienc

e is

not

av

aila

ble,

exc

ept

phon

e ca

lls a

nd

mes

sage

s to

sho

ws,

com

peti

tion

s, do

cum

enta

ries,

prog

ram

mes

bas

ed

on t

he c

omm

unit

y, a

nd w

ith

thei

r pa

rtic

ipat

ion.

Radi

oCa

n re

ach

very

larg

e au

dien

ces

at t

he s

ame

tim

e if

the

rece

iver

s an

d ba

tter

ies

are

avai

labl

e. It

als

o de

pend

s on

ele

ctric

ity.

Rad

io is

ch

eape

r th

an t

elev

isio

n. R

adio

via

In

tern

et.

Abov

e al

l for

gen

eral

info

rmat

ion/

new

s/en

tert

ainm

ent

as a

bove

. The

in

form

atio

n ca

n be

mor

e sp

ecif

ic.

The

sam

e as

tel

evis

ion

exce

pt

regi

onal

radi

o br

oadc

asts

; it

can

add

ress

the

loca

ls’ i

ssue

s in

th

eir

own

lang

uage

.Co

mm

ents

fro

m t

he a

udie

nce

only

ava

ilabl

e by

tel

epho

ne in

the

pr

ogra

mm

es, l

ette

rs, e

tc.

The

pric

e of

radi

o eq

uipm

ent

is lo

w, b

ut it

is s

till s

een

as a

n in

vest

men

t ab

ove

and

beyo

nd

the

daily

nee

ds o

f th

e po

or ru

ral

popu

latio

n. B

uyin

g ba

tter

ies

is a

prob

lem

. List

enin

g to

it c

olle

ctiv

ely

redu

ces

cost

s.

Very

hig

h. B

y te

leph

one

in

the

prog

ram

mes

, bas

ed o

n a

part

icip

ator

y co

mm

unit

y,

disc

ussi

on p

rogr

amm

es, r

eadi

ng

and

resp

ondi

ng t

o lis

tene

rs’

lett

ers,

etc.

Víde

o/DV

DCa

n be

use

d fo

r “h

ome”

tr

ansm

issi

on o

r vi

sual

isat

ion.

Su

itab

le f

or s

mal

l and

larg

e au

dien

ces.

Can

be d

istr

ibut

ed b

y In

tern

et a

nd

offe

red

in e

lect

roni

c ne

wsp

aper

s an

d m

agaz

ines

.

Can

be u

sed/

mad

e by

the

gen

eral

pu

blic

or

spec

ialis

ts; g

ener

al o

r ve

ry s

peci

fic

subj

ects

. Com

plex

m

essa

ges

and

scen

ario

s ca

n be

re

pres

ente

d.

Onc

e pr

oduc

ed, t

hey

are

not

adap

tabl

e. B

ut w

ith

tech

nolo

gica

l ad

vanc

es, c

hang

ing,

edi

ting

, ad

apta

tion

is e

asie

r.

The

init

ial e

xpen

se is

var

iabl

e de

pend

ing

on t

he p

rodu

ctio

n qu

alit

y re

quire

d. C

opie

s of

vid

eos

chea

p to

repr

oduc

e.

Hig

h. G

ener

ates

dis

cuss

ion

afte

r vi

ewin

g. O

rgan

ise

an in

form

al

view

ing

in t

he c

omm

unit

y w

ith

the

dial

ogue

.

New

spap

ers

and

mag

azin

es

Can

quic

kly

reac

h la

rge

liter

ate

audi

ence

s. If

the

y ar

e el

ectr

onic

pu

blic

atio

ns, t

hey

can

be a

cces

sed

from

any

whe

re in

the

wor

ld a

t th

e sa

me

tim

e.

Spec

ific

tec

hnic

al in

form

atio

n/ne

ws/

info

rmat

ion.

Onc

e pr

inte

d on

pap

er, n

ot

adap

tabl

e. E

lect

roni

c ve

rsio

ns c

an

be c

onti

nuou

sly

upda

ted

and

are

read

by

a la

rge

num

ber

of p

eopl

e.

They

can

inco

rpor

ate

othe

r au

diov

isua

l med

ia (v

ideo

, rad

io).

Hig

h pu

blic

atio

n co

st. E

xpen

sive

ad

vert

s. Th

e pr

ogra

mm

e/po

licy

can

beco

me

a so

urce

of

info

rmat

ion.

Aver

age

in t

he p

aper

ver

sion

and

hi

gher

in t

he e

lect

roni

c ve

rsio

n.

Dis

cuss

ion

abou

t im

port

ant

new

s;

natu

rally

, car

ried

out

in re

ader

s’ m

arke

t sq

uare

s, et

c.

Source: based on UNICEF 2006, expanded by the author.

➜

76

Post

erCa

n ha

ve a

goo

d re

ach

depe

ndin

g on

the

num

bers

dis

sem

inat

ed a

nd

thei

r pl

acem

ent.

Suit

able

for

sho

rt, p

reci

se

mes

sage

s. Th

ey d

o no

t tr

ansm

it

com

plex

mes

sage

s ef

fect

ivel

y.

Onc

e pr

inte

d, n

ot a

dapt

able

.G

ood

desi

gn a

nd g

raph

ics

can

be c

ostl

y. G

ener

ally

reas

onab

le

prin

ting

pric

es. T

he d

istr

ibut

ion

coul

d be

cos

tly.

Can

be u

sed

to g

ener

ate

disc

ussi

on a

bout

a s

ubje

ct.

Broc

hure

, lea

flet

, ca

talo

gue

Dep

ends

on

the

num

ber

and

dist

ribut

ion.

Can

expl

ain

mor

e co

mpl

ex h

ealt

h pr

oble

ms,

beha

viou

rs.

Onc

e pr

inte

d, n

ot a

dapt

able

. Si

mila

r to

pos

ters

.Ca

n be

use

d to

gen

erat

e di

scus

sion

abo

ut a

sub

ject

.

Mur

alD

epen

ds o

n th

e lo

cati

on.

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ot t

rans

mit

com

plex

m

essa

ges

effe

ctiv

ely.

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e pr

inte

d, n

ot a

dapt

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. Ch

eap.

Cou

ld b

e ex

pens

ive

if a

ho

ardi

ng h

as t

o be

inst

alle

d.Li

mit

ed.

Inte

rper

sona

l co

mm

unic

atio

n (IP

C)

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ups

or o

ther

peo

ple.

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d fo

r sp

ecif

ic, c

ompl

ex

exch

ange

of

inti

mat

e in

form

atio

n.G

ener

ally

inte

ract

ive

wit

h im

med

iate

resp

onse

.Co

st f

acto

rs in

clud

e ca

paci

ty

build

ing,

the

tea

m, t

rans

port

, etc

. H

ighl

y in

tera

ctiv

e, if

not

don

e to

p-do

wn.

Popu

lar

com

mun

icat

ion,

in

clud

ing

popu

lar

thea

tre

(IPT

)

Smal

l, w

ith

the

pote

ntia

l to

reac

h m

ediu

m s

cale

. Wit

h m

obile

uni

ts,

the

reac

h co

uld

be g

reat

er. G

ood

for

area

s w

ith

diff

icul

t ac

cess

to

gene

ral c

omm

unic

atio

n m

edia

.

Sim

ple,

eas

y to

und

erst

and

the

mes

sage

s w

ith

a lo

cal f

lavo

ur a

nd

wit

h en

tert

ainm

ent.

Adap

tabl

e to

inte

ract

ive.

The

fo

rmat

may

be

too

flex

ible

and

th

e m

ain

risk

is o

f sh

ifti

ng.

Chea

p. C

ost

fact

ors

incl

ude

scrip

ting

, reh

ears

al, s

uppo

rt a

nd

perf

orm

ance

, etc

.

Very

hig

h. D

iscu

ssio

n w

ith

the

audi

ence

dur

ing

or a

t th

e en

d of

th

e re

sult

s. G

ener

ates

dia

logu

e w

ith

the

com

mun

ity.

Mik

ing

(sou

nd

equi

pmen

t) a

nd

othe

r m

obile

co

mm

unic

atio

n m

edia

Dep

ends

on

mob

ility

and

re

gula

rity.

Can

reac

h pe

ople

in

diff

icul

t to

acc

ess

area

s.

Sim

ple,

eas

y to

und

erst

and

mes

sage

s.Ea

sily

ada

ptab

le.

Chea

p.If

acc

ompa

nied

by

leaf

lets

, mor

e in

form

atio

n, a

nd c

an a

nsw

er

ques

tion

s.

Soci

al n

etw

orks

(F

aceb

ook,

Tw

itte

r, et

c.)

Dep

ends

on

writ

ten

and

digi

tal

liter

acy.

Wit

hout

phy

sica

l bo

unda

ries.

Can

reac

h pe

ople

all

over

the

wor

ld. E

lect

ricit

y is

vit

al.

Sim

ple

mes

sage

s, no

t ef

fect

ive

wit

h co

mpl

ex m

essa

ges.

Info

rmat

ion

in re

al t

ime.

Very

ada

ptab

le a

mon

g us

ers.

Coul

d be

too

fle

xibl

e. R

isk

of

info

rmat

ion

over

load

.

Com

pute

r pr

ices

are

hig

h.

Can

gene

rate

info

rmat

ion

inex

pens

ivel

y.

Very

hig

h ho

rizon

tally

, and

re

lati

ve in

ver

tica

l com

mun

icat

ion.

➜

➜

77

➜

Mob

ile t

elep

hone

s (S

MS,

and

oth

er

mes

seng

er

prog

ram

mes

)

Dep

ends

on

writ

ten

and

digi

tal

liter

acy.

Sm

all a

nd la

rge

audi

ence

s de

pend

ing

on t

echn

olog

ical

leve

l.

Very

sim

ple

mes

sage

s.O

nce

sent

can

not

be c

hang

ed, b

ut

diff

eren

t m

essa

ges

can

be s

ent.

Hig

h.Ve

ry h

igh.

Web

site

s an

d bl

ogs

Inst

itut

iona

l web

site

s ar

e on

e of

th

e m

ain

sour

ces

of in

form

atio

n.

Requ

ires

writ

ten

and

digi

tal

liter

acy.

Mix

ed. C

an b

e si

mpl

e an

d co

mpl

ex

mes

sage

s.Ve

ry a

dapt

able

, can

be

cont

inuo

usly

upd

ated

.Co

mpu

ters

and

Inte

rnet

acc

ess

can

be e

xpen

sive

for

poo

r gr

oups

of

peo

ple

and

thos

e in

rur

al a

reas

. In

tern

et c

afes

cou

ld a

llevi

ate

part

of

the

pro

blem

.

In b

logs

ver

y hi

gh. I

n w

ebsi

tes

med

ium

, dep

endi

ng o

n th

e ch

arac

teris

tics

.

e-m

ail,

new

slet

ter

Requ

ires

writ

ten

and

digi

tal

liter

acy.

Can

reac

h ve

ry b

road

au

dien

ces

in a

ny p

lace

.

Sim

ple

and

com

plex

mes

sage

s, de

pend

ing

on t

he f

orm

at u

sed

in

this

med

ium

.

Onc

e se

nt, c

anno

t be

cha

nged

but

di

ffer

ent

mes

sage

s ca

n be

sen

t.Co

mpu

ters

and

Inte

rnet

acc

ess

can

be e

xpen

sive

for

poo

r gr

oups

of

peo

ple

and

thos

e in

rur

al a

reas

. In

tern

et c

afes

cou

ld a

llevi

ate

part

of

the

pro

blem

.

Hig

h, b

oth

dist

ribut

ion

lists

and

th

eir

new

slet

ters

usu

ally

off

er t

he

poss

ibili

ty o

f pa

rtic

ipat

ion.

78

3.2.7. Communication actions

After identifying which channels are going to be used, it is necessary to specify the actions that need to be carried out

for each media chosen. The table below provides a list of some of the most common communication tools and actions used to communicate:

Types Actions

Strategic management tools Communication planBudget

Tools for managing institutional communication (corporate) and external communication (publicity, marketing, Internet and public relations)

Corporate Identity guide // Presentations // Reports

Marketing Mailshots // Publicity in other programmes // Administrations // Guerrilla or street marketing // Telemarketing // Catalogues

Publicity Publicity on mobile phones // Publicity in search engines // TV, press and radio advertising // Adverts on street furniture and billboards // Viral

Public Relations Events // Participation in fairs // Cultural, sports, social events… // Sports sponsorship or other kind

Internet Microsites // E-mail marketing // Social networks // Games // Blogs and videoblogs

Tools for managing media relations

Press releases // Press conferences // Interviews in the media // Working lunches with the media // Breakfasts with journalists // Virtual press room // Online press dossier // Online photographs // Online reports and statistics // Online TV and radio adverts // Video news

Tools for managing citizen services

Publicity // Political marketing // Social marketing // Public relations // Mass-mailing // Website, blogs // Social networks // Books, research and reports // Catalogues and leaflets // Automatic help points // Surveys // Citizen’s Advice Centres // Debates

Tools for managing internal communication

Email messages // Segmented publications // Corporate magazines // Electronic newsletters // Corporate communication channel or intranet // Letters, circulars, memos, minutes and other documents // SMS // Mobile applications // Telephone // Forums, chats // Notice boards, leaflets, posters, signs, merchandising… // Meetings with managers // Attitude assessments, surveys // Internal events: anniversaries and inaugurations, conventions // Videoconferences

Source: created by the author based on INAP 2011.

79

However, the specific nature of communicating development results can also call for other types of more creative actions. Moreover, organisations are increasingly favouring a return to using neighbourhood squares and streets as communication spaces, and are organising activities in which people can learn about and ask questions about the programme/policy.

Designing the content and image

In addition to selecting a series of tools and actions, launching the plan normally requires designing the content and image. It helps, when doing this, to distinguish between the production, creativity and media plan (INAP, 2011).

/ The production embodies the messages. Creating the content should focus on how best to explain the idea or message, whether in the form of a video script, the text of a leaflet or the structure of a presentation. The content must be believable, original and suited to the agreed communication strategy.

/ Creativity is the face of the campaign or action. The image and design (visual communication, logos, conceptual diagrams, layout…) should concentrate on the way of representing or encoding the message using images so that the public pay more attention to it and can distinguish it from other information they usually receive.

/ The media plan is the proposal for selecting the media for disseminating the

message (planning the actions specified in the previous point). The media strategy and the creative strategy have to work together.

Media relations

The idea is to promote the credibility of the programme/policy to talk about development issues in the community. To cultivate good relations with the media, the organisation should make an effort to visit media personnel in their area regularly and provide them with basic information about the organisation and the work it is currently involved in. In all media relations, factual information should be provided in a clear, concise and timely manner.

Relations with the media require continuous work to build relationships, for which we recommend:

(i) Creating a “map” of the communication media in the area.

(ii) Defining what the programme/policy wants or needs from the media (strategy).

(iii) Learning about issues of interest to the media.

(iv) Identifying journalists and communicators who due to the section they work in, their awareness of the issue, etc., could be more accessible for the programme/policy and finding out what information they could provide.

80

(v) Having information and news suited to the media’s interests readily available (or the ability to access it).

(vi) Meeting with the media and establishing common interests and the mechanisms or types of relationships that will be maintained.

EXAMPLE: PRESENTATION OF RESULTS EVENT of the Fronteras Turísticas (Tourism Borders) Project finalised within the framework of URB-AL III with important achievements and a clear strategy for sustainability: the Aymara-Quechua Camino Andino tourist route

The official closing ceremony for the project was held on 19 and 20 April in Frosinone (Italy), the coordinating province of Fronteras Turísticas. This was the first project of the European Commission’s URB-AL III Programme (2009-2012) to be completed. Fronteras Turísticas was created to respond to the need to improve the territorial competitiveness of tourism in two border areas and to create new mechanisms for managing the development of this tourist corridor of cross-border integration based on Aymara and Quechua cultural identity. The project’s partners include the Government of the Province of Jujuy (Argentina), the Prefecture of the Department of Oruro (Bolivia), the local governments of Calacoto, San Pedro de Quemes (Bolivia), Purmamarca (Argentina) and Tarata (Peru), the autonomous province of Bolzano (Italy), the Association for Social Development (ADESO) and the Interregional Observatory for Development Cooperation (OICS).

During the event, Italian tourist operators were presented with the product Camino Andino, a cross-border tourist route with a cultural identity that has been consolidated as a brand and has already been presented at the main international trade fairs in the tourism sector (Madrid, London and Buenos Aires). Camino Andino guarantees the sustainability of the project beyond URB-AL III.Furthermore, the most outstanding results obtained from more than three years’ work were presented: more than 2,565 direct beneficiaries, over 760 people trained, 12 local specialists completed their professional training in Italy, 7 tourist routes developed, 142 tourist sites showcased, 8 centres providing access to new technologies created, more than 30 public and private stakeholders mobilised and the

formation of an alliance of local authorities and civil society organisations to implement development policies in border areas.

81

3.2.8. Schedule

The schedule establishes a timeline, a calendar indicating which actions will be carried out and when. It is important to stick to the action schedule at least for

a reasonable period of time in order for it to be effective, as it is no use carrying out actions two months late or not distributing information leaflets on the day that an event has been organised and having them ready the day after.

Example schedule for a communication plan Action Cost Day X Day X Day X ... Week X ... Month X

1. Strategic management

Management of the communication plan X

Audit and monitoring

Evaluation

...

2. Institutional communication

2.1. Corporate communication

Corporate documentation

Identity audit

...

2.2. External communication

Marketing

Mailings X

...

Publicity

Press announcements X X

...

Internet

Creation of profiles in social networks and management

...

Public relations and protocol

➜

82

3.2.9. Creating the budget

In order to evaluate the cost of the strategy it is necessary to review and make a list of the activities and resources required to implement it and evaluate all the expense categories, among which we find:

/ Research, monitoring and evaluation activities (salaries and fees, travel expenses, supplies, data processing and analysis, publishing reports, workshops to report results, etc.);

/ Training (fees, teaching material,

organisation costs, participants’ expenses, transport, etc.);

/ Production and dissemination of materials (design, fees and salaries of technical staff, copyright, travel, consumables, reproduction costs, distribution and dissemination through any communication channel and media, etc.);

/ Activities for communication in the field (equipment, travel, salaries, cost of special events such as press conferences, open days, etc.)

Source: INAP 2011.

3. Media relations

Gather information

Invite media to press conference X

Send press releases X X

Press conference

Contact media: radio, TV...

Monitor media - press clippings

4. Citizen services

4.1. Website X

Publish content X

Mass-mailing

...

5. Internal communication

5.1. Monitoring meetings

➜

83

➜

Example budget for a communicating for development strategy

Appendix III. Action budget1 Every year Year 12

Expenses Unit # unitsUnit cost

(€)3Cost (€) Unit # units

Unit cost (€)3

Cost (€)

1. Human resources

Head of communication areaper

month1 0

Social communicator in the fieldper

month2 0

Human resources subtotal 0 0

2. Travel6

2.1 International travel per flight 0 per flight 0

Travel to three international meetings to present the programme/policy experience

per flight 3 0

0

2.2 Local transportper

month0

per month

0

Travel to communication actions in rural communities

per month

1 0

Travel subtotal 0 0

3. Equipment and material7

Hire “citizen trailer”per

vehicle 3 0

Purchase an iMac computer + printer unit 2 0

Mobile set of projectors, sound equipment, player

unit 3 0

Equipment and material subtotal 0 0

4. Local office/action costs

Local office/action costs subtotal 0

84

5. Other costs, services8

5.1. Publications9 0 0

Publishing programme/policy annual report (2 languages)

units 500 0

Publishing life stories (programme/policy impacts) (2 languages)

units 500 0

Producing videos to communicate results

units 1 0

Reproduction and distribution of the video to communicate results + life stories

units 200 0

Producing “Life Stories” communication videos

units 1 0

5.2. Studies, research9 0 0

Communication audit in rural areas units 1 0

KAP analysis of population affected by problem X

units 2 0

5.3. Evaluation costs 0 0

Evaluation of results and impact of communication plan

units 1 0

5.4. Translation, interpreting 0 0

Translating annual report on results and systematisation of best practices into English (or Aymara)

units 1 0

5.5. Cost of conferences/seminars9 0 0

Seminars to discuss local development progress

units 2 0

Events to present results/projects in neighbourhoods being addressed

units 8 0

5.6. Visibility activities 0

Merchandising material (hats, T-shirts, bags, etc.)

kit 200 0

Basic programme information kit (brochure, leaflets, presentation dossier, signs, etc).

units 1,000 0

➜

➜

85

As far as possible, a communication budget should be included in the general programme/policy budget and, if necessary, accompanied by a specific budget for the more detailed communication plan.

3.2.10. Indicators for monitoring and evaluating the communication plan

Analysing the results is one of the most overlooked tasks in communication. This is due to the difficulty in finding an

effective method of measuring results, the short space of time between one activity and another and a lack of technology for measuring success in new spaces and media such as the Internet and, in particular, social networks.

Nevertheless, it is necessary to measure the outputs/outcomes and impact of the communication activities by means of continuous monitoring during the execution and by conducting an evaluation, at the very least, on completing the communication plan. As far as

➜

Hiring socio-cultural entertainment groups for activities accompanying the “citizen trailer”

units 3 0

Press conference units 3 0

Slots on radio programmes 0

Press advertising 0

Organising “citizen fairs” to disseminate the results of the programme

units 1 0

Other costs/services subtotal 0 0


1. The budget may cover all the eligible costs of the action and not only the contribution of the contracting Administration. The items must be described in detail and the components itemised. The number of units per component should be specified.2. This section should be completed if the implementation period exceeds 12 months.3. When the contracting Administration is not the European Commission, the budget can be expressed in Euros or the currency of said Administration’s country. The costs are rounded up to the nearest Euro cent.4. If the staff are not working full-time on the project, the percentage should be indicated together with a description of the position and reflecting the number of units (and not in the unit cost).5. Indicate the countries where subsistence allowances are spent and the rates applicable (they must not exceed the scales approved by the Commission). If the information is not available, specify a total amount. Subsistence allowances cover accommodation, meals and local travel and minor expenses.6. The costs of offsetting CO2 for air travel can be included. CO2 offsetting will be obtained by supporting projects with clean development/Gold Standard mechanisms (evidence must be included along with the supporting documents) or through airline programmes, where they exist.7. Costs of purchase and hire.8. Detail. Flat rates/lump sums are not accepted.9. Indicate only in the event that they are fully sub-contracted.

Note: The accuracy of the financial information contained in this document is the exclusive responsibility of the beneficiary.

86

possible, it is also advisable to conduct an ex post evaluation to better gauge the impact (footprint) of the plan. For this, a series of indicators need to be defined to provide the basis for taking regular measurements (weekly, monthly, etc., as required) in order to carry out corrective actions where necessary.

Generally speaking, plans for communicating about development results only include so-called “output indicators” (linked to the activities) in the planning of communication for development.22

Below we present a list of common indicators in a communication plan:

/ Number of press conferences held.

/ Number of information workshops run.

/ Number of advertisements placed.

/ Number of blogs and social profiles created.

/ Number of newsletters produced.

/ Number of web pages created.

/ Number of publicity materials created.

/ Number of press releases distributed and number of photographs, short voice and video adverts given to the media.

22 See chapter 2, section 2.4.1 Objectively verifiable indicators of communication.

/ Number of electronic newsletters or email marketing sent out.

/ Number of appearances in the media, digital or print (press, web pages, electronic newsletters, specialist magazines…).

/ Number of people informed about a specific campaign.

/ Amount of material sent out.

/ Number of hits on the website and social profiles.

/ Number of participants at events.

/ Number of users attracted by the services.

/ Number of information requests responded to by citizens’ advice offices and telephone helplines.

To obtain the necessary information to verify the indicators, it is common to use multiple media and techniques.

3.2.11. Visibility in European Commission programmes

In its communication and visibility manual for external actions, the European Commission indicates that communication activities must be produced during the entire lifecycle of the action. In order to adapt the visibility activities to the specific stages of the action (or project

87

cycle) and to the target population, it proposes the possible use of the matrix presented below, which provides an overview of the most suitable types of visibility activities for the different stages of the project cycle.

It must be stressed that the stages of the project cycle that appear in the matrix are provided only for the purposes of planning and are not intended to be the focus of the communication activities.

The matrix has been designed as a flexible tool, which means it can be updated and adapted in any phase of the action as and when necessary.

Project cycle stage/ communication activity and target groups

Programming Identification Appraisal Financing ImplementationEvaluation and

audit

Communication objective

Announce EU support

Information on action status

Information on action status

Highlight amount of EC support and context

Awareness raising Demonstration of impact

Responsibility Commission Commission Commission Commission/Partner

Partner Commission/Partner

Type of key message “The world’s biggest donor at the service of the Millennium Goals”

“More, better, faster help – Europe cares and acts”

“The EU and ‘partner’ - delivering more and better aid together”

“The world’s biggest donor at the service of the Millennium Goals”

“Cooperation that counts”

“The EU delivers”

Most appropriate tools

Press conferences, events, interviews

Information campaign


Press conferences Events, site visits, TV and radio spots, high level visits

Videos, reports

➜

88

Source: EC 2010.

Beneficiary population

Press conference following pledge

Information campaign to accompany visit of identification mission

Inform via the media on selection of partner

Inform via the media when financing is confirmed

Public signing ceremony


Photo opportunities, (joint) high level visits to mark milestones

Formation of multi-donor action steering committees

Make key results publicly available

Work with the media to show the impact on the ground

EU institutions and international donor community

Press conference following pledge



Joint presentations to Parliament

Thematic events

Make key results publicly available & broaden to include key strategic messages

European citizens Press conference following pledge

Inform via the media, if appropriate

Work with specialist press

Thematic events


Broad awareness raising campaigns, using a specific programme as an anchor

Thematic events

Inform via the media, if appropriate

Make key results publicly available and broaden to include key strategic messages

➜

89

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MARTÍNEZ, I., SANAHUJA J.A. (2009): La agenda internacional de eficacia de la ayuda y la cooperación descentralizada en España, Carolina Foundation - CEALCI, Madrid.

MEFALOPULOS, P. (2008): Development Communication Sourcebook Broadening the Boundaries of Communication, World Bank, Washington.

MEFALOPULOS, MOETSABI (2004): Participatory Rural Communication Appraisal – A Handbook, FAO. Available at: <http://www.fao.org/docrep/008/y5793e/y5793e00.htm>.

MOZAMMEL, M., ZATIOKAL B. (2002): Strategic Communication in PRSP, World Bank. Available at: <http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTDEVCOMMENG/ Resources/prspstrategiccommchapter.pdf>.

MOZAMMEL, SCHECHTER (2005): Strategic Communication for Community– Driven Development. A practical guide for project managers and communication practitioners, World Bank.

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OECD-WB (n.d.): Emerging Good Practice in Managing for development results, s/l, OECD. Available at: <www.mfdr.org/Sourcebook.html>.

PANOS LONDON (2007a): At the Heart of Change: The Role of Communication in Sustainable Development, London.

PANOS LONDON (2007b): The Case for Communication in Sustainable Development, Illuminating Voices, London.

RODRÍGUEZ SOSA, J., ZEBALLOS, M. (2007): Evaluación de proyectos de desarrollo local. Enfoques, métodos y procedimientos, Centre for Development Studies and Promotion-DESCO, Lima.

SERVAES, MALIKHAO (1994): Concepts: The Theoretical Underpinnings of the Approaches to Development Communication. In UNESCO/UNFPA (kit), Approaches to Development Communication.

SIDA (2006): Dialogue and Strategic Communication in Development Cooperation, Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency.

SINGHAL, A. (2003): Focus on the forest, not just the tree: Cultural Strategies for Combating AIDS. In: MICA Communications Review, 1 (1):21-28.

UNDP (2006): Communication for empowerment, practical note, UNDP, Oslo.

UNDP (2011): Communication for development. Strengthening the effectiveness of the United Nations. Available at: http://www.unicef.org/cbsc/files/Inter-agency_C4D_Book_2011.pdf

UNDP – Bureau for Development Policy, Democratic Governance Group (2006): Communication for Empowerment: developing media strategies in support of vulnerable groups. Practical Guidance Note. Oslo Governance Center. (topic 2.1). Available at: <http://omec.uab.cat/documentos/mitjans_dem_gov/0021.pdf>.

UNDP - Bureau for Development Policy, Democratic Governance Group (2007): The MDGs as a Communication Tool for Development, Oslo Governance Center, The Democratic Governance Fellowship Programme.

UNDP (2004): Practical Guidance Note on the Right to Information (2004). Available at: <http://www.undp.org/oslocentre/docs04/Right%20to%20 Information.pdf>.

UNDP - Oslo Governance Center (2007): The MDGs as a Communication Tool for Development, Oslo Governance Centre. The Democratic Governance Fellowship Programme.

UNDP (2009): Communication for Development: A glimpse at UNDP’s practice, Oslo.

UNFPA (2002): Communication for Development Roundtable Report. Focus on HIV/AIDS communication and evaluation, UNFPA, New York.

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UNFPA (2006): Planning Behaviour Change Communication (BCC) Interventions: A Practical Handbook, by Peter F. Chen, UNFPA Country Technical Services Team for East and South-East Asia, Bangkok, Thailand.

UNICEF (2006): Elaborando proyectos de comunicación para el desarrollo, UNICEF, Argentina Office, Buenos Aires.

UNICEF (2006): Behaviour Change Communication in Emergencies: A toolkit. UNICEF Regional Office for South Asia (ROSA), Kathmandu, Nepal.

UNICEF (2008): Writing a Communication Strategy for Development Programmes: A Guideline for Programme Managers and Communication Officers, Bangladesh. Available at: <http://www. influenzaresources.org/index_631.html>.

UNICEF (2009): Advocacy: People’s Power and Participation Guide. Washington, DC. Available at: <http://www.advocate-forchildren.org/>.

UNITED NATIONS POPULATION FUND – UNFPA (2002): Communication for Development Roundtable Report. Focus on HIV/AIDS communication and evaluation, UNFPA, New York.

WHITE, R. (2005): Evaluaciones y perspectivas de la comunicación para el desarrollo: conceptos y experiencias de África y Latinoamérica. Interviewers: Manuela Callou and Juciano Lacerda. Conexao-Comunicaçao e Cultura, Caxias

do Sul, Universidade de Caxias do Sul, p. 133-143.

WORLD BANK (2006): Information and Communication for Development: Global trends and policies, World Bank, Washington D.C.

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Some links to websites with information about communication and development resources23

CFSC – COMMUNICATION FOR SOCIAL CHANGE CONSORTIUM www.communicationforsocialchange.org/

COMMGAP – COMMUNICATION FOR GOVERNANCE AND ACCOUNTABILITY PROGRAM go.worldbank.org/6NKWHXJTF0

DCERN – IMPACT OF COMMUNICATION IN DEVELOPMENT www.dcern.org/.

FAO – SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT DEPARTMENT www.fao.org/sd/kn1_en.htm.

GSDRC – GOVERNANCE AND SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT RESOURCE CENTRE www.gsdrc.org/

ODI – OVERSEAS DEVELOPMENT INSTITUTE – RAPID www.odi.org.uk/RAPID/

THE COMMUNICATION INITIATIVE www.comminit.com/

UNDP - DEMOCRATIC GOVERNANCE www.undp.org/governance/

23 Coopération Technique Belge.

UNESCO – COMMUNICATION AND INFORMATION portal.unesco.org/ci/en/ev.phpURL_ ID=1657&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_ SECTION=201.html

WORLD BANK - Dev com publications web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTDEVCOMMENG/0,,contentMDK:21433084~menuPK:34000171~pagePK:34000187~piPK:34000160~theSite PK:423815,00.html

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APPENDIX. Practical example of a communication plan

Communication plan for a local waste management project

(Taken from INAP 2011)

The Association of Municipalities in the Pamplona Metropolitan Area and Pamplona City Council designed a project to launch a pneumatic waste collection service.

This new system replaced the need for rubbish bins and instead new waste collection hatches were installed. This project has many advantages in both aesthetic and environmental terms; it frees up space and reduces the transit of refuse collection lorries thereby minimising noise and CO2 emissions.

The pneumatic waste collection system was launched in Pamplona’s historic quarter as part of a project that was developed over a period of three years, between 2008 and 2011.

The first years involved hiring the contractors who would build the facilities. The new system is made up of three fundamental parts: the collection hatches (located at different points in the city), the collection network (underground pipes that transport the rubbish bags using air pressure) and the Trinitarios waste management plant.

In February 2011, the pneumatic waste collection service came into operation in Pamplona’s historic quarter.

The project launch required continuous communication work throughout this period, with the intensity being stepped up towards the end of the installation works as it was important to inform the public about this new system and how it worked, as well as promote its use. The initial data used to create the communication plan for this project was:

/ Body responsible for the communication: Association of Municipalities in the Pamplona Metropolitan Area.

/ Responsible for communication: Department of Communication and External Relations of the Association of Municipalities in the Pamplona Metropolitan Area.

/ Goal of the communication plan: communicate the implementation campaign for the pneumatic waste collection system.

/ Budget: the budget reference is not detailed as it is contextual and subject to price changes over time.

/ Internal resources: Department of Communication and External Relations of the Association of Municipalities in the Pamplona Metropolitan Area.

/ Timescale: 2008 (awarded the project) – February 2011 (launch).

/ Geographical area of action: Pamplona’s historic quarter.

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Below we describe each of the steps defined for planning the communication for this project.

The first step taken was to conduct an analysis of the city’s social environment and that of the organisation, which would lay the foundations for the later design of the plan.

1. Environmental analysis

Weaknesses and threats

Need to change habits

Long period of works

High number of people to inform, with different ages and profiles

Strengths and opportunities

Aesthetic and environmental improvement

Reduced noise

Once the environment and the context in which the project would be carried out had been defined, the campaign’s communication objectives were set, distinguishing between the primary and secondary goals, as shown in the following table.

2. Objectives

Primary

Publicise the new pneumatic waste collection service among the public in the county and especially those living in the historic quarter

Issue basic recommendations for correct use of the hatches and collection system

Secondary

Highlight the change in habits required from the system’s users

Inform about the basic aspects of this technology being introduced for the first time in Navarra

Once the objectives had been defined, attention was turned to the action’s target audience(s). It was fundamental, once identified, to carefully analyse the characteristics of the audience and all the information that would be of interest to steer the message, the strategy and the subsequent communication actions.

3. Target audiences

Primary

Residents of the historic quarter of Pamplona (external)

Media (external)

Secondary

Population of the county of Pamplona (external)

Administration (external)

The message of the campaign centred on one main idea and other secondary ones. Once the messages were clearly defined, work began on creating a slogan that would summarise the content in a way

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that would connect with the audience.

4. Message

Primary

With the new pneumatic waste collection service, the historic quarter will be more attractive and environmentally friendly, it will free up space in the street and eliminate the noise of refuse collection lorries

Secondary

Change of habits

Operation of the new system

The next step consisted of defining the strategy that would be implemented when the campaign was launched.

5. Strategy

The campaign communication strategy was based on the launch of an active relationship with the media and direct contact with the public

Tone and language

The tone and language were adapted to each audience and channel

Channels

The channels selected were direct and of a local nature

The communication strategy was focused on the following communication actions addressed to each of the audiences identified.

6. Communication actions

Residents of Pamplona’s Historic

QuarterGeneral population of

Pamplona

Media Administration

1. Communication

Definition of the plan X

Monitoring and control X

Later evaluation X

2. Institutional communication

2.1. Corporate communication

Design of material and content/Letters, signs, leaflets... X X

Creative design X X

2.2. External communication

➜

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Presented below is a calendar of actions which shows that during the first three years the communication work was focused on managing media relations and visiting the facility construction sites. In this way, information was passed on to the public regarding the project launch. Coinciding with the culmination of the works, in February 2011, an intensive campaign aimed at the public was launched and this was combined with other activities.

a) Marketing/Mailing information X

b) Publicity/Advertisements in local newspapers X X

c) Internet

d) Public relations and protocol/Guided visits/ Animation activities

X X X

3. Media relations

Regular press releases X

Press conferences X

Visits to the facilities X

4. Citizen services

4.1. Institutional website/Waste blog X X

4.2. Telephone helpline X X

➜

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Among the final steps in creating the communication plan were identifying the indicators of control and monitoring and the later evaluation of the results that were obtained. This task of identifying indicators is simpler if it is associated with the established objectives and is based on the proposed activities, marking an expected outcome.

The responsibility for the campaign and the control lay entirely with the project managing and organising body: the Association of Municipalities in the Pamplona Metropolitan Area. In this way, all the communication was centralised which guaranteed easier coordination, control and monitoring of the plan. However, the details of the inauguration and the protocol were agreed in

7. Schedule

Year 2008 2009 2010 2011

Month 02 01 02 03 04 11

Day 18 1907-10/10/

11/12/16/2605 13

Actions

Press releases X X X X X X

Notifications and public presentations

X(11/02)

Visits to the facilities

X(16 and 26/02)

X

Mailing X(07-10/02)

X X

Advertisements in the press / Diario de Navarra/ Diario de Noticias

X(10/02)

Animation X(11-12/02)

Corporate website X X(Sept.)

X X X X

Blog X(Sept.)

X X

Telephone X X X X

Information point X(11-12/02)

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coordination with Pamplona City Council (which co-financed the project)

The final action to complete the design of the plan, and which took place after its development, was the evaluation of the results achieved. Analysing this data provided genuine knowledge about the results and also yielded baseline information for launching other actions, as it revealed what had worked and what had not worked in the communication, and why.

The communication campaign included a series of questions addressed to people depositing their waste in the pneumatic waste collection hatches in the historic quarter and to those who used the normal rubbish containers. This was part of a survey into user satisfaction with the services provided (water, waste,

urban transport and management of the county’s Riverside Park). This information allowed the user satisfaction results to be compared between both groups.

10. Evaluation

Analysis of the indicator results

Carry out a user satisfaction survey

2. Objectives

Primary

Publicise the new pneumatic waste collection service among the public in the county and especially those living in the historic quarter

Issue basic recommendations for correct use of the hatches and collection system

Secondary

Highlight the change in habits required from the system’s users

Inform about the basic aspects of this technology being introduced for the first time in Navarra

9. Audit and monitoring (indicators)

Indicators of physical performance Indicators of impact

Regular information for the media (one release per month)

10,000 mailings to the public

Place two advertisements

Send three direct communications to the public

Indicators of financial performance

Launch a telephone helpline and information point for the public

Organise three guided visits

Organise animation activities over two days

Information in a specialised waste management blog

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Glossary

BCC: Behaviour Change Communication.

C4D: Communication for Development.

DAC: Development Co-operation Directorate of the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD).

HRBD: Human Rights-Based Development.

IEC: Communication for development strategy known as “Information, education, communication”.

KAP: Participatory analysis and technique used known as “Knowledge, Attitude, and Practice”.

LFM: Logical Framework Matrix.

MDG: Millennium Development Goals.

MfDR: Managing for Development Results is a management strategy focused on sustainable improvements in performance to obtain development results.

WSIS: World Summit on the Information Society (Geneva 2003 and Tunis 2005.

URB-AL III is a regional decentralised cooperation programme run by the European Commission, the aim of which is to contribute towards increasing the level of social cohesion in sub-national and regional groups in Latin America.

Led by Diputació de Barcelona, the URB-AL III Programme Orientation and Coordination Office’s mission is to facilitate the implementation of the programme by providing technical assistance and support in the different projects in order to help achieve the programme’s objectives.


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