Communicating through Objects: Facilitating qualitative ......the interview and research process....

CommunicatingthroughObjects:FacilitatingqualitativeResearchinDesignMeganAshton

Whenitcomestouserinquiryandobservationindesignresearch,muchemphasis

isplacedonverbalexchangeanddialogue.Whilethisisoftenanessentialtoolin

understandingtheuser’sneedsandreactions,itisimportanttoconsiderthevalue

ofnon-verbalsignsandmethodsofcommunicationinelicitingaresponseortoaid

the interview and research process. Megan Ashton’s paper investigates the

influence of visual, non-verbal elicitation during qualitative interviews, and

exploresthisconceptbyexaminingseveralexamplesofvisualelicitation,namely

photography, video, drawings and diagrams. Furthermore it discusses the

production of visual data by informants as away of communicating during the

interview process. Based on these findings it looks at the possibility of using

objects, and thenmore specifically clothing, to aid the interview process and to

facilitatecommunication.

DESIGNABILITIESDesignResearchJournal(7)2018(ISSN2511-6274)www.designabilities.org

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Semi-structuredQualitativeInterviewsasaResearchMethod

The structure of interviews used in researchmethods could be pictured as a

spectrum, ranging from structured to unstructured (Brinkmann 2013, 18). A

structuredinterview,onewhichaimstoproducequantitativedata,consistsofa

predetermined, invariable listofquestionswith finiteanswers, thepurposeof

which is to produce findings which are easy to classify. The advantage of

structured or ‘survey’ interviews is that it is simpler to analyse the collected

data (Weiss 1994, 2). Semi-structured interviews, most often used to collect

qualitativedata, shouldbeopenenough to allowunexpected, voluntary input

from the subject, while still being structured enough to follow the topics

important to the research project (Brinkmann 2008, 470). The researcher

developstheinterviewalongsidetheanswersfromtherespondent,inorderto

probe specific information and encourage dialogue about the research topic

(Weiss1994,2). Inanunstructured interview, such as a ‘life story’ interview,

theresearcherasksoneveryspecificquestiontoinitiatetheinterviewandthen

works to ‘facilitate’ the interview, asking questions only designed to define

unclearanswers,ratherthantoguidetherespondent’smonologue(Brinkmann

2013,20).

Theinterviewstructure,aswellasthechosenmethodofinterviewandthe

wayitisimplemented,isveryspecifictoaprojectanditsresearchtopic(ibid.,

25).Thestructuremayevenvaryduring thevariousstagesofan interviewor

research process, for example, when a researcher is familiarising themselves

withatopicorareaofresearch, theymay firstaskbroader,moreopen-ended

‘unstructured’ questions in order to better understand the subject matter

(Johnson&Weller2001,500).Inthisessay,Iwillfocusspecificallyonthesemi-

structuredinterview,asthisisthemostwidelyusedinterviewstructureforthe

collectionofqualitativedata(Brinkmann2013,24).Withintheclassificationof

semi-structured interviews, the qualities of the interview can be further

influencedbythemethodofcommunicationusedtoconductit,forexamplevia

email or in person. An in-person interview, where the interviewer and the

respondentcommunicateverbally,facetoface,isseenasaneffectivemethodof


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gatheringqualitativedata. Itprovides the researcherwithadirect reaction to

theirquestionsandachancetodeveloparapportwiththeinterviewee,moreso

thaninaninterviewconductedbyemail, forexample(PlanoClark2008,432).

Aninterestingcharacteristicofanin-personinterviewisthattheintervieweris

also able to observe the non-verbal reactions of the respondent when they

answer questions, creating a richer source of data fromwhich to workwith.

Also incorporated into the face to face interview, couldbe theopportunity to

conducttheinterviewintherespondent’swork,homeorothersettingsfamiliar

to them, giving the researcher the opportunity to observe the interviewee’s

environment(PlanoClark2008,432).

The inclusion of non-verbal communication during the process of

interviewing is a conceptwhich this paperwill explore further, by looking at

visual and object elicitation, and how these can affect the response of an

informant.Asitstands,areasofstudythatpracticequalitativeresearch,suchas

sociology, rely heavily on language and often follow the practice of firmly

separatinglanguagefromother,non-verbal,methodsofcommunication(Banks

2001,9).Theuseoflanguageisclearlycrucialincommunication,yetthereare

somenotionsandqualitieswhich itcannotexpress(Weber2008,50).Marcus

Banksstatesinhisbook‘Visualmethodsinsocialresearch’that“Socialresearch

hastobeanengagement,notanexerciseindatacollection”(Banks2001,179),

and this paper explores whether the inclusion of non-verbal communication

withinaninterviewcanfacilitatethisconcept.Firstlyit isimportanttolookat

someof thedifferent formsof visual elicitation that couldbeusedduring the

interviewprocess.

ThePossibleInfluencesofVisualStimulationontheInterviewProcess

Visualcommunicationisinherentlyolderthanverbalcommunicationandrelates

tooursubconsciousinawaythatlanguagecannot,attributingtoitacompletely

different essence. Incorporating the use of visual communication when

conducting an interview, through the use of visual stimuli, can change the

character of the interview, possibly providing a richer response from the


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interviewee (Harper2002, 12).The involvementof visualdata in an interview

could be crucial in providing a method of communication which allows the

participant to express situations, feelings and conceptswhich they themselves

havenotyetorcannotconverttoverbalcommunication.Forexample,feelingsof

the subconscious which are felt but not yet formed in words, or which the

respondent findshard to articulate (Johnson&Weller2001, 492). Images also

affectthememoryinadifferentwaytolanguage,andtheuseofvisualstimulias

elicitationcouldprovokedifferent,perhapsstrongermemoriesintherespondent

(Weber2008,45).Imagescanbeusedtohelpfacilitatethecommunicationofan

unfamiliar viewpoint, allowing the researcher, in the case of respondent

generatedvisualdata,toseethesubjectfromthepointofviewoftherespondent

(Jupp 2006, 321). Using images in communication can, in thisway, facilitate a

more comprehensive understanding of diverse backgrounds and cultures

(Prosser&Loxley2008,4).Thepracticeofviewing,andthewayit isrespected

and interpreted, has evolveddifferently indifferent cultures and religions, and

theimportanceofeyecontact,forexample,ortheuseofvisualmetaphorswithin

language, variesbetweendifferent countries. In research, the understandingof

the visual perceptions within a culture, through visual communication, could

facilitateagreaterunderstandingofthecultureitself(Ibid.,8).

An image is interpreted differently by every person who sees it, and this

diverse understanding of imagery makes it a very subjective means of

communication (Sturken & Cartwright 2001, 25). Similarly, when images are

created they are a representation of many factors; the history of the person

creatingtheimage,thesituationsurroundingtheimageetc.Thissubjectivitycan

make the image an interesting tool throughwhich to communicate during the

interview process, where the wish is to explore the personal views and

experiencesoftherespondent(Prosser&Loxley2008,18).Thisconceptwillbe

addressedinthefollowingparagraphinmoredetail.Asinanyformofresearch,

thequestion is thepriority, and themethodswhich followshould relate to the

question,meaningthattheresearchermustfirstconsiderifvisualelementsused

during an interview could add to the research process, prior to their

implementation (Banks 2001, 14). To further explore the effect of the use of

visual stimuli during the interview process, it is advantageous to explore two


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possiblemediumsusedinelicitation;photographsanddiagrams.

PhotographyasaFormofVisualElicitation

Themostcommonformofimage-elicitationusedduringtheinterviewprocess

is photography (Harper 2002, 13). Photographs can serve as a reference, for

both the interviewer and the respondent, creating the starting point for a

mutualunderstandingof the topic, andhelping to familiarise the subjectwith

theresearchquestion(Ibid,20).Referringtoaphotographcanalsoactasatool

forfocuswithintheinterview,ensuringthattopicsrelevanttotheresearchare

discussed(Schwartz1989,143).Althoughphotographsareimageswhichhave

been created, and are therefore subjective (Prosser & Loxley 2008, 6), they

nonetheless have the ability to capture and remember factual detail that the

humanbrainmayeitherfailtonoticeorforget,providingamoredetailedand

maybe more accurate reference point than a verbal statement (Collier 1957,

844).

Although they are a reproduction of people, objects or places as theymay

appear inreality,photographsarenotstrictlya factualrepresentation.Rather

they have a slightly ambiguous quality, being influenced by the personal

perspectiveandintentofthephotographer,bythesurroundingsandthesocial

contextinwhichtheyweretaken,andalsobytheendviewer'sinterpretationof

them,whichinturnisinfluencedbythebackgroundoftheviewerandthesocial

contextinwhichtheyareobservingthephotograph(Banks2001,10).Forthis

reasonphotographsmay sometimesbeadifficultsubjectmatter for research,

however, this same subjectivity canmake photographs an interesting form of

elicitation. Due to themultiplemeaningspresent, a lot can be said about the

respondentinhowtheyperceivethephotograph,andthedifferingperceptions

ofvariousrespondentscanbecompared(Schwartz1989,140).Thefactthatthe

observerofaphotographwillcommentonthephotographaccordingtohisor

herownviewsandexperiences,meansthatthephotographcaninspiredifferent

narratives fromdifferentsubjects,or inspireconversationaltopicsunexpected

by the researcher, adding more depth to the interview (Ibid, 143). When


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subjectivity is seen as an important quality of qualitative research, the

subjectivityofanimagebecomesrelevant(Jupp2006,321).Aphotographtaken

fromachild’seyelevelforexample,couldfacilitatetheviewerinperceivingthe

child’s conscious experience. A photographer can manipulate the technical

aspects of a photograph in order to communicate a sociological idea (Harper

2002,16).Suchachangeinperceptionmaybeusefulinhelpingtherespondent

to consider various viewpoints when responding to interview questions. A

photograph that was taken from a different angle, for example, could help

inspiretherespondenttoseetheireverydaylife,theirjobortheirenvironment

fromanewanddifferentperspective.Aninterestingexampleofthistechnique

isillustratedbyDouglasHarperduringhisstudyofhisneighbouringfarmsand

the ‘changing role in agricultural technology’ in 2001. He was experiencing

trouble inengagingparticipantsandencouragingthemto talkenthusiastically

andin-depthabouttheirroutinefarmwork.Eventually,hewasabletostimulate

theconversationbypresenting themwithaerialandhistoricalphotographsof

thefarmsinquestion.Throughthischangeinviewpoint,heencourageddeeper

reflection from the respondents on what they would otherwise perceive as

normalandmundane(Ibid.,20-21).

The first instanceofphotographsusedaselicitation inqualitativeresearch

interviewswasby JohnCollier in1957,whenhewasamemberofaresearch

teamworkingonastudytoshowtherelationbetweenenvironmentandmental

health. Collier performed control interviewswhich didnot employ the use of

photoelicitation,aswellas thosewhichdid,providingacomparisonbetween

interviews with andwithout the use of this stimulus (Collier 1957, 846). He

illustratedquite clearly a few reasonswhy theuseof photographs couldhelp

encourageamorereflective,relevantresponsefromtheinformant.

• The interviews that used photo-elicitation were more guided through

the use of photographs as reference points, and the responses were more

specific.

• The responses from the informants were influenced by the photos rather

than their mood.


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• There was more of an openness from the respondents and they were

more willing to participate and develop rapport.

• The use of photographs as elicitation proved useful in overcoming

fatigue and repetition in repeat interviews (Ibid., 856-857).

Beforeperceiving themas a formof elicitation, this studyusedphotographs to

create a standard evaluation system amongst researchers for describing the

qualityofthehousingintheareaofresearch.Whentheresearchgroupanalysed

photographs of the various qualities of housing, it was discovered that the

researchers were judging the housing differently according to their particular

backgrounds.Thisillustratesfurtherhowasinglephotoshowntovariouspeople

canbeusedtosignifyadifferenceinperceptionaccordingtosocialbackground,

and also how it can be used to quickly and easily convey a standard ornorm.

These responses to the subjective yet simultaneously factual qualities of

photographyinspiredColliertousephotographswhileinterviewingrespondents

(Ibid.,846).

Theactofviewingphotographsisasocialonepresentinmanypeoples’

lives,itisanactivityundertakenbyfamilyandfriendstogether.Theuseofphoto

viewinginaninterviewcancreatearelaxedatmosphereasitmimicsafriendly,

informal social activity. This can lead to more direct answers and lack of

hesitation in providing information, sometimes even the disregard of the

presenceof the interviewer in a group interview, for example (Schwartz1989,

152).Theactof takingphotographscanalsobeused to facilitate the interview

process,asshownbyDonnaSchwarzinhercasestudyoftheeffectsofchangein

aruralfarmcommunityinIowa.Shebeganbycreatingphotosofthecommunity,

which she would use later as stimuli in formal interviews with the town’s

population. She noticed that this initial photo-taking served as a way of

introducing her to the farming community, stimulating conversations between

herandthepeopleofthetown,creatingasenseofeasebetweenherandthose

who she was researching and even allowing her to photographmore intimate

socialsituations,suchasfamilyinteractions(Ibid.,125).


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There are a few important points to remember when using photographs as

stimuli in the interviewprocess.Photographs,althoughusefulwhenguidingan

interview, can also be very influential. The use of photographs as props could

encouragetherespondenttotryandpredictwhattheresearcherwantstohear,

influencingtheiranswersandcreatingbiasresults(Prosser&Loxley2008,22).

Also,photographscanelicitstrongemotionalresponsesinarespondent,leading

tounpredictable,unstablereactions(Ibid.,24).Itisimportantthattheresearcher

gives careful consideration towhich andhowmanyphotos to showduring the

interview, atwhich pointduring the interview the photographs could bemost

effective,theformatofthephotographs,andofcourse,thesubjectmatterofthe

photograph. These are all factorswhich could directly affect the results of the

interview,andthereforetheresearch(Collier1957,858).Duetothesubjectivity

ofphotographs,therearemanyquestionssurroundingimages,wheretheycome

from, how they are perceived, or the different influences. A researcher using

imagesshouldbewellinformedofthevariablesassociatedwiththeminorderto

correctlyunderstandtheiruseandtheresponsesgenerated(Weber2008,50).

DiagramsasaFormofVisualElicitation

Diagrams rely on a combination of words and visual symbols to express and

simplify ideas and concepts which may otherwise be problematic to

communicate.Theyarenotliteralrepresentationsofrealityandrangefrommore

text-based,suchasatableofinformation,tomorevisual,suchasaninfographic.

Diagrams are unique as visual stimuli in their capacity to represent both the

physicalworldandabstractideas,makingthemanidealtoolduringaninterview,

to illustrate concepts and ideas thatmaybehard to express inapurely verbal

way.Diagramsusedduringtheinterviewprocessaremoreoftenproducedbythe

respondent than the interviewer (Crilly, Blackwell & Clarkson 2006, 342), a

conceptwhichwillbeexploredinthefollowingparagraphs.Thissectionlooksat

the effects of using an existingdiagram,or one createdby the researcher, as a

method of communication during the interview process. When referenced by

bothparties,adiagramcanhelptoconfirmamutualunderstandingofthetopic,


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tocreateaframeworkfordiscussingatopicandkeeptheinterviewrelevantto

theinterviewerandtherespondent(Ibid.,348).

Aresearchermaycreatediagramsandshowthesetotherespondent, in

order to generate feedback on the accuracy of the diagrams in their

understanding and depiction of the research topic. The respondent then

communicates their perception of the diagram, how this relates to what the

researcher wanted to illustrate and how it may need to be altered to allow

improved communication in future visual representations.Also, in interpreting

thediagram,therespondentisautomaticallyencouragedtotalkaboutthetopic,

generatingnewinputwhichmaybeimportanttotheresearch(Crilly,Blackwell

&Clarkson2006,348).Thisis illustratedbyNathanCrilly,AlanF.Blackwell,P.

John Clarkson in their interviews with industrial designers in 2006. They

presented the designers with diagrams created for the research, depicting the

factorsintheindustrialdesignprocesswhichcouldinfluencetheappearanceof

the products, and asked for feedback on their accuracy. The interviews

highlightedsomeimportantchangesneededinthediagrammaticrepresentation

in order to correctly depict the design process. For example, the respondents

werefrustratedbycertainaspectsofthe‘fluidandcomplex’designprocessbeing

depictedby‘linear…lefttoright’diagrams(Ibid.,354).Aninterestingobservation

during this study was that the feedback was more forthcoming when the

diagramswere communicated in a less finished,more sketch-like form, which

couldimplythatthediagramismoreeffectiveatgeneratingdiscussionwhenitis

lesspolishedandmoreopentointerpretation(Ibid.,352-359).Also,adiagramis

often used to present a very specificpoint, andwhilst this is a helpful tool, in

being so specific the diagram is alsomore likely to bemisrepresentative. This

study illustrates the importance of updating and reviewing diagrams to assess

their accuracy and stresses that they should not be seen as a finite idea or

concept(Crilly,Blackwell&Clarkson2006,360).

When using diagrams as a form of elicitation, the way that they are

presented is very important. It is helpfulnot to give the respondent toomuch

stimulation at one time, in order to keep their attention focused and allow

enoughtimefordiscussion.Thiscouldbeachievedby,forexample,makingsure

only to show one diagram at a time (Ibid., 354). Also, in order to avoid over


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influencingtheopinionoftheinterviewee,tothepointwheretheiranswersare

determined by what they believe the researcher wants to hear, it may be

recommendedtonotshowthediagramsattheverybeginningof the interview

(Ibid.,360).

RespondentGeneratedVisualData

A Researcher may also ask respondents to generate visual data during an

interview,byundertaking tasks such asproducing apainting, takingphotosor

makingavideo,allofwhichcanthenbediscussedduringtheinterviewprocess.

Itmayalsobeinterestingfortheresearchertoanalysehowtheobjectofvisual

communicationiscreated,andwhatthiscancommunicateabouttherespondent

and their perception of the research topic (Weber 2008, 47). The following

paragraphs investigate respondent generated photo and video data, and

drawingsanddiagrams,aswaysofcommunicatingideasandconceptsduringthe

interviewandresearchprocess.

PhotoandVideo

Photographs used for elicitation during the interview process can also be

provided by the informant. An existing family photo collection, for example,

provided by the family members, could give an insight into their relationship

dynamics.Thecontentofthephotographs,thesituations,peopleandobjectson

which they are focused, may be informative in showing the values which

influencethefamily(Jupp2006,321).Thisconceptcanbetakenonestepfurther

byaskingtheparticipanttotakephotosforthepurposeofresearch,andthenuse

them as elicitationduring the interviewprocess. In thisway, the researcher is

handingoversomeofthepowertotheinterviewee,almostliketheyareworking

together to solve a problem, to discover something significant towards the

research (Harper 2002, 22). This approach gives the respondentmore control

over the interviewdiscussion and encourages an equal atmosphere during the

interview.This, combinedwith the fact that the respondenthas a collectionof

self-chosenstimulithroughwhich tocommunicate,couldencouragethemtobe


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more relaxed and forthcoming in their answers (Prosser & Loxley 2008, 22).

Askingtherespondenttocreatetheirownphotoorvideodocumentationaround

a specific subject area also allows the researcher to see the subject from a

differentpointofview(Ibid.,31).

Thefirstmajorexampleoftherespondentvisuallyrecordingtheresearch

topicfromtheirownperspectiveisillustratedintheresearchstudyoftheNavajo

peoplebyWorth,Sol&Adair, John in themid-1960s.Thepurposeof thestudy

wastoexploretheconsequencesofintroducingfilmingtoaculturewhohadnot

previouslyworkedwiththismedium(WorthAdair&Chalfen1997,4), inorder

forthemtousetherecordingmethodasameanstoexpresstheirownperception

of their society and their worldview. The result was the communication of a

culture fromwithin thatculture, inaway thatwas inherentlydifferent towhat

theanthropologistscouldhaveperceived(Ibid.,252-253).Thisstudyillustrates

theadvantagesofvisualmaterialcreatedbytherespondent,asopposedtovisual

materialcreatedbytheresearcher,whowouldonlybeabletodepicttheresearch

topicaccordingtotheirownworldviewsandbeliefs.Theintervieweemayhave

insights into the subject that the researcher cannot attain (Ibid., 254). Similar,

subsequent variationsof this study include askingparticipants to create a film

about a specific topic, allowing participants tomake a film on a topic of their

choice and asking participants to create films which could then be viewed

togetherwiththeresearcher,andbecomeastartingpointfordiscussions(Ibid.,

xv-xvii).The involvement, forexample,ofyoungpeople intheplanning, filming

andeditingof a videodocumentaryonyouth style in the study entitled ‘Youth

Style:Articulatingculturalanxiety’byJanetHethornandSusanKaiser,createda

situationwheretheinformantsofferedtheirowninterpretationsonthistopic-a

useful technique as they are possibly the experts on the subject (Hethorn &

Kaiser1999,113).

Inorder fortheresearcher toachieveacorrect, in-depthanalysisofthe

respondent’s views and perceptions, it is important that any respondent

generated visual data is also discussed verbally. The subject of research

exploration isnot only the imagesor videos that the respondentproduces, but

alsotheassociationswhichtheymighthavetowhattheyhaverecorded.Itisalso

important that the correct balance is achieved between the input from the


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respondent and that from the researcher. It is necessary to remember that

ignoringorlesseningtheacademicinputfromtheresearchercouldbeharmfulto

theoutcomeofsomestudies(Reavey&Johnson2017,360).

DiagramsandDrawings

Someresearchersmayaskthesubjectofaninterviewtousedrawingasaformof

communicationtoexpressthewaythattheyfeelaboutcertainissuesrelatingto

the research topic. This non-verbal explanation may allow the respondent to

describethewaythattheyfeelinaformwhichcommunicatesdifferentaspectsto

thosewhichtheycoulddefineverbally(Jupp2006,321).Inthesamewaysthat

photography,andothervisualstimuli,haveagreaterconnectiontotheemotional

responseofarespondent,theuseofdrawingscouldhelptherespondentbetter

communicateemotions.Theuseofdiagramsbytherespondentcouldalsogreatly

facilitatesituationswherecommunicationisotherwiseanissue,duetolanguage

differences or illiteracy. The respondent and the interviewee engage in a

conversationthroughtheactof,orthroughreferenceto,drawingandsketching

(Prosser&Loxley2008,24).Respondentswithadisabilitywhich inhibitstheir

verbal communication skills can often communicate more effectively through

visual methods, such as drawing. They may relate better to expression which

dealswithmore sensory aspects, anddiagramsprovide the respondent in this

casewithavalidpresenceduringtheresearchprocess,ensuringthattheirvoice

isnotlost(Prosser&Loxley2008,28).Eventhosewhodonothaveadisability,

but do not respondwell to the pressure of verbal communication, such as the

need togivean immediateanswer toaquestion,maybeable tobetterexpress

themselvesthroughdrawingsanddiagrams(Ibid.,27).

By encouraging the respondent to create diagrams, the researcher is

allowing them to play a greater role in determining the topic and pace of the

interview.Thiscouldcreateagreatersenseofrelaxationfortherespondentand

give them the strength to expressmoremeaningful opinions. Insteadof feeling

pressuredtorespond,theyaregiventhefreedomtoexploretheirownthoughts

and control the agendaof the interview (Ibid., p.26).The researcher shouldbe

mindful that giving the interviewee too few guidelines on how to produce a


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drawing or diagram can have negative consequences, as the freedom of

expressionbecomesoverwhelminganddistractstherespondentfromthetopic.

Helpfulguidance,suchashowtostructurethediagramandshowtherelationship

between different subjects, can be very important. It is important for the

researchertofindthesuitablebalancebetweenguidanceandfreedominrelation

totherespondentandtypeofquestion,inordertoencouragearesponsewhichis

reflective and informative whilst still being focused (Varga-Atkins & O’Brien

2009,65).

ObjectsasaFormofElicitationandCommunicationduringanInterview

Although objects are seldom used as a means of communication during

interviews,andtherelevantmethodshavenotyetbeenfullyexplored(Iltanen&

Topo2015,168),itisarguedthatstudyoftherelationshipsbetweenpeopleand

objects could lead tonewand interestingdiscoveries aboutsociety andhuman

nature (Schiffer1999, 168). For example,asking respondentsaquestionwhich

encourages them to consider and discuss objects which are valuable to them

could also lead to the examination of important memories (Prosser & Loxley

2008, 23). Object elicitation could ease the process of talking about life

experiences;andincludingobjectsthatareapartoftherespondent'slifemayaid

in discussion and encourage a greater range of responses (Willig 2016, 211).

Objectscouldalsohelpfacilitatetheexplanationofthetopicathand,asperceived

inthepreviouslymentionedstudybyNathanCrilly,AlanF.BlackwellandP.John

Clarkson,whichinvestigatedthefactorsinthedesignprocesswhichinfluencethe

final appearance of the products. The initial interviews, which provided the

groundwork for creating the diagrams to be assessed in the later interviews,

wereconductedinthedesigners’workenvironment.Amongotherresourcesthe

respondentsusedobjects, such asprototypes and finishedproducts, to explain

the design process (Crilly, Blackwell & Clarkson 2006, 354). In the case of

interviewing children, objects and environments could be a useful form of

elicitationastheyaremoretangible.Achildrespondentcouldbemorewillingto

talkwhenintheirownsurroundingsorreferencingspecificobjectsthatarepart

of their world (Prosser & Burker 2008, 410). Objects can also be used as a


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channelofcommunicationwhendiscussingsensitiveresearchtopics,suchasthe

useofdollswhendiscussingthetopicofchildabuse.Theinformantmaynotfeel

comfortableexpressingemotionalmemories inanexplicitway if thememories

are very sensitive. As with all cases of elicitation which address such delicate

issues, the researchermust actwith caution andawareness (Prosser& Loxley

2008,23).

ObjectElicitationintheStudy‘LivingwithDyeing’

Inordertoillustratesomeofthequalitiesofobjectelicitation,thissectionlooks

at an interview process which was part of the project ‘Living with Dyeing’, a

collaboration between Jacqui Farrants and Carla Willig, researchers at City

UniversityLondon,andCatherineNelson,researcheratMaggie’sCancerCentre.

This research project is driven by the question “How do people live with the

prospectoftheirowndeathoccurringinthenot-toodistantfuture,andhowdothey

experiencethissituation?”. Inthisinterviewscenario,theinformantswereasked

inadvancetoselectobjectswhichhadsignificanceforthematthattimeintheir

lives.Allowingtherespondenttoselecttheobjectorobjectsthattheywantedto

discuss during the interview, gave them a way to control the structure of the

interview.By encouraging the interviewee toprompt the topics fordiscussion,

theinterviewbecamemorerelevanttothem(Willig2016,212).However,dueto

the variety of objects a person could choose, the interview situation could

become quite unpredictable for the researcher. There is also the danger that

informantswillchooseanobjectsimplyforthesakeoffulfillingtheresearcher’s

demands, and then attribute a meaning to it which is not real, simply to

participateintheinterview(Ibid.,217).

The aim of the object elicitationwas to avoid a standard question and

answer situation during the interview. The researcher was aware that the

respondents had often been asked to describe their experiencewith cancer in

termsoftreatmentassessmentsandinthediscussionoftheirillnesswithfriends

and family. The research aimed to avoid apractised narrative, and the objects

allowed the patients a fresh reflection on their situation (Ibid., 213). The

informantscontemplatedtheirrelationshipwithanobjectpriortotheinterview,


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whenselecting it (Ibid.,211),andalsoduringmomentsofreflectionduring the

interview, whilst discussing with the researcher. A well illustrated example of

thiswas thediscussion surroundinga coffeemaker,which the respondenthad

chosen because she used it every day and it was an integral part of her life.

Duringtheinterviewshereflectedontheprocessofmakingcoffeeandhowmuch

she enjoyed it, looking forward to it even. Through the presence of the coffee

maker, and the physical associations it prompted, she realised how much the

sensual experiences in her lifemeant to her at this time (Willig 2016, 214). A

physical object allowsa respondent to consider their feelings and experiences,

and thepatients in this study related to their chosenobjects as connections to

theirbody,as triggersofcertainemotionalstatesormoods, remindersof their

livesbeforecancerandassymbolsofrelationships.Thediscussionsinspiredby

the objects allowed greater insight into their present lives and assessment of

theircurrentvalues(Ibid.,216).Itwasnotedduringthisstudythatitispossible

forthepresenceofobjectstodistracttheresearcher.Itwashighlightedthatitis

importantthattheresearchershouldconcentrateontherespondent’sresponse

totheobjectandtheirrelationshiptoit,notfocusontheobjectitselfandtryand

attributemeaningtoit(Ibid.,220).

TheUseofClothingasElicitation

Theuseofclothingaselicitationhasthepotentialtoprovokeastrongemotional

response. In the book ‘Not Just any Dress’, a compilation of narratives which

focusontheconnectionbetweendressandidentity,oneauthordescribeshowa

collectionofdresses fromchildhoodcanevokeaffectingmemories,comparable

to that of a family photo album (Mavor2004, 26). A personal item of clothing

elicitsnotonlypersonalmemoriesandassociationsaffiliatedwith it,butalsoa

connection with the garment’s social or historical meaning in the context of

society (Weber&Mitchell 2004, 4). Even a description of or an opinion about

clothing, given by a respondent, could reveal details about their social

background (Hethorn & Kaiser 1999, 114). There are many factors which

influence the meanings associated with a garment; the historical and social

context in which it was produced, the environment orway itwas received or


16

attained by the wearer, and the subsequent associations that the wearer then

attributestoit.Theinterpretationofclothingisverysubjectiveandindividualto

eachperson,makingitaninformationrichsourceofelicitation(Weber&Mitchell

2004, 5). In fact, because theperceptionof clothing is often so ambiguous and

complexwhen lookingatdressasamethodof interpretingacultureorpartof

society,conductinginterviewsandelicitinganexplanationfromthepeopleabout

theirclothingiscrucialinunderstandingitssignificance(Hethorn&Kaiser1999,

110). In the study entitled ‘Youth Style: Articulating cultural anxiety’ by Janet

HethornandSusanKaiser,theauthorslookattheunderlyingthemesindressand

the capacity that clothing has to express cultural themes such as violence and

sexuality. It works closely with youth culture in exploring the concept that

clothingcanbeusedtoaddresssubjectsthatareotherwiselessaccessible,dueto

their sensitive nature (Hethorn & Kaiser 1999, 109). It is also possible that

because the act of dressing and wearing clothing is an everyday experience

relevant to all, that itspresence anddiscussion could encourage a sympathetic

atmosphere and equal interview relationship between the researcher and the

informant(Iltanen&Topo2015,174).

The following paragraphs investigate the analysis of three studies, as

presented in the paper ‘Object elicitation in interviews about clothing design,

ageing and demential (Iltanen/Topo 2015). The paper explores the use of

clothing elicitation in interviews to investigate how the cultural perception of

age, and age related conditions, influence the design of clothing for ageing

generations, andhow thedesign, in turn, influences the cultural perceptionsof

age.Thestudies interviewedtheageingdemographicsand thedesignersof the

clothing,andrelevantsamplesofclothingwererequestedfromthedesignersin

questionandusedaselicitationduringtheinterviews.Thephysicalpresenceof

garmentsduring these interview processes allowed formore realistic, detailed

discussionsthan,forexample,theuseofvisualelicitation,suchasphotographsof

theclothinginquestion.Inadiscussionwhichfocusesonthebody,anitemwhich

encourages thought and considerationabout thebody is apowerful tool (Ibid.,

180).

Study one explores the connection between fashion and latemiddle age,

andtheinfluenceofclothinginhowawomanofthisageisperceivedbysociety


17

(Ibid., 169). In this study, the clothing helped to facilitate talk about sensitive

issuessuchasageing.Onedesigner,forexample,wasreluctanttotalkaboutthe

concept thatherdesigns targetedanolderaudience.However,whenpresented

withtheobjectofclothingitself,andencouragedtotalkaboutit,shewasmore

willing toexplainhermethodsofdesigningclothing foracertainage,andhow

she understood what was appropriate for middle-aged women in terms of

garments.Bytalkingabouttheobject,ratherthandirectlyaboutasensitiveissue

suchastheageingbody,shewasabletoovercomeherreluctancetospeak(Ibid.,

163).

The third study focused on ‘the social construction of dementia as it is

performed through the design of clothing and textiles’ (Ibid., 169). Before the

interviewprocesstookplace, itwasdecidedbythesteeringgroupthatitwould

not be advisable to interviewpatientswith dementia using garmentsdesigned

forpeoplewiththisillness.Thiswasduetothepossibleemotionalresponsethat

may be elicited from the patients when confronted with such negatively

characterised clothing; the fact that theywerepossibleusersof theseproducts

couldnegativelyaffecttheirmentalcondition(Ibid.,172).Theresearcherdecided

not to carry out interviews with those affected by dementia, which was

unfortunate, as opinionsof thedemographic inquestionwerenot represented.

Thereneedstobemoreresearchontheinclusionof‘ethicallybiased’objectsas

partoftheinterviewprocess(Ibid.,182).Aspartofthestudy,theclothingwas

photographedaswornbymodelswhodidnothavedementia.Even thisraised

ethical issues, as the physical act of using the restrictive garments triggered

negativeemotionsintheresearchersandthemodels(Ibid.,177).

Theuseof clothingasobject elicitation in these studies incorporated the

respondents’sensesoftouchandsight,aswellascreatingaphysicalexperience

throughwhichtheycouldreflect.Thiswasparticularlyrelevantasthestudyitself

was about the ‘experience’ of wearing garments. The garments functioned

successfully as a method of communication, to express the sometimes very

different reflections of those involved in the studies. This was especially

noticeable when discussing clothing which raised ethical concerns, such as

restricting the movements of a patient (Ibid., 180). Using photography as a

methodofrecordingduringtheinterviewsinthesestudiescreatedsomeissues


18

duetotheneedtopreserveanonymity.Thiswassolvedbypixelatingthefacesof

thoserespondentswhodidnotwishtobeknown,ortakingphotographswhere

the only part of the respondent shown was their hands (Ibid., 178). The

possibilityofusingclothingelicitationintheexplorationofsensitiveissuessuch

as ageing and illness is not highly explored and could benefit from further

analysis(Ibid.,180).

Conclusion

Therearemanypositiveattributes tonon-visualelicitationandtheuseofnon-

verbalcommunicationduringthe interviewprocess.Using imagesorobjectsas

propsduringaninterviewisagentlewaytokeepaclearfocusthroughout,andto

familiarise the respondentwith the research topic. Images, photos and objects

canbespecifictoacultureorpartofsociety,andcanbeusedtohelpunderstand

andfacilitatediscussionaboutthatsociety.Visualandobjectelicitationinspirea

different type of reflection from the respondent than purely verbal, and could

inspiremore varied and comprehensive answers. This could evoke or allow a

better expression of complicated, subconscious or emotional feelings. The

change in atmosphere when using images or objects as communication tools

couldhelprelaxtheinformantandinspirediscussion.

An image or object is always created and is therefore subjective in its

meaning and how it is viewed. When the intent of the research is to gather

qualitative data, providingpersonal insights and reflections, this can be a very

usefulquality.Apersonthemselvesissubjective,madeofmanydifferentfactors

andexperiences,andasubjectivetool,suchasaphotographoragarment,could

elicitorhelpeffectivelycommunicateindividualexperiencesandemotions.

Out of all themethods observed in this paper, photography is themost

commonand itseffectsare thereforemostexplored. It isuseful in itsability to

capture real life situations in great detail, making it very powerful in

communicating accurately and to the point. For example, photography can

describe a face in amuchmore instantway thana verbaldescription.Viewing

photographsasanactivityiscommoninmanycultures,anoftenintimateactivity

taking place between family and friends. Viewing photographs andmimicking


19

thisatmosphere inan interviewenvironmentcould inspireamorerelaxedand

insightful conversation. The accurate yet subjective nature of photographs can

inspire the respondent to reconsider asituationor experience fromadifferent

angle,literally.Bymanipulatingtheperceptionofthesubjectofaphotograph,in

how it is taken and the focus, the researcher can inspire the respondent to

reconsidersomethingthatmayberoutineorcommonplace.

Diagramscanbeused tosimplify ideasandconcepts,allowing fordirect,

fastcommunicationofspecifictopics.Theycancreateavisualrepresentationof

anabstract topic,making themuseful to communicateconceptsor ideaswhich

arehardtodescribeverbally,orwherecommunicationitselfisproblematic.This

allowsforthepossibilitytoincludelessvocalgroups,suchasdisabledpersons,

whoseopinionmayotherwisenotbeheard.Researcherscancreatediagramsto

show to respondents in order to receive feedback on their understanding and

depiction of a topic. Diagrams created by a researcher need to be regularly

reviewed and updated during the interview process. They are capable of

representing very specific concepts and ideas, making the possibility of

misrepresentationmorelikely.

Incaseswheretherespondentsgeneratetheirowndata,theresearcheris

allowing thema senseof control, and the feelingofworking togetherwith the

researcherinaprocessofdiscovery.Thiscouldhelptogenerateenthusiasmfrom

the respondent, relaxes the atmosphere of the interview, and the transfer of

power gives the respondent the confidence to express themselves.Respondent

generated visual data, or an object chosen for discussion by the respondent,

allowstheresearchertoseethetopicfromadifferentviewpoint.Theresearcher

is inhibited by their own experiences and backgrounds, and may also need

stimulationinordertounderstandasubjectfromadifferentpointofview.It is

veryhelpfultodiscussverballyanymaterialthathasbeenproducedorchosenby

the respondent, in order to fully understand themeanings and associations it

holdsforthem.

Objects as a form of elicitation is an extremely interesting concept, as it

appealstoawidervarietyofsensesandembodiestheoverallconceptofbodily

andemotionalexperience.Thiscouldaddvaluabledepthtoaninterview,yetitis

aconceptthatneedstobemuchfurtherexplored.Inoursociety,ourconnection


20

toobjectsisverystrong,anditcouldbeaconsiderablyinterestingwaytoelicit

communicationaboutmaterialculture.Clothingtoocouldbeaverypowerfultool

intalkingaboutexperienceanddiscussingaperson’srelationshiptosociety.Itis

an object that is relevant to all of us and can be very representative of our

thoughts,personalitiesandbackground.

Theresearchforthispaperindicatesthatnon-visualcommunicationcould

be very beneficial in a qualitative interview.However, every research study is

different, and the research design needs to bemade accordingly. The positive

effect of visual methods or of objects as elicitation and as a means of

communicationisdependantonthenatureofthestudyandtheinterview,onthe

attitudeoftherespondentandthetypeofdataneeded.Forexample,itcouldbe

hardertocontrolthenatureoramountofdataproducedwhenusingobjectsas

elicitation, or the production of photographs may be too complicated and

expensive for the timeandbudget allowed.Photographs, diagramsandobjects

are all very subjective forms of elicitation, and for a successful collection of

relevant data, it is imperative that the researcher understands the variables

associatedwith thesemethods,howtoutilise them,control themand interpret

them.This couldprovedifficult in the areaof object elicitation, as it is not yet

verycommonandisunderresearched.

It is incrediblyhard to fullyunderstandtheviewpointofanotherperson,

and when images or objects help us in doing so they should be utilised. The

subjectivityof thesemethodsofcommunication,andtheirabilityto involvethe

respondentinamoreactiveway,tovaryingdegrees,makingthemausefultoolin

assuring that qualitative research is an exploration, rather than simply data

collection.

MeganAshton,July2018


21

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-------------------------------------------

MeganAshtonwasborninSouthAfricaandspentherteenageyearsin

SoutheastEnglandbeforeshemovedtoBerlin.Sheiscurrentlycompleting

herbachelorinfashiondesignatUDKwithastrongfocusonsportswear

andsustainability.Inspiredbyherworkonthispaper,sheconducteda

seriesofuserbasedinterviewsasresearchforherthesis,whichmadeuse

ofexamplesoftherespondentsclothingtoencouragearicherinterview

conversation.

©2018:MeganAshton,DESIGNABILITIESDesignResearchJournal(ISSN2511-6264)Authorsretaintherightstotheirarticles,whicharepublishedbyDESIGNABILITIESDesignResearch

Journalwiththeirpermission.AnyuseofthesematerialsprovidepropercitationtotheauthorandDESIGNABILITIES|www.designabilities.orgCitationInformation:

Ashton,Megan(2018):Communicating throughObjects:FacilitatingqualitativeResearch inDesign.In:DESIGNABILITIESDesignResearchJournal,(7)2018.https://designabilities.wordpress.com/2018/08/01/communicating-through-objects-facilitating-qualitative-research-in-designISSN2511-6274

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