Commons Transition: Policy Proposals for an Open Knowledge ... · the ‘open’, ‘sharing’...
Transcript of Commons Transition: Policy Proposals for an Open Knowledge ... · the ‘open’, ‘sharing’...
CommonsTransition:PolicyProposalsforanOpenKnowledgeCommonsSocietyP2PFoundation
TheFLOKteaminQuilotoa,EcuadorPhotographbyKevinFlanagan
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Thefollowingtextservesnopurpose,apartfrommakingthisbookseemlikeanactualbook.Inprintedbooks,oneusuallyseesalargeblockoftinyprintonthefirstorsecondpagefollowedbytermslike©2015.AllRightsReserved.Soandso.PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica.Thepublishermayalsoincludeprosetodeterwould-bepirates.Nopartofthisbookmaybeusedorreproducedinanymannerwhatsoeverwithoutwrittenpermission.Thatistypicallyfollowedbyalineortwoaboutthepublisher,followedbyasequenceofnumbers.
Formoreinformation,pleasecontacttheFoundationforPeer-to-PeerAlternatives,Realengracht196,1013AVAmsterdam,Netherlands.
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Butseriously,allyouneedtoknowisthatthisworkissharedunderaPeerProduction,P2PAttribution-ConditionalNonCommercial-ShareAlikeLicense,whichmeansthatyoucanfreelyshareandadaptitfornon-commercialusewithattributionunlessyou’reaworker-ownedcooperative,inwhichcaseyoumayuseitforcommercialpurposestoo.Weloveco-ops!.Moreinfoatourwiki.
CompiledandeditedbyStaccoTroncosoandAnnMarieUtratel.AdditionaleditingandeBookpublicationbyGuyJames.CoverImage:AnnMarieUtratelandGuyJames.
Stacco,AnnMarieandGuyappearcourtesyoftheCommonsMediaCollective.
FurtherinformationcanbefoundontheprojectwebsiteatCommonsTransition.org.
Thefirstpartofthisblurbiscourtesyofbookofbadarguments.com
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PrefacetotheFirstEditionEcuador’sFLOKSociety(Free-Libre,OpenKnowledge)projectwasoriginallycommissionedin2013throughatripartiteagreementinvolvingtheEcuadorianCoordinatingMinistryofKnowledgeandHumanTalent,Senescyt(TheSecretaryofInnovationandTechnology)andtheIAEN(TheNationalInstituteofAdvancedStudies).TheprojecthadbeeninitiatedbyCarlosPrieto,thenrectoroftheIAENandDanielVázquezandXavierBarandiaran.
TheprojectmarkedthefirsttimeanationstatecommissionedapracticalplantotransitiontoamatureSocialKnowledgeEconomybasedonPeertoPeerprinciples.Itwasinitiatedto“fundamentallyre-imagineEcuador”,basedontheprinciplesofopennetworks,peerproduction,andacommonsofknowledge.
ThecoregroupofresearcherswereMichelBauwens,Belgium/Thailand,(P2P/CommonsTransitionPolicies);DanielAraya,withassistanceofPaulBouchard(OpenEducation,OpenScience,HumanCapabilities),JennyTorres,Ecuador(OpenTechnicalInfrastructures);JohnRestakis,Canada/Italy(SocialInfrastructure,InstitutionalInnovation);GeorgeDafermos,Crete/Greece(OpenandDistributedEnergy,ManufacturingandAgriculture);JaniceFigueiredo,Brazil(CommonsforCollectiveLife,i.e.openfoodnetworks,opencurrencies,openurbanism).
ThiscoreFLOKSocietyteamwassupportedbyamuchlargernetworkofresearchers,activists,andhackersassociatedwithorganisationssuchastheP2PFoundation,Shareable,theCommonsStrategiesGroup,ShareLex,FreeKnowledgeInstituteandothers.Theyalsohadlegalassistancefromateamoflawyersexperiencedinthe‘open’,‘sharing’economy,andtechnicalsupportfromanetworkofhackers/openITexpertsassociatedwithcivicmovementssuchas15MinSpain.
Thepolicyproposalsinthisbookareintendedtohelpvisualiseandenablerealworldpracticestowardsasocietybasedonequity,economicdemocracy,andsharedmaterialandknowledgecommons.AlthoughoriginallywrittenfortheEcuadorianproject,theyhave
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beenadaptedandimprovedupontoapplytoregionsandcountriesfarbeyondthebordersofEcuador.Wesharethemtogiveanoverviewofthemanyprecedentsandpossibilitiespointingtoamorefairandjustsocialorder,andtoinspirethedevelopmentofaco-operativecommonwealthasthefoundationofanempoweredcivilsocietyatlocal,regional,national,andgloballevelsandtocreatetheinstitutionalmeansthatenablecivilsocietytoadapttotheneedsandconcreterealitiesofparticularpeoplesandplaces.
Findoutmoreinournewwebplatform:www.commonstransition.org
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IntroductiontotheCommonsTransitionPlanMichelBauwensandJohnRestakis
WhentheadministrationofRafaelCorreawassweptintopowerin2006,itappearedasthoughasnewpoliticalpagehadbeenturnedinEcuador.ACitizen’sRevolutionthathadmobilizedbroadswathesoftheEcuadorianpublic,inparticularthecountry’sindigenouspeoples,hadgalvanizedthecountryaroundaradicalsetofpolitical,social,economic,andenvironmentalvaluesthatsetthestageforanoverhaulofthenation’sinheritedpoliticalpast.
Inshortorder,theEcuadoriangovernmentre-wrotethenationalconstitution,rejectedtheodiousnationaldebtcontractedbypreviouscorruptregimes,joinedtheBolivarianAlliancefortheAmericas,anddevelopedacomprehensivevisionofnationaleconomicandsociallifebasedontheconceptofBuen Vivir(GoodLiving)thatlinkedeconomicandsociallifetothevaluesofpersonalwellbeingandprotectionoftheenvironment.
Thisvisionformedthebasisofthecountry’sNationalPlanandthemovetofundamentallyalterthenation’sproductivematrixfromoneofdependencyonforeigncapitalandoilextractiontotheconstructionofaneconomicmodelbasedonthevaluesofcommons,co-operation,andfreeandopenaccesstoknowledge.
Attheendof2013,theFLOKProject(Free/LibreOpenKnowledge)waslaunchedtoarticulatewhatsuchaneconomywouldlooklikeandwhatpolicyrecommendationswouldberequiredtorealizeit.UnderthejointsponsorshipofTheMinistryforNationalPlanning(SENPLADES),TheMinistryforInnovationandHumanResources(SENESYCT),andtheNationalInstituteforAdvancedStudies(IAEN)thegovernmentalaskedaninternationalteamofresearcherstodrawupaparticipatoryprocesstocraftatransitionstrategyforasocietybasedontheideaofa“socialknowledgeeconomy”–aneconomybasedonfreeanopenaccesstoknowledgeconceivedasacommons.Andwhiletheprojectwasrootedintheparticularcontextand
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concernsofEcuador,theissues,sectors,andpolicyproposalsthatwereaddressedalsotranscendedthislocalsituation.
ThelocalcontextwasthatEcuadorisstillessentiallyinadependentsituationvis-a-visthewestern-dominatedglobaleconomy,whichmeansthatitneedstoexportrawmaterialatlowaddedvalue,andimportconsumergoodsathighaddedvalue.It’sascenarioforpermanentdependencythattheprogressivegovernmentwantedtochange.TheFLOKProjectwasakeystrategytoaidinthiseffort.FollowingtheleadofMinisterReneRamirezofSENESCYT,FLOKaimedtoenvisageaneconomythatwouldnolongerbedependentonlimitedmaterialresources,butoninfiniteimmaterialresources–suchasknowledge.
TheproposalsoftheresearchteamconsistedofagenericCommonsTransitionPlan,and18+legislativeproposalsincludingadozenpilotprojects,whichwerefurtherdevelopedandvalidatedintheBuen Conocer SummitattheendofMay2014.ThesyntheticproposalswerethenpresentedbytheresearchteamattheendofJune2014,whilestillbeingfinessedforscientificpublication.TheproposalsarenowbeingprocessedintheEcuadorianadministration,andbeingsubmittedtopoliticalreviewandassessment.
SeveralaspectsoftheEcuadorianprocesswherehighlyprogressive,suchastheintenseparticipatoryprocessandtheopennesstobothlocalandforeigninput,whichisbothinnovativeandunusual.Sotoowasthewillingnesstolinktechnologicalandeconomicquestionswiththesocialandculturalconditionsinwhichtheymustberealized.
TheFLOKProject,theCommonsTransitionPlan,andthePolicyPapers,significantlytranscendthelocalcontextandhaveaglobalsignificance.
ThefirstcharacteristicoftheFLOKprocessisofcourseitsveryexistence.Thisisthefirsttimethatatransitionplantoacommons-basedsocietyandeconomyhasbeencrafted.Thereare‘neweconomy’,green,socialeconomy,andothertransitionplans,butnoneofthemhavefocusedonre-organizingsocietyandtheeconomyaroundthecentralconceptoftheCommonsasthecore
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valuecreationanddistributionsystem.
TheCommonsTransitionPlanisbasedonananalysisandobservationofthealreadyexistingcommonsprocessesandeconomies,andthevaluecrisisthattheyprovokewithinthecurrentpoliticaleconomy.Theriseofthedigitalcommonsisacaseinpoint.
Thereisagrowingcontradictionbetweennewrelationsofproductionemergingaroundthedigitalcommonsandtheeconomiestheyarecreating,andhowthisemergingprototypeofanewmodeofproductionisembeddedwithincapitalism.Inshort,whilemoreandmoreusevalueiscreatedinandthroughthecommons,onlyafractionofthisisbeingmonetized.Whenthiscommons-producedusevalue(suchasfreeandopensoftware(FOSS))ismonetizedintoexchangevalue,itisdonesothroughproprietaryplatformsthatveryseldomshareanyofthisexchangevaluewiththecreators.
Henceweseeanevolutionfromatypeofcapitalismthatwasbasedontheextractionofrentthroughtheprivatizationofknowledgeandthecontrolofintellectualpropertyandsupplynetworks(cognitivecapitalism),toanewformof‘netarchicalcapitalism’inwhichproprietaryplatformsbothenablehumanco-operationbutalsoexploititforthebenefitofprivatecapital.Inotherwords,netarchicalcapitalismdirectlyextractsvaluefromhumanco-operationitself.Moreover,inourcurrentinformationage,thewholeofsocietyisbeingtransformedintoa“socialfactory”producingcommons-generatedgoodsandservices.Thecasesofuncompensateduser-generatedvalueforFacebookandGoogleareobviousexamples.
Thefailureofnetarchicalcapitalismtoreturnfairvaluetoitscreatorshastransposedthetraditionalexploitationoflabourintheproductionofmaterialgoodstothatofimmaterialgoodssuchasknowledge,branding,andideasthatarenowthedrivingforceofcapitalaccumulation.Thishasgreatlyincreasedtheprecariousnessofbothworkersandcommonerstheworldover.Hence,anytransitionmustalsosolveandrestorethefeedbackloopbetweenvaluecreationanddistribution,andcreateanethicalandciviceconomyaroundthecommons,movingfromextractiveformsof
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exploitativecapital,togenerativeformsofco-operativecapital.Inotherwords,capitalthatreturnsvaluetothosethatcontributetothecommons.
Thisprocessrequiresthere-conceptionandre-alignmentbothoftraditionalcommonsandco-operativethinking,andpractice,intonewinstitutionalformsthatprefigureanewpoliticaleconomyofco-operativecommonwealth.Thisinturn,isbasedonasimultaneoustransitionofcivilsociety,themarket,andtheorganizationandroleofthestateandformsafoundationprincipleoftheCommonsTransitionPlan.
Formostofthehistoryofindustrialandpost-industrialcapitalism,theprimarypoliticalconflicthasbeenonebetweenstateandmarket–whethertousethestatepowerforredistributionofwealthandregulationoftheexcessesofthemarket,ortoallowmarketplayerstoprivatizethevalueofpublicandsocialgoodsandservicesforthebenefitofcapital.Thisistheclassicconflictbetweensocialversusprivatebenefitandhasbeencalledbysomethelib(forliberal)vs.lab(forlabouranditsderivativesocialmovements)pendulum.Inourcurrentpoliticaleconomy,exceptforafewresearcherswhooperatedoutsideofthemainstream,suchasElinorOstromandherresearchonthecommons,thefocusonsocialvalueandthecommongoodhasbeendiscardedasahistoricallegacywithoutfuture.Indeed,theremainingphysicalcommonsthatexistglobally,mostlyintheSouth,areeverywhereunderthreatwhileunderausterity,whatremainsofpublicgoodsinEuropeandNorthAmericaarealsobeingprivatizedatbreakneckspeeds.
Buttheemergenceofdigitalknowledge,softwareanddesign,asnewformsofcommonsnotonlyrecreatecommons-orientedmodesofproductionandmarketactivities,theyalsoshowthatvalueisnowincreasinglycreatedthroughcontributions,nottraditionallabor,tocreatecommons,notcommodities.Throughitscontributionsandtheubiquityofdigitaltechnology,itcanbesaidthatcivilsocietyhasnowbecomeproductiveinitsownright,andwecanmakealeapfromcontributorcommunitiesofsoftwaredeveloperstoavisionofcivilsocietythatconsistsofcivilcommonscontributedtobycitizens.
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Theentrepreneurialactivitiesthatarecreatedaroundthecommonsinducethevisionofanethicaleconomy,anon-capitalistmarketplacethatre-introducesreciprocityandco-operationinthemarket’sfunctioning,whileco-creatingcommonsandcreatinglivelihoodsforthecommoners.Thistypeofeconomyandmarketinwhichco-operation,mutuality,andthecommongooddefinethecharacteristicsofanewkindofpoliticaleconomy,pointthewaytoanewstateform,whichwehavecalledthePartnerState.
Thus,thecommonsnotonlyintroducesathirdtermnexttothestateandthemarket,i.e.thegenerative,commons-producingcivilsociety,butalsoanewmarketandanewstate.AfoundationprincipleofaCommonsTransitionPlanisthatthechangesmusthappenconcurrentlyinallthreeaspectsofoursocialandeconomiclife.
ThroughthePartnerStateconcept,thereportproposestheradicaldemocratizationofthestate,themobilizationandexpansionofthesocial/solidarityeconomy,thecreationanduseofpublic-commonspartnerships,theco-operitizationofpublicservices,andotherinnovativeconceptsandpracticesthatcouldfundamentallyrenewourpoliticaleconomy.Theseideasaredevelopedintheseconddocument.
AthirdcontributionbyGeorgeDafermos,showsapolicyreportonOpenDesignCommonsandDistributedManufacturingdevelopingontheworkaroundtheFLOKtransitioninEcuador,togivethereaderatasteofwhatthesechangescouldmeaninaconcretesector.
Inaddition,weaddedaninterviewwithoneoftheco-researchersJaniceFiguereido,aboutthemorepracticalaspectsoftheprojects,andherinteractionasaresearcherwithlocalcivicgroups.
Butwhatnow?WhatcomesaftertheFLOKexperienceinEcuador?
TheeBookyoureadhereispartofanongoingefforttocreateanopenpublicforumforfurthercommons-drivenandcommons-orientedpolicy-making,thatisdistinctfromitsfirstiterationinEcuador(floksociety.org),andisopentoallcontributionsfromcommonersglobally.
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Theprojectwillbecarriedbyaconsortiumofcommonsandco-operativemovements,thatarediscussingtheirrelativesupportatthistime,andtheP2PFoundationwillofcoursebeoneofthepartners.WiththeCommonsTransitionPlanasacomparativedocument,weintendtoorganizeworkshopsanddialoguestoseehowothercommonslocales,countries,language-communitiesbutalsocitiesandregions,cantranslatetheirexperiences,needsanddemandsintopolicyproposals.ThePlanisnotanimpositionnorisitaprescription,butsomethingthatisintendedasastimulusfordiscussionandindependentcraftingofmorespecificcommons-orientedpolicyproposalsthatrespondtotherealitiesandexigenciesofdifferentcontextsandlocales.
Aspartofthisprocess,wehavealreadyconcludedaworkshopwiththeReseau Francophone des CommunsinParisinSeptember,andworkshopswithSyrizaofficialsinGreece.Theideaisnottosupportorchooseanypoliticalorsocialmovement,buttoenableallprogressiveandemancipatoryforcestolookforcommonalitiesaroundtheirapproaches,andtorenewtheirpoliticalvisionswiththecommonsinmind.
Thisprojecttherefore,isitselfacommons,opentoallcontributions,andintendedforthebenefitofallwhoneedit.
Pleasevisitusatwww.commonstranstion.org
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ACommonsTransitionPlanByMichelBauwens
“Theemancipatoryforcesoftheworldurgentlyneedtomoveawayfromthesimplemarket/stateduopolyandthefalsebinarychoicesbetween‘moremarket’or‘morestate’.Asanalternative,weproposethatwemovetoacommons-centricsocietyinwhichapost-capitalistmarketandstateareattheserviceofthecitizensascommoners.Whiletherearealreadysubstantial,ifnotthriving,socialmovementsinfavorofthecommons,thesharingsocietyandpeer-to-peerdynamics,thisisthefirstcoherentefforttocraftatransitionprograminwhichthistransformationisdescribedinpoliticalandpolicyterms.”
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BackgroundtotheCommonsTransitionProjectTheCommonsTransitionPlanyouareabouttoreadisrootedintheparticularexperienceoftheFLOKprojectinEcuador,whichtookplacemainlyinthefirsthalfof2014.ThiswasaresearchprojectcommissionedbythreegovernmentalinstitutionsinthestateofEcuador.ItsintentionwastohelpEcuadortransitiontoa‘socialknowledge’economyandsociety,i.e.,asocietyandeconomythatfunctionsascommonpoolsofsharedknowledgeineverydomainofsocialactivity.However,theexperience(especiallythe‘generic’transitionplanthatwasproposed)largelytranscendsthespecificsituationinEcuador.Here,weproposeaversionoftheplanthathasbeenchangedbyremovingmost,ifnotall,specificreferencestoEcuador.Nevertheless,itisusefultoknowsomeofthebackgroundoftheoriginalproject.HereisanexcerptoftheintroductiontotheEcuadorianversion:
TheNationalPlanforGoodLivingofEcuadorrecognizesandstressesthattheglobaltransformationtowardsknowledge-basedsocietiesandeconomiesrequiresanewformforthecreationanddistributionofvalueinsociety.TheNationalPlan’scentralconceptistheachievementof‘Buen Vivir‘(‘SumakKawsay‘,inKichwalanguage)or‘goodliving’;butgoodlivingisimpossiblewithouttheavailabilityof‘goodknowledge’,i.e.‘Buen Conocer‘(‘Sumak Yachay‘,inKichwalanguage).Thethirdnationalplanfor2013-2017explicitlycallsforanopen-commonsbasedknowledgesociety[1].PresidentCorreahimselfexhortedyoungpeopletoachieveandfightforthisopenknowledgesociety[2].TheFLOKSocietyisajointresearcheffortbytheCoordinatingMinistryofKnowledgeandHumanTalent(withMinisterGuillaumeLong),theSENESCYT,i.e.the‘SecretaríaNacionaldeEducaciónSuperior,Ciencia,TecnologíaeInnovación’(withMinisterReneRamirez)andIAEN,i.e.the‘InstitutodeAltosEstudiosdelEstado’(withrectorCarlosPrieto)todeveloptransitionandpolicyproposalstoachievesuchanopencommons-basedknowledgesociety.Theacronym
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FLOKrefersto:
Free,meaningfreedomtouse,distributeandmodifyknowledgeinuniversallyavailablecommonpools;Librestressesthatitconcernsfreeasinfreedom,notasin‘gratis’;Openreferstotheabilityofallcitizenstoaccess,contributetoandusethiscommonresource.
TheexplanationoftheFLOKacronymhighlightsoneofthelimitationsoftheoriginalproject.Indeed,theFLOKResearchteamwastaskedwiththetransitiontoa‘socialknowledge’economy,i.e.acommonsofknowledgeonly,andnotthecommonsofland,laborandmoney,whichKarlPolanyiconsideredtobethethreefalsecommoditiesthatwerenecessaryforcapitalism.
Afullcommonstransitionwouldconsiderthefourcommons,i.e.thePolanyiantriarchy,plustheknowledgecommons.Theresearchteamcircumventedthislimitationbyusingaspecificmethodologywhichsystematicallylookedat1)thefeedingmechanismsforthosecommons,manyofwhichrequireboth2)materialand3)immaterial(intangible)conditionsfortheirsuccessfuldevelopment.Hence,inthisroundaboutway,itwaspossibletointroducemanyoftherequirementsintermsofother‘physical’commons.Nevertheless,thelimitationstands,andanynewerversionoftheCommonsTransitionPlanwouldnecessarilyintegratethetransitionpoliciesfortheremainingthreecommons.Thecurrentrevisedversionhasalreadybeensubstantiallyde-FLOK’ed,thatis,itispublishedherewithmostifnotallofthereferencestotheEcuadoriancontextremoved.This‘generic’versionismeanttobe‘universal’,notintheoldeuro-centricmannerthatclaimstobeuniversallyapplicableasasinglesimilarprocess,butasareferencedocumentthatcanbediscussedindiverselocalcontexts,adaptedorrejectedinpartorwholedependingonthelocaldeliberationsofthecommoners.
Butdespitethediversityoflocalconditions,therearestructuralsimilaritiesforallwhoarepartofthecurrentdominantworld-systemofglobalizedcapitalism.Allpeopleoftheworldaresubjectedtothepseudo-abundanceofagrowth-basedsystemthat
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ignoresnaturallimits,andtotheartificialscarcitiesimposedby‘intellectualproperty’legislation,whichinhibitsandcriminalizesthefreecooperationofhumanity.Andallcountriesandpeoplesoftheworldsufferfromthesocialinjusticewhichaccompaniestheothertwoflaws.Theemancipatoryforcesoftheworldurgentlyneedtomoveawayfromthesimplemarket/stateduopolyandthefalsebinarychoicesbetween‘moremarket’or‘morestate’.Asanalternative,weproposethatwemovetoacommons-centricsocietyinwhichapost-capitalistmarketandstateareattheserviceofthecitizensascommoners.Whiletherearealreadysubstantial,ifnotthriving,socialmovementsinfavorofthecommons,thesharingsocietyandpeer-to-peerdynamics,thisisthefirstcoherentefforttocraftatransitionprograminwhichthistransformationisdescribedinpoliticalandpolicyterms.
Thereaderwillfindoriginalanalysisofthenewformsofnetworkedcapitalismandhowtheycanbeovercome;acritiqueofthepredatoryformsofthesharing/commonseconomiesthatalreadyexist;andnewconceptionsofcivilsociety,themarketandthestate,whichmustbetransformedsimultaneouslyandconvergentlyifwewanttoachievesuchatransition.Theaim,ofcourse,isnottoremainintheanalyticalphase,buttocraftlocalizedadaptedtransitionsthatcanalsoproduceglobalconvergencesforaction,andtobuildthesocialandpoliticalmovementsthatcanmakeithappen.
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TheFramingoftheProposal
TheThreeValueModelsandthetransitiontoaSocialKnowledgeEconomy
Inordertoframethetransitiontoa‘socialknowledgeeconomy’oraCommons-basedsocietalmodel,weuseaframingofthreeparticular‘valueextractionanddistribution’systems,whichdeterminehoweconomicvalueiscreated,extracted,anddistributed.Thetraditionalcapitalistvaluemodelisofcoursewellknown,buttheemergenceofaknowledgesocietyhasalreadychangedthesedynamicstoafundamentalextent.Inthetraditionalmodel,beforetheeraofnetworkedandcognitiveproduction,privatecapitalactorsinvestincapitalandlabor,andselltheindustrialandconsumerproductswithasurplusvalue.Butthenewmodelsofcognitivecapitalismworkwithdifferentmodelsofvalueextractionanddistribution,andwedistinguishthreedifferentmodels,whichincludesthepost-capitalistmodelofthesocialknowledgeeconomy.InthecontextofthisCommonsTransitionPlan,wedefinecognitivecapitalismgenericallyasthatmodelofcapitalismwheretheownershipandcontrolofinformationflowsisthekeyfactorfortheextractionofvalue[3].
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Ofthethreemodelswewilldistinguish,oneformisstilldominant,butrapidlydeclininginimportance;asecondformisreachingdominance,butcarrieswithinitselftheseedsofitsowndestruction;athirdisemerging,butneedsvitalnewpoliciesinordertobecomedominant.
Thefirstmodel:‘Classic’CognitiveCapitalismbasedonIPextraction
Thefirstformistheclassicformofcognitivecapitalism,basedona“rentier”capitalismthatextractsrentfromIntellectualProperty,andinwhichfinancialcapitaldominates.AgooddescriptionofthisformisMcKenzieWark’sHackerManifesto(2004),inwhichhedescribesthelogicof“vectoralcapitalism”,wherethe‘vectors’ofcommunicationareinthehandsofmassmediaandthemultinationalcorporationsthatorganizeproduction.
Thisfirstformofcognitivecapitalismwasdominantinthefirsteraofnetworkedcomputing,beforetheemergenceofthecivicinternetandtheweb,whenthenetworkswereexclusivelyinthehandsofmultinationalcompaniesand/orgovernmentsandtheircentralizedpublicchannels.Inthissystem,theprofitofcapitalisincreasingly
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dependenton‘intellectualproperty’regulationsthatkeeptechnical,scientific,commercialandotherformsofknowledgeartificiallyscarce,andthereforeallowtherealizationofsuper-profits.
Theprofitsofpurelyindustrialproductionhavebecomelow,butthebenefitsofIPandthecontrolofthenetworksofproductionthroughIT,allowforthegenerationofhugemonopolisticprofits.Thisfirstformofcognitivecapitalismisfarfromdying,isstillinfactdominant,butisneverthelessunderminedintheseconderaofnetworkedcomputing,whereinternetworksarenowdiffusedthroughoutsociety,andthevectorsofproductioncannolongerbemonopolized.Furthermore,theubiquityofdigitaltechnology,anditsabilitytoreproduceinformationalproductsatreducedmarginalcost,severelyunderminesthemaintenanceofanintellectualpropertyregimebasedonmaintainingartificialscarcity,throughlegalrepressionortechnologicalsabotage(suchastheuseofDigitalRightsManagement[4]).
Thesecondmodel:NetarchicalCapitalismbasedonthecontrolofnetworkedplatforms
Indeed,theseconderaofmassivelynetworkedcomputing,bornwiththepubliclyaccessibleinternet,hasunderminedthecontrolofthe“vectoral”class,andcreatedanewclassofcontrollers,thatof“netarchicalcapital”,thetypeofcapitalinvestmentthatcontrolsproprietarysocialmediaplatforms,butthatneverthelessenablesdirectpeertopeercommunicationbetweenindividuals.
Thissecondformofnetarchicalcapitalismisaformwherecapitalnolongercontrolsthedirectproductionofinformationandcommunication,butextractsvaluethroughitsnewroleasplatformintermediary.ThismodelreliesmuchmoremarginallyonIPprotection,butratherallowsp2pcommunicationwhilecontrollingitspossiblemonetizationthroughtheroleandtheownershipoftheplatformsforsuchcommunication.Typically,asinproprietarysocialmediasuchasFacebookorGoogle,thefrontendispeertopeer,i.e.itallowsp2psociality,butthebackendiscontrolled,thedesignisinthehandsoftheowners,asaretheprivatedataoftheusers,anditistheattentionoftheuserbasethatismarketedthroughadvertising.Thefinancializationofcooperationisstillthe
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nameofthegame.
Thisformisahybridformhowever,becauseitalsoallowsthefurthergrowthofp2psocialityinwhichmediaexchangeandproductionislargelyavailabletoaneverlargeuserbase.Thisformthusco-existswithmultipleformsofgrassrootsp2pproductionandexchange,andseesforexampletheemergenceofmoremonetarydiversity,intheformofmorelocalizedcomplementaryorcommunity-drivencurrencieswhichactasdefendersoflocaleconomicflows;andintheformofaglobalreservecrypto-currencylikeBitcoin,ashadowcurrencythatisusefulasa‘civic’post-Westphaliancurrencybutatthesametimeexhibitsthefeaturesoffinancialcapitalisminanexacerbatedfashion.Netarchicalcapitalismsuffersfromasevere‘valuecrisis’,inwhichthelogicofusevaluestronglyemergesandgrowsexponentially,butinademonetizedform.Theremainingmonetizedvaluerestsonspeculativevaluationofcooperativevaluecreationbyfinancialmarkets.
TheValueCrisisunderconditionsofnetarchicalcapitalism
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Neoliberalismwascharacterizedbyaparticular‘valuecrisis’whichexplodedinthesystemiccrisisof2008.Underthegeneralconditionsoftheneoliberalregime,thewagesoftheworkershavestagnated,andthepartthatgoestotheownersofcapitalincreased,creatingacrisisofaccumulation,whichwassolvedthroughcredit.Whencorporations,governmentsandthegeneralconsumer’screditbecameover-extended,by2008,theneoliberalsystementeredintoasystemiccrisis.
Alreadyunderneoliberalism,thematerialvalueoftheassetsofproductionarebutasmallpartoftheevaluationofacompany’svalue,andtheexcessvaluecanbeconsideredalreadyasaformofextractionofthehumanimmaterialcooperation.Underconditionsofcognitivecapitalism,especiallyunderitsnetarchicalform,thisvaluecrisisisexacerbated.Theperiodsincethe1990s,whencivicinternetworksbecameincreasinglyavailabletothewiderpopulation,andcommons-basedpeerproduction,andotherformsofnetworkedvaluecreationbecamepossible,sawthebirthofamixedregime.Throughthedifferentformsofpeerproductionandnetworkedvaluecreation,usevalueisincreasinglycreatedindependentlyoftheprivateindustrialandfinancialsystem,andtakesplacethroughtheciviccontributoryform,whereimmaterialusevalueisdepositedincommonpoolsofknowledge,codeanddesign.
In‘pure’peerproduction,whichwecancallaformof‘aggregateddistribution’oflabor,contributors,voluntaryorpaid,contributetoacommonpoolwheretheimmaterialvalueisdeposited;for-benefitassociations,suchastheFLOSSFoundations,enablethecontinuedcooperationtooccur;andentrepreneurialcoalitionsofmostlyfor-profitcapitalistenterprise,capturetheaddedvalueinthemarketplace.Inthismodel,thoughthereiscontinuedcreationofusevalueinthecommons,andthus,‘anaccumulationofthecommons’basedonopeninput,participatoryprocessesofproduction,andcommons-orientedoutputwhichisavailabletoallusers;capitalaccumulationcontinuesthroughtheformoflaborandcapitalintheentrepreneurialcoalitions.Butanincreasingamountofvoluntarylaborisextractedinthisprocess.
Inthesharingformofnetworkedvalue,characterizedbysocial
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media/networkingtakingplaceoverproprietaryplatforms,theusevalueiscreatedbythesocialmediausers,buttheirattentioniswhatcreatesamarketplacewherethatusevaluebecomesextractedexchangevalue.Intherealmofexchangevalue,thisnewformof‘netarchicalcapitalism’(thehierarchiesofthenetwork)maybeinterpretedashyper-exploitation,sincetheusevaluecreatorsgototallyunrewardedintermsofexchangevalue,whichissolelyrealizedbytheproprietaryplatforms.
Finally,intheformofcrowdsourcedmarketplaces-whichwecall‘disaggregateddistribution’becausetheworkersareisolatedfreelancerscompetingwithoutcollectivesharedIP-capitalabandonsthelaborformandexternalizesriskonthefreelancers.Accordingtopreliminaryresearchby‘digitallabor’researcherTreborScholz[5]theaveragehourlyincomeinsomecasesdoesnotexceed2dollarsperhour,whichiswaybelowtheU.S.Minimumwage.AtypicalexampleistheskillsmarketplaceTaskRabbit,wheretheworkerscannotcommunicatewitheachother,butclientscan.
Undertheregimeofcognitivecapitalism,usevaluecreationexpandsexponentially,butexchangevalueonlyriseslinearly,andisnearlyexclusivelyrealizedbycapital,givingrisetoformsofhyper-exploitation.Wewouldarguethatitcreatesaformofhyper-neoliberalism.Whileinclassicneoliberalism,laborincomestagnates,inhyper-neoliberalism,societyisdeproletarized,i.e.wagedlaborisincreasingreplacedbyisolatedandmostlyprecariousfreelancers;moreusevalueescapesthelaborformaltogether.
Underthemixedregimeofcognitivecapitalisminitsnetarchicalform,networkedvalueproductiongrows,andhasmanyemancipatoryeffectsinthesocialfieldofusevaluecreation,butthisisincontradictionwiththefieldofexchangevaluerealization,wherehyper-exploitationoccurs.Thisiswhatwemeanwhenwesaythatthereisanincreasedcontradictionbetweentheproto-modeofproductionthatispeerproduction,andassociatedformsofnetworkedvaluecreation;andtherelationsofproduction,whichremainunderthedominationoffinancialcapital.
Inthisnewhybridform,asectorofcapital,netarchicalcapitalism,hasliberateditselftosomesignificantdegreeoftheneedfor
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proprietaryformsofknowledge,butithasactuallyincreasedthelevelofsurplusvalueextraction.Atthesametime,usevalueescapesmoreandmoreitsdependencyoncapital.Thisformofhyper-neoliberalismcreatesacrisisofvalue.First,thepartofexchange-valuemediatedlabor,diminishescomparedtotheroleofdirectusevaluecreation,makingcapitalincreasinglysuperfluousandparasitical;second,theformsofvaluecreationexplode,butthecontinuedrelianceonmonetizedexchangevaluedoesnotallowfortherealizationofthatvaluebytheusevalueproducers;profitsintheindustrialeconomydiminishaswell,makingthefinancialsectoranditsrelianceonIPrenttheincreasinglydominantpower;atthesametime,thepowerofIPrentextractionisunderminedbydirectusevaluecreation.
Inanycase,allthesetrendscreateacrisisfortheaccumulationofcapital;thefeedbackloopbetweenusevaluecreation,andtheexchange-valuecapture,ideallyredistributedeitheraswagesorthroughsocialpayments,isbroken;over-relianceondebtrendersmassivelendingmootasasolution.Capitalbecomesmorereliantontheexternalitiesofsocialcooperation,yetfailstorewardit.Astheconceptof‘value’becomesincreasinglyunclearandcomplex(andde-linkedfromaclearcorrelationtohourlylabor),financialcapitalismattemptstorealizethevalueofthissocialcooperationthroughspeculativemechanismsinstead,butwhichthenpotentiallyincreasetheamountoffictitiouscapitalinthesystem(thefictitiouscapitalisactuallytheunrealizedusevaluethatisnolongerrewardedbecauseofthevaluecrisis).
ThesecorrelatedissuesareexaminedindepthbyAdamArvidssonandNicolaiPeitersenintheirbookontheEthicalEconomy(2013).Wecouldcallthisvalueregimeneo-feudal,becauseitreliesincreasinglyonunpaid‘corvee’andcreateswidespreaddebtpeonage.Finally,ownershipisreplacedbyaccess,diminishingthesovereigntythatcomeswithproperty,andcreatingdependenciesthroughtheone-sidedlicensingagreementsinthedigitalsphere.
Towardsathirdmodel:amature‘civic’peer-to-peereconomy
Thethirdisthehypotheticalformwebelievewemaysuccessfully
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transitionto,ifwesucceedinrebuildingtransformativesocialmovements,andhencesucceedalsointransformingthestatesothatitcanactasaPartnerStatewhichfacilitatesthecreationofnewcivicinfrastructures.Inthismodel,peerproductionismatchedtobothanewmarketandstatemodel,createamaturecivicandpeer-basedeconomic,socialandpoliticalmodel,wherethevalueisredistributedtothevaluecreators.
Thesechangeshavebeencarriedforwardinthepoliticalspherebyanemergingcommonsmovement,whichespousesthevaluesystemofpeerproductionandthecommons,drivenbytheknowledgeworkersandtheirallies.
Solvingthevaluecrisisthroughasocialknowledgeeconomy
Sincethemixedmodelseemstocreateuntenablecontradictions,itbecomesnecessarytoimagineatransitiontoamodelwheretherelationsofproductionarenotincontradictionwiththeevolutionofthemodeofproduction.Thismeansasystemofpoliticaleconomy
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whichwouldbebasedontherecognition,andrewarding,ofthecontributivelogicatworkincommons-orientedpeerproduction.
Ifwelookatthemicro-level,werecommendtheintermediationofcooperativeaccumulation.Intoday’sfreesoftwareeconomy,openlicencesenablethelogicofthecommons,oreventechnically,‘communism’(eachcontributeswhathe/shecan,eachuseswhatisneeded),butcreatedaparadox:‘themorecommunisticthelicense,themorecapitalistictheeconomy’,sinceitspecificallyallowslargefor-profitenterprisestorealizethevalueofthecommonsinthesphereofcapitalaccumulation.Hence,ironically,thegrowthofa‘communismofcapital’.Weproposetoreplacethenon-reciprocal‘communistic’licenses,withsocialistlicenses,i.e.basedontherequirementofreciprocity.
Hence,theuseofapeerproductionlicense[6]wouldrequireacontributiontothecommonsforitsfreeuse,atleastfromfor-profitcompanies,tocreateastreamofexchangevaluetothecommoners/peerproducersthemselves;inaddition,commonerswouldcreatetheirownmarketentities,createaddedmarketvalueontopofthecommons,realizethesurplusvaluethemselves,andcreateanethicaleconomyaroundthecommons,wherethevalueoftheproductionofrivalgoodswouldberealized.
Suchethicalentrepreneurialcoalitionswouldlikelyenableopenbookaccountingandopensupplychains,thatwouldcoordinatetheeconomyoutsideofthesphereofbothplanningandthemarket.Theethicalentrepreneurialcoalitionscouldexpandthesphereofthecommonsbytheuseofcommonsventures,suchasinthe‘venturecommunist’modelproposedbyDmytriKleiner.
Inthismodel,cooperativesinneedofcapitalwouldfloatabondthatwouldallowthepurchaseofmeansofproduction.Thesemeansofproductionwouldbelongtothecommons;inotherwords,themachineswouldberentedfromthecommonpool,butthisrentwouldalsoberedistributedtoallthemembersofthecommons.Inthisbinaryeconomicform,thecommoners-cooperatorswouldreceivebothawagefromtheircooperative,butalsoanincreasingpartofthecommonrent.(Inaddition,allcitizenswouldbenefitfromabasicincomeprovidedbythePartnerState).
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Suchentrepreneurialcoalitions,intrinsicallyinsolidaritywiththeircommons,couldalsomovetopracticessuchasopenaccountingandopenlogistics,whichwouldallowforwidespreadmutualcoordinationoftheirproductivecapacities,henceusheringanewthirdmodelofallocationthatwouldbeneitheramarket,noraplanningsystem.(Insuchasystem,actionandproductionarecoordinatedthroughopenmutualsignallinginafullytransparentsystem.[7])Inotherwords,thestigmergiccoordination,whichisalreadyoperatinginthesphereof‘immaterial’productionsuchasfreesoftwareandopendesign,wouldgraduallybetransferredtothesphereof‘material’production.
Tothedegreethatsuchstigmergicsystemscreatethepossibilityofresource-basedeconomicmodels,suchspheresoftheeconomywouldbegraduallydemonetizedandreplacedbymeasurementsystems(i.e.commoditycurrencieswith‘storeofvalue’systemswouldgraduallydisappear).However,suchchangesatthelevelofthemicro-economywouldnotsurviveahostilecapitalistmarketandstatewithoutnecessarychangesatthemacro-economiclevel;hencetheneedfortransitionproposals,carriedbyaresurgentsocialmovementthatembracesthenewvaluecreationthroughthecommons,andbecomesthepopularandpoliticalexpressionoftheemergingsocialclassofpeerproducersandcommoners-alliedwiththeforcesrepresentingbothwagedandcooperativelabor,independentcommons-friendlyentrepreneurs,andagriculturalandserviceworkers.
FourTechnologyRegimes
Valueregimesaremoreorlessassociatedwithtechnologyregimes,sincetheforcesatplaywanttoprotecttheirintereststhroughthecontroloftechnologicalandmediaplatforms,whichencouragecertainbehaviorsandlogics,butdiscourageothers.Thepowersovertechnologicalprotocolsandvalue-drivendesigndecisionsareusedtocreatetechnologicalplatformsthatmatchproprietaryinterests.Thus,evenaspeertopeertechnologiesandnetworksarebecomingubiquitous,ostensiblysimilarp2ptechnologieshaveverydifferentcharacteristicswhichleadtodifferentmodelsofvaluecreationanddistribution,andthusdifferentsocialandtechnologicalbehaviors.
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Innetworks,humanbehaviorcanbesubtlyornotsosubtlyinfluencedbydesigndecisionsandinvisibleprotocolsthataredesignedintheinterestoftheownersormanagersoftheplatforms.Thefollowinggraphicisorganizedaroundtwoaxes,whichdetermineatleastfourdistinctpossibilities.Thefirsttop-downaxisdistinguishescentralizedtechnologicalcontrol(andanorientationtowardsglobality)fromdistributedtechnologicalcontrol(andanorientationtowardslocalization);thehorizontalaxisdistinguishesafor-profitorientation(whereanysocialgoodissubsumedtothegoalofshareholderprofit),fromfor-benefitorientations(whereeventualprofitsaresubsumedtothesocialgoal).
Thefourpotentialscenariosarediscussedhere:
NetarchicalCapitalismasatechnologicalregime:peertopeerfrontend,hierarchicalback-end
Netarchicalcapitalism,thefirstcombination(upper-leftquadrant),matchescentralizedcontrolofadistributedinfrastructurewithanorientationtowardstheaccumulationofcapital.NetarchicalcapitalisthatfractionofcapitalwhichenablesandempowerscooperationandP2Pdynamics,butthroughproprietaryplatformsthatareundercentralizedownershipandcontrol.Whileindividualswillsharethroughtheseplatforms,theyhavenocontrol,governanceor
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ownershipoverthedesignandtheprotocolofthesenetworks/platforms,whichareproprietary.Forexamples,thinkofFacebookorGoogle.Typicallyunderconditionsofnetarchicalcapitalism,whilesharerswilldirectlycreateorshareusevalue,themonetizedexchangevaluewillberealizedbytheownersofcapital.Whileintheshorttermitisintheinterestofshareholdersorowners,thisalsocreatesalongertermvaluecrisisforcapital,sincethevaluecreatorsarenotrewarded,andnolongerhavepurchasingpowertoacquirethegoodsthatarenecessaryforthefunctioningofthephysicaleconomy.
DistributedCapitalismasatechnologicalregime:thecommodificationofeverything
Thesecondcombination,(bottom-leftquadrant)called“distributedcapitalism”,matchesdistributedcontrolbutwitharemainingfocusoncapitalaccumulation.ThedevelopmentoftheP2PcurrencyBitcoin,theKickstartercrowdfundingplatform,andtheprivatelyownedsharingplatforms,arerepresentativeexamplesofthesedevelopments.Underthismodel,P2Pinfrastructuresaredesignedinsuchawayastoallowtheautonomyandparticipationofmanyplayers,whoareallowedtointeractwithouttheclassicintermediaries,butthemainfocusrestsonprofit-making.InBitcoin,alltheparticipatingcomputerscanproducethecurrency,therebydisintermediatinglargecentralizedbanks.However,thefocalpointremainsontradingandexchangethroughacurrencydesignedforscarcity,andthusmustbeobtainedthroughcompetition.Theconsciousdeflationarydesignofthecurrencyinsuresapermanentincreaseinvalue,andthusencourageshoardingandspeculation.
Ontheotherhand,Kickstarterfunctionsasareversemarketwithprepaidinvestment.Undertheseconditions,anyCommonsisabyproductoranafterthoughtofthesystem,andpersonalmotivationsaredrivenbyexchange,tradeandprofit.ManyP2Pdevelopmentscanbeseenwithinthiscontext,strivingforamoreinclusionarydistributedandparticipativecapitalism.Thoughtheycanbeconsideredaspartof,say,ananti-systemicentrepreneurialismdirectedagainstthemonopoliesandpredatoryintermediaries,theyretainthefocusonprofitmaking.Here
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distributionisnotunderstoodas“local”,asthevisionisratherofavirtualeconomywheresmallplayerscanhaveaglobalcompact,andcreateglobalaggregationsamongthemselves.However,despitetheidealsexpressedbythepoliticalandsocialmovementsassociatedwithsuchamodel(suchasanarcho-capitalismandtheAustrianSchoolofEconomics),inpractice,thesedynamicsinevitablyleadtoconsolidationandconcentrationofcapital.
ResilienceCommunityPlatformsDesignedforRe-Localization
ThefollowingmodelassociatesdistributedlocalcontroloftechnologicalplatformswithafocusonthecommunityorCommons,andaimstocreate“resiliencecommunities”thatcanwithstandthevagariesofanunstableglobalmarketplace.(thebottom-rightquadrant).Thefocushereismostoftenonrelocalizationandthere-creationoflocalcommunity.Itisoftenbasedonanexpectationforafuturemarkedbysevereshortagesofenergyandresources,orinanycaseincreasedscarcityofenergyandresources,andtakestheformoflifeboatstrategies.
InitiativesliketheDegrowthmovementortheTransitionTowns,agrassrootsnetworkofcommunities,canbeseeninthatcontext.Inextremeforms,theyaresimplelifeboatstrategies,aimedatthesurvivalofsmallcommunitiesinthecontextofgeneralizedchaos.Whatmarkssuchinitiativesisarguablytheabandonmentoftheambitionofscaleandthefocusonstrongandresilientlocalcommunities.Thoughglobalcooperationandwebpresencemayexist,thefocusremainsonthelocal.Mostoften,politicalandsocialmobilizationatscaleisseenasnotrealistic,anddoomedtofailure.Inthecontextofourprofit-makingversusCommonsaxisthough,theseprojectsaresquarelyaimedatgeneratingcommunityvalue.Agenericcritiqueofthismodelisthatitdoesnotgeneratecounter-poweroracounter-hegemonyforthemodel,astheglobalizationofcapitalisnotmatchedorkeptincheckbyacounterforceofthesamescale.Hencetheneedforasecondalternativemodel,whichalsorecognizestheimportanceofscaleandpaysattentiontothedynamicsofglobalpowerandgovernance.
TheGlobalCommonsScenarioasthedesiredalternative
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The“GlobalCommons”approach(upper-rightquadrant)isagainsttheaforementionedfocusonthelocal,focusingontheglobalCommons.AdvocatesandbuildersofthisscenarioarguethattheCommonsshouldbecreatedfor,andfoughtfor,onatransnationalglobalscale.Thoughproductionisdistributedandthereforefacilitatedatthelocallevel,theresultingmicro-factoriesareconsideredasessentiallynetworkedonaglobalscale,profitingfromthemutualizedglobalcooperationbothonthedesignoftheproduct,andontheimprovementofthecommonmachinery.Anydistributedenterpriseisseeninthecontextoftransnationalphyles,i.e.alliancesofethicalenterprisesthatoperateinsolidarityaroundparticularknowledgeCommons,onaglobalandnotsimplylocalscale.
Thus,thoughtheproductionislocal,thesocial,politicalandeconomicorganizationisglobal,andabletocreateacounter-poweratthatscale.Inaddition,politicalandsocialmobilization,onregional,nationalandtransnationalscale,isseenaspartofthestruggleforthetransformationofinstitutionsateverylevelofscale.ParticipatingenterprisesarevehiclesforthecommonerstosustainglobalCommonsaswellastheirownlivelihoods.Thislatterscenariodoesnottakesocialregressionasagiven,andbelievesinsustainableabundanceforthewholeofhumanity.
Cognitive/NetarchicalCapitalismvs.anOpen-CommonsbasedKnowledgeSociety
Itmaybeusefulheretodirectlycomparetwosyntheticandcountervailingscenarios.Ontheonehand,thefor-profitdrivenscenariosthatareinharmonywiththepresentpoliticaleconomyofcapital;andontheotherhand,thealternativescenarioofthesocialknowledgeeconomybasedonopen-commonsprinciples.
So:Whatexactlyisanopen-commonsbasedeconomyandsociety?Tounderstanditwemustfirstlookattheoldersocialandeconomicmodelthatitreplaces.Theneoliberalandcapitalisteconomicformscombinethreebasicelements,fundamentalchoicesthatguidetheiroperation.Thefirstisthebeliefthattheearth’sresourcesareinfinite,whichallowsanideaofpermanentandcompound
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economicgrowthintheserviceofcapitalaccumulation.Neoliberalcapitalismisthereforebasedonanillusionofafakeor‘pseudo-abundance’;anditsgrowthmechanismisdedicatedtothesenselessaccumulationofmaterialriches.
Thesecondisthebeliefthattheflowofknowledge,scienceandcultureshouldbeprivatized,andthereforeservestheexclusivebenefitofpropertyowners.Knowledgeismadetoservecapitalaccumulationandtheprofitsofthefew.Theprivatizationofknowledgethroughexcessivecopyrightsandpatentregimeshaveadramaticallyslowingeffect,andallowforanexclusionaryfinancialization.Thisleadstothecreationandmaintenanceofartificialscarcity.Whilemarketscanbeconsideredtobeanallocationmechanismforscarceandrivalgoods(ascarcityallocationmechanism),contemporaryIP-proprietarycapitalismisascarcity-engineeringmechanismswhichcreatesandincreasesscarcities.
Finally,thetwofirstelementsareconfiguredinsuchawaythattheydonotservesocialjustice,equality,andbenefitsforall,butratherthebenefitsandprofitsforthefew.Undercognitivecapitalism,thefruitsofsocialcooperationareenclosedandfinancialized,andthemajorityofthepopulationhastopayforknowledgethatislargelysociallyproduced.Onlythosewithmoneycanbenefitfromtechnicalandscientificinnovations.Then,wemustlookatthepositivecounter-reactionsthathaveemergedandwhichhavebeenparticularlystrengthenedafterthecrisisofneoliberalism,whichwasfeltbysoutherncountriesinthepreviousdecades,butbecameglobalin2008.
Afirstreactionhasbeentherecaptureofthestatebycitizenmovements,suchasparticularlyintheAndeancountrieslikeEcuador.Thesecondisare-emergenceandfloweringofneweconomicformsbasedonequity,suchasthecooperativeeconomy,thesocialeconomy,andthesolidarityeconomy.Thenewprogressivegovernments,andafewothers,areallcommittedtothestrengtheningofthesemoresociallyjusteconomicforms.
Third,wehaveseentheemergenceofasharingeconomy,whichismutualizingphysicalinfrastructures(thoughoftenintheformof
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privateplatforms)inordertore-useandmakeavailabletheenormousamountofsurplusmaterialandresourcesthathavebeencreatedinthelastthirtyyears.Apartfromtheexplosionofcarsharingandbikesharing,theyoftentaketheformof‘peertopeermarketplaces’,allowingcitizenstocreatemorefine-grainedexchangesoftheirsurplus.
Fourth,andperhapsmostimportantly,wehaveseen,thankslargelytothepotentialityoftheglobalnetworks,theemergenceofcommons-basedpeerproduction.Globallyandlocally,productivecommunitiesofcitizenshavebeencreatingvastcommonpoolsofknowledge,code(software),anddesign,whichareavailabletoallcitizens,enterprisesandpublicauthoritiestofurtherbuildon.Often,theseproductiveknowledgecommonsaremanagedbydemocraticfoundationsandnonprofits,whichprotectandenablethecommonproductiveinfrastructureofcooperation,andprotectthecommonpoolofknowledgefromexclusionaryprivateenclosure,mostoftenusingopenlicenses;theyaresometimescalled‘for-benefitassociations’.Veryoften,theseproductivecommunitiesco-existwithadynamicentrepreneurialcoalitionoffirmsco-creatingandco-producingthesecommonpools,therebycreatingadynamiceconomicsector.Itisverycommonfortheseopenecosystemstodisplacetheirproprietary-IPbasedcompetitors.
AU.S.reportonthe‘FairUseEconomy’,i.e.economicactivitiesbasedonopenandsharedknowledge,estimateditseconomicweightinthatcountrytobeone-sixthofGDP.Yetthereisalsoaparadox:itismostlikelythatitisthecapitalistformsthatfirstseethepotentialofthenewcommons-basedeconomicforms,andallywiththem;ontheotherhand,cooperativeeconomicformsrarelystillpracticeandco-produceopenknowledgepools.However,thereisanemergingtrendtotransformtheexistingcooperativetraditionbasedonsingle-stakeholdergovernance,intomulti-stakeholdergovernance,andwhichintroducethecareofthecommongoodintheirstatutes.Whatthismeansisthattheemergingglobalknowledgeeconomy,cantodaytaketwocompetingforms.Inthefirstformoftheknowledge-economy,undertheregimeofcognitivecapitalism,wehaveontheonehandthecontinuationofproprietaryIP,andtherealizationofeconomicrentbyfinancialcapital;combinedwithanewformof‘netarchical’capital,whichenables
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butalsoexploitssocialproduction.ItisnotdifficulttoseethattherichesofgiantslikeFacebookandGooglearebasedonthehyper-exploitationofthefreelaborofthecitizensusingtheirsocialnetworks.Theother,moredesirableformoftheknowledge-basedeconomyisbasedonopencommonsofknowledge,butwhicharepreferentiallylinkedtoanethicalandequitableeconomy.
TheSocio-EconomicImplicationsofaSocialKnowledgeEconomy
JohnRestakis,expertincooperatives,researchcoordinatorforFLOK’sSocialInfrastructureandInstitutionalInnovationinvestigationandauthorof“HumanizingtheEconomy:cooperativesintheAgeofCapital”[8]offersthefollowingpositivedescriptionofthesocialknowledgeeconomy[9]:
Inthecurrentdebateconcerningtheriseandconsequencesof“cognitivecapitalism”anewdiscourseisdevelopingaroundtheconceptofa“socialknowledgeeconomy”.Butwhatdoesasocialknowledgeeconomymeanandwhatareitsimplicationsforthewaysinwhichasocietyandaneconomyareordered?Cognitivecapitalismreferstotheprocessbywhichknowledgeisprivatizedandthencommodifiedasameansofgeneratingprofitforcapital.Inthisnewphaseofcapitalismthecentralizationandcontrolofknowledgeovertakesthetraditionalprocessesofmaterialproductionanddistributionasthedrivingforceofcapitalaccumulation.Inthepast,capitalismwasconcernedprimarilywiththecommodificationofthematerial.Essentialtothisprocesswasthegradualenclosureandprivatizationofmaterialcommonssuchaspasturelands,forests,andwaterwaysthathadbeenusedincommonsincetimeimmemorial.Inourtime,capitalismentailstheenclosureandcommodificationoftheimmaterial–knowledge,culture,DNA,airwaves,evenideas.
Ultimately,thedrivingforceofcapitalisminourageistheeradicationofallcommonsandthecommodificationofallthings.ThecolonizationandappropriationofthepublicdomainbycapitalisattheheartoftheNewEnclosures.Thisprocessissustainedandextendedthroughthecomplexandever-evolvingwebofpatents,copyrightlaws,tradeagreements,thinktanks,
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andgovernmentandacademicinstitutionsthatprovidethelegal,policy,andideologicalframeworksthatjustifyallthis.Aboveall,thelogicofthisprocessisembeddedinthevalues,organization,andoperationofthecapitalistfirm.
Bycontrast,asocialknowledgeeconomyisbasedontheprinciplethatknowledgeisacommonsthatshouldbefreeandopenlyaccessibleforthepursuitofwhatReneRamirez,MinisteroftheSenescytinnovationagencyinEcuador,describesas“goodliving”,notasaninstrumentofcommercialprofit.Knowledgeisperceivedasasocialgood.Astartingpointforansweringthisquestionistherecognitionthatknowledgeinasociety–itscreation,utilization,andvalue–isaconstructthatismoldedbythesocialandeconomicforcesthatdefinethepowerrelationsinacommunity.Knowledgehasalwaysbeenattheserviceofpower.
Cognitivecapitalism,theprocessbywhichhumanknowledgeisbothprivatizedandcommodified,resultsfromthedominationandpowerofcapitalisteconomicandsocialrelations,andinparticular,theundemocraticandprivatizednatureofeconomics,markets,andtheorganizationalstructureoffirms.Inpreviousagesknowledgewasalsocontrolledandmonopolized,totheextentthatitwaspossible,bykingorchurch.Today’sinformationtechnology,combinedwithglobalcorporatepower,hasmadesuchcentralizationandcontrolfareasierandfarmoreextensive.
Ifthecharacteranduseofknowledgeinasocietyisaproductofexistingpowerrelations,thepursuitofasocialknowledgeeconomymustalsoentailare-visioningandre-aligningofsocial,political,andeconomicrelationssuchthatthey,inturn,embodyandreinforcethevaluesandprinciplesofwhatknowledgeasacommonsimplies.Absentthis,howwouldasocialknowledgeeconomyoperate,orbesustained,inanoverwhelminglycapitalisteconomy?Wherearethesocialandeconomicspacesinwhichanopenknowledgecommonscouldbeusedintheserviceofthebroadercommunityorforcollectiveaims?Whatkindsororganizationsareneededtoinorderforknowledgetobeusedinthisway?Whataretheconditions
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necessaryforthemtothrive?Howcantheyprovideacounterweighttotheoverwhelmingpowerandinfluenceofcapital?
Withoutstrongcivicinstitutionscommittedtotheideaofthecommonsandthepublicgood,openknowledgesystemsarevulnerabletoappropriationandultimatecommodificationbycapitalistfirmsasiscurrentlythecasewiththeinternetitself.TherecentrulingoftheU.S.FederalCommunicationsCommissionintheUnitedStatesunderminingnetneutrality[10]
isamajoradvanceintheprivatizationofwhathasuntilnowbeenanequitablyaccessibleglobalcommonsofinformation.
Aneconomyinwhichknowledgeisacommonsintheserviceofsocialendsrequiresthecorrespondingsocialandeconomicinstitutionsthatwillmobilizeandprotectknowledgefortherealizationoftheseends.Theoperationofasocialknowledgeeconomyultimatelydependsonsocialandeconomicinstitutionsthatembodythevaluesofcommons,reciprocity,andfree,openanddemocraticassociationthatarepre-requisitesforthepursuitofsocialends.Inshort,asocialknowledgeeconomyultimatelyrestsonsocialeconomyvalues.
Justascognitivecapitalismdependsonthemanifoldinstitutionalsupportssuppliedbygovernmentpolicy,legislation,freemarketideology,andthecollectivepoweroffirmsandtheinstitutionsthatservethem,evenmoresodoesasocialknowledgeeconomyrequirethecorrespondingcivicandeconomicinstitutionsthatcansupportandsafeguardthevalueofcommons,ofcollectivebenefit,ofopenandaccessiblemarkets,andofsocialcontrolovercapital.Thesecivicinstitutionsareembodiedinthestructureofdemocraticenterprises,ofpeer-to-peernetworks,ofnon-profitsandcommunityserviceorganizations,ofmutuallysupportingsmallandmediumfirms,andofcivilsocietyandthesocialeconomyitself.Itisthesesocialandeconomicstructures,basedontheprinciplesofreciprocityandservicetocommunity,thatcanbestutilizeknowledgeasacommonsandsafeguarditsfutureasanindispensableresourceforthecommongoodandthewellbeingofhumanityasawhole.Theidentificationoftheseinstitutions
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andofthepublicpoliciesneededfortheirdevelopmentandgrowthistheoverarchingaimofthisresearch.
Discussion:IPandpatentsimpedeandslowdowninnovation
ByGeorgeDafermos,aresearcherindistributedmanufacturingbasedinCrete,Greece-andthecoordinatorofFLOK’sCommons-orientedProductiveCapacitiesinvestigation.
Intellectualpropertyrightsandtheirsupposedroleincognitivecapitalism
“Capitalistknowledgeeconomiesuseintellectualproperty(IP)rightsasmeansofenclosingknowledgeandasmechanismsbywhichtorealizetheextractionofmonopolyrentsfromknowledgethathasbeenthusprivatized.Thatisideologicallyjustifiedasfollows:exclusiveIPrightsprovideincentivesforindividualsandcompaniestoengageinresearchanddevelopnewproductsandservices.Thatis,theypromoteinnovation:theexpectationofprofitableexploitationoftheexclusiverightsupposedlyencourageseconomicagentstoturntheiractivitiestoinnovativeprojects,whichsocietywilllaterbenefitfrom(e.g.Arrow1962).ButisthatactuallyanaccuratedescriptionofthefunctionofIPrightsincapitalistknowledgeeconomies?Dotheyreallyspurinnovation?
Asynopsisofempiricalevidenceontheeffectofexclusiveintellectualpropertyregimesoninnovationandproductivity
Toanswerthisquestion,itisinstructivetolookattheavailableempiricaldataontheeffectofexclusiveIPrightsontechnologicalinnovationandproductivity.ThecaseoftheUnitedStatesisindicativeofacapitalistknowledgeeconomyinwhichtheflowofpatentshasquadrupledoverthelastthirtyyears:in1983theUSPatentOfficegranted59.715patents,whichincreasedto189.597in2003and244.341in2010(USPatentOffice2013).
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Lookingatthesenumbersbegsthequestion:howhasthedramaticincreaseinthenumberofpatentsissuedbytheUSPatentOfficeovertimeimpactedtechnologicalinnovationandproductivityintheUS?Well,accordingtotheUSBureauofLaborStatistics,theannualgrowthintotalfactorproductivityinthedecade1970-1979wasabout1,2%,whileinthenexttwodecadesitfellbelow1%.Inthesameperiod,R&Dexpenditurehoveredaround2,5%ofGDP(***).
Inshort,whatweseeisthatthedramaticincreaseinpatentshasnotbeenparalleledbyanincreaseinproductivityorinnovation.Nomatterwhichindicatorofproductivityorinnovationweuseintheanalysis,weareinvariablyledtotheconclusionthat‘thereisnoempiricalevidencethatthey[patents]servetoincreaseinnovationandproductivity,unlessproductivity[orinnovation]isidentifiedwiththenumberofpatentsawarded’(BoldrinandLevine2013,p.3;also,seeDosietal.2006).
AnotherargumentoftenvoicedbyproponentsofexclusiveIPrightsindefenseofpatentsisthattheypromotethecommunicationofideasandthat,inturn,spursinnovation.Theyclaimthatifpatentsdidnotexist,inventorswouldtrytokeeptheirinventionssecretsothatcompetitorswouldnotcopythem(e.g.Belfanti2004).Fromthisstandpoint,thesolutiontotheproblemisatradebetweentheinventorandsociety:theinventorrevealshisinnovationandsocietygiveshimtherighttoexploititexclusivelyforthenexttwentyorsoyears.Hence,theargumentgoes,totheextentthattheyreplacesociallyharmfultradesecrets,patentspromotethediffusionofideasandinnovations(Moser2013,pp.31-33).Inreality,however,patentshaveexactlytheoppositeeffect,encouragingignoranceandnon-communicationofideas.
Inwhathasbecomeastandardpractice,‘companiestypicallyinstructtheirengineersdevelopingproductstoavoidstudyingexistingpatentssoastobesparedsubsequentclaimsofwillfulinfringement,whichraisesthepossibilityofhavingtopaytripledamages’(Boldrin&Levine2013,p.9;Brec2008).Evenifthatwerenotalwaysthecase,thewayinwhichpatentdocumentsarewrittenactuallyrendersthemincomprehensibletoanyone
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exceptlawyers(Brec2008;Mann&Plummer1991,pp.52-53;Moser2013,p.39).
Therealfunctionofintellectualpropertyrightsincognitivecapitalism:howdocapitalistfirmsactuallyusethem?What,however,morethananythingelsedisprovestheclaimedpositiveeffectofpatentsoninnovationandcreativityisthewayinwhichpatentsareactuallyusedbycapitalistfirms.Inacapitalistknowledgeeconomy,patentsareusedprimarilyas(a)meanstosignalthevalueofthecompanytopotentialinvestors,(b)asmeanstopreventmarket-entrybyothercompanies(sotheyhavestrategicvalueindependentlyofwhethertheyareincorporatedinprofitableproducts)and(c)asweaponsinan‘arms-race’,meaningtheyareuseddefensivelytopreventorbluntlegalattacksfromothercompanies(e.g.,seeBoldrin&Levine2013;Cohenetal.2000;Hall&Ziedonis2007;Levinetal.1987;Pearce2012).Itwouldtakeaheroicleapoflogicforanyoftheseapplicationsofpatentstobeseenasproductive.
Ontheotherside,thereisaplethoraofcasesinwhichtheeffectofpatentsoninnovationandproductivityhasbeenundoubtedlydetrimental.Indicatively,considerhowMicrosoftiscurrentlyusingapatent(no.6370566)relatedtotheschedulingofmeetingsinordertoimposealicensingfeeonAndroidmobilephones(Boldrin&Levine2013***).Inthiscase,patentsbecomeamechanismforsharingtheprofitswithoutanyparticipationintheactualprocessofinnovation.Assuch,theydiscourageinnovationandconstituteapurewasteforsociety.
Interestingly,notthatlongago,BillGates(1991),Microsoftfounder,arguedthat‘ifpeoplehadunderstoodhowpatentswouldbegrantedwhenmostoftoday’sideaswereinvented,andhadtakenoutpatents,theindustrywouldbeatacompletestandstilltoday…Afuturestartupwithnopatentsofitsownwillbeforcedtopaywhateverpricethegiantschoosetoimpose’.Itisironic,ofcourse,thatMicrosoft,notbeingabletopenetratethemobiletelephonymarket,isnowusingthethreatofpatentlitigationtoraiseaclaimoverpartofGoogle’sprofits.
Thewayinwhichpatentsareusedincapitalistknowledge
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economiesmakesitblatantlyobviousthat‘inthelongrun…patentsreducetheincentivesforcurrentinnovationbecausecurrentinnovatorsaresubjecttoconstantlegalactionandlicensingdemandsfromearlierpatentholders’(Boldrin&Levine2013,p.7).Thisbecomesreadilyunderstood,consideringthattechnologicalinnovationisessentiallyacumulativeprocess(Gilfillan1935,1970;Scotchmer1991):Cumulativetechnologiesarethoseinwhicheveryinnovationbuildsonprecedingones:forexample,thesteamengine(Boldrinetal.2008;Nuvolari2004),butalsohybridcars,personalcomputers(Levy1984),theworldwideweb(Berners-Lee1999),YouTubeandFacebook.
Butifpatentshaveatbestnoimpactandatworstanegativeimpactontechnologicalinnovationandproductivity(Dosietal.2006),thenhowisitpossibletoexplain–especiallyfromthelegislator’sside–thehistoricalincreaseinpatentsandtheexpansionofIP-relatedlaws?Manyanalystshaveponderedthisquestion.Theconclusiontowhichtheyhavebeenledisratherunsettling:theactualreasonbehindtheproliferationofpatentsandtheexpansionofIP-relatedlawsconsistsinthepoliticalinfluenceoflarge,cash-richcompanieswhichareunabletokeepupwithnewandcreativecompetitorsandwhichusepatentstoentrenchtheirmonopolypower.
Discussion:theroleofIndigenousPeoplesand(Neo)TraditionalKnowledge
Argumentsforthespecificroleof(neo)-traditionalknowledgeandpeoplesinasocialknowledgetransition
TheoriginalcommonstransitionprojectinEcuador(FLOK),wasrootedintheadaptationoftheindigenousconceptof‘Buen Vivir‘(goodliving),whichpointstotheimportanceofreconnectingwiththecommonsvaluesandprinciplesoftheoriginalnativepeopleandtheexperiencesofpre-capitalist,andpre-modernsocieties,whichdidnotprioritizetheaccumulationofmaterialgoods.Suchneotraditionalapproaches,iftheyarebasedonamutualdialogue,areaveryimportantpartofatransitiontoasocialknowledgeeconomy.Inthefollowingsection,wemakethecasewhythisisso
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important.
*TheMainArgument:thecommonimmaterialityoftraditionalandpost-industrialeras
Itisnotdifficulttoarguethatmodernindustrialsocietiesaredominatedbyamaterialistparadigm.Whatexistsformodernconsciousnessismaterialphysicalreality,whatmattersintheeconomyistheproductionofmaterialproducts,andthepursuitofhappinessisinverystrongwaysrelatedtotheaccumulationofgoodsforconsumption.Fortheelite,itspowersderiveessentiallyfromtheaccumulationofcapitalassets,whethertheseareindustrialorfinancial.
Infinitematerialgrowthisreallythecoremantraofcapitalism,anditismadenecessaryandfacilitatedbytheverydesignofthecontemporarymonetarysystem,wheremoneyismostlycreatedtointerest-drivenbankdebt.Butthiswasnotthecaseintraditional,agriculture-basedsocieties.Insuchsocieties,peopleofcoursedohavetoeatandtoproduce,andthepossessionoflandandmilitaryforceiscrucialtoobtaintributefromtheagriculturalworkers,butitcannotbesaidthattheaimisaccumulationofassets.
Feudal-typesocietieswerebasedonpersonalrelationsconsistingofmutualobligations.Theseareofcourseveryunequalincharacter,butareneverthelessveryremovedfromtheimpersonalandobligation-lesspropertyformsthatcamewithcapitalism,wherethereislittleimpedimentforgoodsandcapitaltomovefreelytowhomeveritissoldto.Inthesepost-tribalbutstillpre-modernsocieties,boththeeliteandthemassbodyofproducersareunitedbyacommonimmaterialquestforsalvationorasimilarcorespiritualpursuitlikeenlightenment,etc…,anditistheinstitutionthatisinchargeoforganizingthatquest,liketheChurchinthewesternMiddleAgesortheSanghainSouth-EastAsia,thatisthedeterminingorganizationforthesocialreproductionofthesystem.Tributeflowsupfromthefarmingpopulationtotheowningclass,buttheowningclassisengagedinatwo-foldpursuit:showingitsstatusthroughfestivities,wherepartsofthesurplusisburnedup;andgiftingtothereligiousinstitutions.Itisonlythiswaythatsalvation/enlightenment,i.e.spiritualvalueormeritinallitsforms,
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canbeobtained.Themoreyougive,thehigheryourspiritualstatus.Socialstatuswithoutspiritualstatusisfrowneduponbythosetypeofsocieties.
ThisiswhyreligiousinstitutionsliketheChurchortheSanghaendupwithsomuchlandandpropertythemselves,asthegiftingcompetitionwasrelentless.Atthesametime,theseinstitutionsserveasthewelfareandsocialsecuritymechanismsoftheirday,byensuringthatapartofthatflowgoesbacktothepoorandcanbeusedintimesofsocialornaturalemergencies.Inthecurrentera,markedbyasteadydeteriorationofecosystems,isagainundergoingafundamentalandnecessaryshifttoimmateriality.
Herearejustafewofthefactsandargumentstoillustratemypointforashifttowardsonceagainanimmaterialfocusinoursocieties.Thecosmopolitaneliteofcapitalhasalreadytransformeditselfforalongtimetowardsfinancialcapital.Inthisformofactivity,financialassetsaremovedconstantlywherereturnsarethehighest,andthismakesindustrialactivityasecondaryactivity.Ifwethenlookatthefinancialvalueofcorporations,onlyafractionofitisdeterminedbythematerialassetsofsuchcorporations.Therestofthevalue,usuallycalled“goodwill”,isinfactdeterminedbythevariousimmaterialassetsofthecorporation,itsexpertiseandcollectiveintelligence,itsbrandcapital,thetrustinthepresentandthefutureexpectedreturnsthatitcangenerate.
Themostprizedmaterialgoods,suchassay,Nikeshoes,showasimilarquality;only5%ofitssalesvalueissaidtobedeterminedbyphysicalproductioncosts,alltherestisthevalueimpartedtoitbythebrand(boththecosttocreateit,andthesurplusvaluecreatedbytheconsumersthemselves).Theshifttowardsanimmaterialfocuscanalsobeshownsociologically,forexamplethroughtheworkofPaulRayonculturalcreatives,andofRonaldInglehartontheprofoundshifttopostmaterialvaluesandaspirations.
Forpopulationswhohavelivedformorethanonegenerationinbroadmaterialsecurity,thevaluesystemshiftsagaintothepursuitofknowledge,cultural,intellectualandspiritualexperience.Notallofthem,notallthetime,butmoreandmore,andespeciallysofortheculturaleliteof‘culturalcreatives’orwhatRichardFloridahas
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calledtheCreativeClass,whichisalsoresponsibleforkeyvaluecreationincognitivecapitalism.
Onemoreeconomicargumentcouldbementionedinthecontextofcognitivecapitalism.Inthismodelofoureconomy,thecurrentdominantmodelasfarasvaluecreationisconcerned,thekeysurplusvalueisrealizedthroughtheprotectionofintellectualproperties.DominantWesterncompaniescansellgoodsatover100to1,000timestheirproductionvalue,throughstateandWTOenforcedintellectualrents.Itisclearlytheimmaterialvalueofsuchassetsthatgeneratetheeconomicstreams,eventhoughitrequirescreatingfictitiousscarcitiesthroughthelegalapparatus.Wehavearguedbeforethatthismodelisunderminedthroughtheemergenceofdistributedinfrastructuresfortheproduction,distributionandconsumptionofimmaterialandculturalgoods,whichmakessuchfictitiousscarcityuntenableinthelongrun.Theimmaterialvaluecreationisindeedalreadyleakingoutofthemarketsystem.
Whileweneedsuchatransitiontowardsafocusonimmaterialvalue,italsocreatesverystrongcontradictionsinthepresentpoliticaleconomy,oneofthemainreasonswhyashifttowardsanintegratedsocialknowledgeeconomy,isavitalnecessity.
*TheSecondArgument:thenatureofpost-deconstructivetrans-modernism
Industrialsociety,itsparticularmentalandculturalmodels,areclearlyantagonistictotradition.Theoldstructuresmustgo:religionisseenassuperstition,communityisseenasrepressiveofindividuality,andtraditionisseenashamperingthefreeprogressofdynamicindividuals.Thismakesmodernismbothaveryconstructiveforce,forallthenewitiscapableofinstitutinginsociety,butalsoaverydestructiveforce,atwarwiththousandsofyearsoftraditionalvalues,lifestylesandsocialorganization.Itattemptstostripindividualsofwholisticcommunity,replacingitwithdisciplinaryinstitutions,andcommodity-basedrelations.
Thesubsequentpostmodernistphaseisacultural(butalsostructuralasitisitselfanexpressionofcapitalistre-organization)reactionagainstmodernityandmodernism.Postmodernismisabove
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alladeconstructivemovement.Againstall‘reification’and‘essentialisation’,itrelativiseseverything.Nothing,noindividualstandsalone,weareallconstitutedoffragmentsthatthemselvesarepartofinfinitefields.Throughinfiniteplay,thefragmented‘dividual’hasatitsdisposalinfiniteconstitutiveelementsthatcanberecombinedininfiniteways.
Thepositivesideofitisthatalongwithfreeinguswithfictitiousfixedframeworksofbeliefandmeaning,italsore-opensthegatesofthepastandoftradition.Everythingthatisusable,isre-usable,andthewaragainsttraditionends,tomakeplaceforpragmaticre-appropriation.Butastheverynameindicates,postmodernismcanonlybeafirstphaseofcritiqueandreactionagainstmodernityandmodernism,stillverymuchbeholdentoit,ifonlyinitsreactivitytoallthingsmodern.Itisdeconstructive,asocialregressionofthecollectiveegothatcanonlyreceiveultimatetherapeuticmeaningifitisfollowedbyareconstructivephase.Forpostmodernismtohaveanyultimatepositivemeaning,itmustbefollowedbyatransformative,reconstructivephase.Atrans-modernismifyoulike,whichgoes‘beyond’modernityandmodernism.
Inthatnewphase,traditioncannotjustbeappropriatedanylongerasanobject,butrequiresadialogueofequalswithtraditionalcommunities.Theyarevital,becausetheyalreadyhavetherequiredskillstosurviveandthriveinapost-materialage.
*TheThirdArgument:theproblematicnatureofun-changedtradition
Usingorreturningtoapre-modernspiritualtraditionfortransmoderninspirationisnotapaththatiswithoutitsproblemsordangers:itcanveryeasilybecomeareactionarypursuit,afruitlessattempttogobacktoagoldenagethathasonlyexistedintheimagination.Thecoreproblemisthatmanyspiritualtraditionsalloccurredwithinthecontextofexploitativeeconomicandpoliticalsystems.Thoughtheexploitationwasdifferent,mosttraditionalspiritualityanditsinstitutionsdevelopedinsystemsthatwerebasedontribute,slavery,orserfdom.Thesesystemsusuallycombinedadisenfranchisedpeasantpopulation,awarriororotherrulingclass,inwhichthetraditionalChurchorSanghaplayedacrucialrolefor
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itssocialreproduction.
Forexample,Buddhismonlybecameacceptabletotothe‘mainstream’societyofitstimewhenitacceptedtoexcludeslaves.Despiteitsradical-democraticpotential,itbecameinfusedwiththefeudalauthoritystructurethatmirroredthesocietyofwhichitwasapart.Thesespiritualitiesarethereforerifewithpatriarchy,sexismandotherprofoundlyunequalviewsandtreatmentsofhumanbeings.Thoughthelogicwasprofoundlydifferentfromcapitalism,theseformsofexploitation,andtheirjustificationbyparticularreligiousorspiritualsystemsandinstitutions,shouldprovetobeunacceptabletocontemporary(post/trans-modern)consciousness.
Perhapsasymmetricalbutequallyproblematicapproachwouldbethepureeclecticismthatcanbetheresultofpostmodernconsciousness,inwhichisolatedpartsofanytraditionaresimplystolenandrecombinedwithoutanyseriousunderstandingofthedifferentframeworks.Anotherproblemweseeisthefollowing:contemporarycommunicationtechnologies,andglobalizedtradeandtravel,andtheunificationoftheworldundercapitalism,havecreatedtheenhancedpossibilityforagreatmixingofcivilizations.Thoughcontactandinterchangewasalwaysareality,itwasslow,anditdifferentcivilizationalspheresreallydidexist,whichcreatedprofoundlydifferentculturalrealitiesandindividualpsychologies.TobeaChristianoraBuddhistmeanttohaveprofoundlydifferentorientationstowardslifeandsociety(despitestructuralsimilaritiesinreligiousorspiritualorganization).
Butagrowingpartofthehumanpopulation,ifnotthewholepart,isnowprofoundlyexposedtotheunderlyingvaluesoftheothercivilizationalspheres.Forexample,EasternAsiannotionshavesimilarlyalreadyprofoundlyimpactedwesternconsciousness.Inthiscontext,rootednessinone’scultureandspiritualtraditionscannolongerbeseparatedwithaglobalcosmopolitanapproachandacontinuousdialogwithviewpointsandframeworksthatoriginateelsewhere.Increasinglyglobalaffinitynetworksarebecomingasimportantaslocalassociationsininfluencingindividualsandtheiridentity-building.
*FourthArgument:theroadtodifferentialpost-industrial
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development
Ibelieveitwouldbefairtosaythatcontemporarycapitalismisamachinetocreatehomogeneityworldwide,andthatthisisnotanoptimaloutcome,asitdestroysculturalbiodiversity.Initscurrentformat,whichgotasevereshockwiththecurrentfinancialmeltdown,whichcombinesglobalization,neoliberalismandfinancialization,itisalsoanenormousapparatusofcoercion.Itunderminesthesurvivabilityoflocalagricultureandcreatesanenormousflighttothecities;itdestroyslong-standingsocialformssuchastheextendedfamily,andseverelyunderminestraditionalculture.
Ofcourse,Idonotwanttoimplythatallchangeortransformationisnegative,butratherstressthatittakesawaythefreedomofmanywhowouldmakedifferentchoices,suchasthosewhowouldwanttostayinalocalvillage.Itisherethatneotraditionalapproachesofferrealhopeandpotential.Insteadofthewholesaleimportofglobalhabitsandtechnologies,forwhichsocietyhasnotbeenpreparedandwhichisexperiencedasanaliengraft,itoffersanalternativeroadofchoosingwhattoacceptandwhattoreject,andtocraftalocallyadaptedroadtopost-industrialdevelopment.ItremindsusofGandhi’sconceptofSwadeshiandappropriatetechnology.Herejectedbothwesternhightech,whichwasnotadaptedtomanylocalsituations,butalsounchangedlocalagrariantraditionandtechnology,whichwashardlyevolving.Instead,headvocatedappropriatetechnology,anintermediaryleveloftechnologywhichstartedfromthelocalsituation,buttookfrommodernscienceandtechnologythenecessaryknowledgetocreatenewtoolsthatwereadaptedtothelocalsituation,yetofferedincreasesinproductivity.Neotraditionaleconomicscouldtakeasimilarapproach,butnotlimitedtoanattitudetotechnologyselection,buttothetotalityofpoliticalandsocialchoices.
Inthisway,inharmonywithlocalvalues,thoseaspectscanbechosenwhichincreasethequalityoflivelihoods,butdonotradicallysubvertchosenlifestylesandsocialforms.Itrepresentsanewapproachwhichcombinesthehightechofglobalizedtechnicalknowledge,withthehightouchelementsoflocalculture.Forexample,itbecomesimaginabletoconceiveoflocalvillages,
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adaptinglocalizedandsmall-scalemanufacturingtechniquesbasedonthelatestadvancesinminiaturizationandflexibilizationofproductiontechnologies,andwhicharegloballyconnectedwithglobalknowledgenetworks.
*FifthArgument:AdaptingtoSteady-StateEconomiesintheAgeoftheEndangeredBiosphere
Theessenceofcapitalismisinfinitegrowth,makingmoneywithmoneyandincreasingcapital.Aninfinitegrowthsystemcannotinfinitelyperdurewithlimitedresourcesinalimitedphysicalenvironment.Today’sglobalsystemcombinesavisionofpseudo-abundance,themistakenvisionthatnaturecanprovideendlessinputsandisaninfinitedump,withpseudo-scarcity,theartificialcreationofscarcitiesinthefieldsofintellectual,culturalandscientificexchange,throughexaggeratedandeverincreasingintellectualpropertyrights,whichhamperinnovationandfreecooperation.
Tobesustainable,ouremergingglobalhumancivilizationandpoliticaleconomyneedstoreversethosetwoprinciples.Thismeansthatwefirstofallneedasteady-stateeconomy,whichcanonlygrowtothedegreeitcanrecycleitsinputbacktonature,soasnottofurtherdepletethenaturalstock.Anditrequiresaliberalizationofthesharingandexchangeoftechnicalandscientificknowledgetoglobalopeninnovationcommunities,sothatthecollectiveintelligenceofthewholeofhumankindcanbedirectedtothesolvingofcomplexproblems.Thefirsttransformationiscloselylinkedtoourcontemporarymonetarysystemandalternativeanswerscanbefoundinthetraditionalconceptionsofwealthofpre-industrialsocieties.Forexample,traditionalreligionsassociatedwithagriculture-basedsocietiesandproductionsystems,outlawedinterest.Thereisagoodreasonforthat:whensomeoneextendsaloanwithinterest,thatinterestdoesnotexist,andtheborrowerhastofindthemoneysomewhereelse[11].Inotherwords,topaybacktheinterest,hehastoimpoverishsomebodyelse.Thisofcourse,wouldbeextremelysociallydestructiveinastaticsociety,andtherefore,itcouldnotbeallowedtohappen,whichexplainsthereligiousinjunctionagainstinterest.However,inmoderncapitalist
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societies,asolutionhasbeenfound:growth.
Aslongasthepieisgrowing,theinterestcanbetakenfromthegrowingpie.Theproblemhowever,isthatsuchamonetarysystemrequiresgrowth,infinitegrowth.Staticbusinessesareanimpossibility,sincethatwouldmeantheycannotpaybacktheinterest.Nowthatwehavereachedthelimitsofthebiosphere,nowthatweneedagainasteady-stateeconomy,weneedinterest-freemonetarysystems,andparadoxically,thereligiousinjunctionsagainmakesense.Thisisjustoneoftheconnectionsbetweenthetransmodernchallenges,andthevalueoftraditional,andreligioussystemsrootedinthepre-modernera,suchasBuddhistEconomics,andofcourse,thetraditionsof‘Buen Vivir‘.
Wecouldtakemanyotherexamples:forexample,modernchemicalagriculturedestroysthequalityoftheland,anddepletesit,sothatherealso,pre-moderntraditionalpracticesbecomeinterestingagain.However,aswestatedinthethirdargument,andrefinedinthefourthargument:sincetraditionisalsoproblematic,itcannotbesimplycopied,itcanonlybeusedinacriticalmanner.Anexampleofsuchacriticalapproachistheappropriatetechnologymovement.Inthisapproach,itisrecognizedthattraditionaltechnologyassuchisinsufficient,thathypermoderntechnologyisofteninappropriateinmoretraditionalsettings,andthattherefore,anintermediatepracticeisneeded,thatisbothrootedin‘tradition’,i.e.therealityofthelocalsituation,butalsoinmodernity,thecreativeuseoftechnologicalsolutionsandreasoning,soasthecreateanewtypeof‘appropriate’technologicaldevelopment.
*Conclusion:Cantheethosofthesocialknowledgeeconomybemixedwithneotraditionalapproaches?
Withtheemergenceofthesocialknowledgeeconomyandcommons-basedpeerproduction,andpracticeslikeopenanddistributedmanufacturing,anewalliancebecomespossible:thatbetweenthemosttechnologicallyadvancedopendesigncommunities,withthemajorityofthepeoplewhoarestillstronglylinkedtotraditionalpractices.Throughsuchanalliance,whichcombinesthetraditionalinjunctionforasteady-stateeconomyinharmonywithnaturalpossibilities,adifferentiatedpost-industrial
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futurecanbecreated,whichcanbypassthedestructivepracticesofindustrial-eramodernism,andcancreatean‘appropriatetechnology’future,wherebymoretraditionalcommunitiescanmorefreelydecidewhattoadaptandwhattoreject.Whileontheotherhand,transmodernopendesigncommunitiescanlearnfromthewisdomoftraditionalapproaches.Suchanallianceneedsanideologicalvehicle,and‘Buen Vivir’isitsexpression.
Thepotentialroleofcommons-basedreciprocitylicensestoprotecttraditionalknowledge
Reciprocity-basedlicensesfortraditionalknowledge
Today,indigenousandothercommunitieswhowanttosharetheirknowledgeforthegoodoftherestofhumanityareinsomewhatofamoralbind.IftheysharetheirknowledgewithoutanyIPprotection,oriftheysharetheirknowledgeusingtheclassicopenlicensesfromthefreesoftwaremovement,suchastheGeneralPublicLicense,theyintrinsicallyallowanyoutsideforces,includethemonopolisticmultinationals,toprofitfromtheirknowledgeandtraditions,withoutanyguaranteedreciprocity,andtheymaynotbenefitthemselvesfromthewealththatisgeneratedfromtheircontributions.Ontheotherhand,iftheyusealicenseliketheCreative-CommonsNon-Commerciallicense,theyallowsharing,andthespreadingofbenefitsthroughthesharedknowledge,butalsoreducethepotentialforeconomicdevelopmentbasedonthatknowledge.Finally,notsharingtheknowledgeatall,wouldpreventtherestofhumanityfrombenefittingfrompotentialnewmedicinesthatcouldsavemillionsofhumanlives.
Itisthereforeimportanttointroduceintothedebatethepossibilityofreciprocity-basedopenlicenses.Let’sfirstsummarizetheissueasithasevolvedintheeconomiesbasedonfreesoftware,opendesignandopenhardware.ThesefieldsaredominatedbyfullyopenlicensessuchastheGPL,whichallowanyonetousethecode,butobligesthosethatmodifythecode,toaddittothecommonpool,sothatallmaybenefitfromit.Whilethishadledtoanexponentialgrowthoffreeandopensourcesoftware,ithasalsosubsumedthis
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newmodelofopen,commons-basedpeerproductiontoaneconomicdevelopmentthatisdominatedbylargecompanies.Hence,themodeofpeerproductionisnotautonomousandnotcapableofself-reproduction,sincecommons-contributorsareobligedtoworkaslaborforcapital.Hence,wehavetheparadoxthatlicenseswhichallowforfullsharing,inpracticepromotetheaccumulationofcapital.
Intheculturalsphere,oneoftheanswersforthishasbeentheinventionanduseoftheCreativeCommonsNon-CommercialLicense.Thesetypeoflicensesallowanyonetouseandreproducetheculturalproduct,ontheconditionthatnocommercialprofitisintentedandrealized.Thissolutionraisestwoissues.Oneisthatsuchalicensedoesnotcreatearealcommons,butonlyascaleofsharingthatisdeterminedbytheproduceroftheculturalproduct;inotherwords,thereisnocommoncreationofacommonpool.Thesecondisthatitprohibitsfurthereconomicdevelopmentbasedonthatprotectedwork.Isthereanalternativetothisconundrum?
DmytriKleinerhasproposedaPeerProductionLicense,whichhasalreadybeendiscussedbyopenagriculturalmachiningcommunitiessuchasAdabioAutoconstructioninFrance.ThePPLbasicallyallowsworker-ownedandcommons-contributingentitiestofreelyusethecommonpoolofknowledge,code,anddesign,butdemandsalicensefeefromfor-profitcompaniesthatwanttousethesamecommonpoolfortherealizationofprivateprofit.Hence,severaladvantages.
Oneisastreamofincomefromtheprivatesectorcompaniesindirectionofthecommons;thesecondisthateconomicdevelopmentisnotprohibited,butsimplyconditionedonreciprocity;finally,thereistheaddedpossiblitythatthoseentitiesthatsignontothelicenseandthecommonpoolsthatitprotects,couldcreateapowerfulentrepreneurialcoalitionbasedonethicalprinciples.WhiletheprecisewordingofthepresentPPLmaynotbeappropriate‘asis’fortraditionalandindigenouscommunities,itopensupthepossibilitytocreateadaptedreciprocity-basedopenlicensesfortraditionalknowledge.Thiswouldofferseveraladvantages:
1)thetraditionalcommunitieswouldbewillingtoshareandthustheknowledgewouldbenefithumanityasawhole
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2)itwouldalloweconomicdevelopmentbasedonthatknowledge
3)thecontractedreciprocitywouldbenefitandprofittothetraditionalcommunities
4)membersoftraditionalcommunitiescouldthemselvebecomeactiveinthesolidarityeconomythroughethicalmarketentitiesthatarebasedontheuseofsuchlicenses
5)traditionalcommunitiesandtheirownethicalmarketentitiescoulduniteinentrepreneurialcoalitionsusingthesamecommonpools
6)thesetraditionalcommunitiescouldunitewithethicalmarketentitiesactiveinotherpartsoftheworld,confidentinthecommonvaluesandprinciplesthatareenshrinedinthereciprocity-basedopenlicenses
Discussion:GenderAspects
Thereisaremarkablestructuralsimilaritybetweentheroleofwomeninthedomestic‘contributory’sectorandthestructuralsituationofpeerproduction(asareallyexistingsocialknowledgeeconomy)inthedominanteconomy.Womencontributemorethanmalesforthewell-beingofthefamilycommons,andthisworkismostly(nearlyalways)un-remunerated.Contributorstothecommonsalsooftenvolunteertheircontributionsforthecommons.Ifwomenwanttoinsuretheirownself-reproductionandamoreequalplaceinthefamily,theymustfindworkinthecapital-labornexus,asmustpeerproducersinthesocialknowledgeeconomy.Neitherthedomesticcareeconomynortheproductionofsocialknowledgecurrentlyallowfortheself-reproductionoftheirowners.
Thoughmanystructuralconstraintsforfamilyequality(equalitywithinthefamily)havebeenremoved,itisveryoftentheculturalconstraintsthatdeterminethatwomenareproducingmorehomeworkthantheirmalepartners.Similarly,inthepeerproductioneconomy,thoughitisstructurallyopenforalltoparticipate,itismostoftenmale-dominatedandthesemale-dominatedculturescreatenotjustinertiabutsometimesrealimpedimentsforfemaleparticipation.Thisshowsthatthetransition
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toasocialknowledgeeconomymustbeaccompaniedbystrongpoliciesthatsolvethestructuralconditionsofwomeninsocietyandtheeconomy.Andwithinthealreadyexistingcommunitiesthatproducesocialknowledge,theforcesthatstriveforgenderequalitymustbesupported,andthestructuralandculturalelementsthatmaintaingenderinequalitymustbetackled.Itisnotenoughforatransitionprojecttosimpleenableparticipationinsocialknowledgecreationanduse,itmustpromotetheequipotentialparticipationofallcitizens,andcreatetheconditionsforit.Afailuretodothismayleadtotheoppositeeffect,i.e.thecreationoffurtherinequalitiesduetothenon-participationofwomeninthesocialknowledgeeconomy.
IntroducingthenewconfigurationbetweenState,CivilSocietyandtheMarket
Whatcanwelearnfromthealreadyexistingsocialknowledgeeconomy
Thesocialknowledgeeconomyisnotanutopia,orjustaprojectforthefuture.Itisrootedinanalreadyexistingsocialandeconomicpractice,thatofcommons-orientedpeerproduction,whichisalreadyproducingcommonsofknowledge,code,anddesign,andithasproducedrealeconomieslikethefreesoftwareeconomy,theopenhardwareeconomy,thefreecultureeconomy,etc…Initsmostbroadinterpretation,concerningalltheeconomicactivitiesthatareemergingaroundopenandsharedknowledge,itmayhavereachedalready1/6thofGDPintheUSA,employing17millionworkers,accordingtotheFairUseEconomyreport.Alotisknownaboutthemicro-economicstructuresofthisemergingeconomicmodel,whichwecansummarizeasfollows:
atthecoreofthisnewvaluemodelarecontributorycommunities,consistingofbothpaidandunpaidlabor,whicharecreatingcommonpoolsofknowledge,code,anddesign.Thesecontributionsareenabledbycollaborativeinfrastructuresofproduction,andasupportivelegalandinstitutionalinfrastructure,whichenablesandempowersthecollaborativepractices.
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theseinfrastructuresofcooperation,i.e.technical,organizational,andlegalinfrastructures,areveryoftenenabled,certainlyintheworldoffreesoftwarecommons,bydemocratically-runFoundations,sometimescalledFLOSSFoundations,ormoregenerically,‘for-benefitassociations’,whichmaycreatecodedepositories,protectagainstinfringementsoftheopenandsharinglicenses,organizefundraisingdrivesfortheinfrastructure,andorganizeknowledgesharingthroughlocal,nationalandinternationalconferences.Theyareanenablingandprotectivemechanism.
finally,thesuccessfulprojectscreateaneconomyaroundthecommonspools,basedonthecreationofaddedvalueproductsandservicesthatarebasedonthecommonpools,butalsoaddtoit.Thisisdonebyentrepreneursandbusinessesthatoperateonthemarketplace,andaremostoftenfor-profitenterprises,creatinga‘entrepreneurialcoalition’aroundthecommonpoolsandthecommunityofcontributors.Theyhirethedevelopersanddesignersasworkers,createlivelihoodsforthem,andalsosupportthetechnicalandorganizationalinfrastructure,includingalsothefundingoftheFoundations.
Onthebasisofthesegenericmicro-economicexperiencesitispossibletodeduceadaptedmacro-economicstructuresaswell,whichwouldconsistofacivilsocietythatconsistsmainlyofcommunitiesofcontributors,creatingshareablecommons;ofanewpartnerstateform,whichenablesandempowerssocialproductiongenerallyandcreatesandprotectsthenecessarycivicinfrastructures;andanentrepreneurialcoalitionwhichconductscommerceandcreatelivelihoods.
Thenewconfiguration
Intheoldneoliberalvision,valueiscreatedintheprivatesectorbyworkersmobilizedbycapital;thestatebecomesamarketstateprotectingtheprivilegedinterestsofpropertyowners;andcivilsocietyisaderivativerestcategory,asisevidencedintheuseofourlanguage(non-profits,non-governmental).Nevertheless,thecombinationoflaborandcivicmovementshaspartiallysucceededinsocializingthemarket,achievementswhicharenowunderthreat.In
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thenewvisionofcognitivecapitalism,thenetworkedsocialcooperationconsistsofmostlyunpaidactivitiesthatcanbecapturedandfinancializedbyproprietary‘network’platforms.Socialmediaplatformsalmostexclusivelycapturethevalueofthesocialexchangeoftheirmembers,anddistributedlaborsuchascrowdsourcingmoreoftenthannotreducetheaverageincomeoftheproducers.Inotherwords,the‘netarchical’versionofnetworkedproductioncreatesapermanentprecariatandreinforcestheneoliberaltrends.
Inthecontraryvisionofanopen-commonsbasedknowledgeeconomyandsociety,valueiscreatedbycitizens,paidorvoluntary,whichcreateopenandcommonpoolsofknowledge,co-producedandenabledbyaPartnerState,whichcreatestherightconditionsforsuchopenknowledgetoemerge;andpreferentiallyethicalentrepreneurialcoalitionswhichcreatemarketvalueandservicesontopofthecommons,whichtheyareco-producingaswell.Theidealvisionofanopen-commonsbasedknowledgeeconomyisoneinwhichthe‘peerproducers’orcommoners(thelaborformofthenetworkedknowledgesociety),notonlyco-createthecommonpoolsfromwhichallsocietycanbenefit,butalsocreatetheirownlivelihoodsthroughethicalenterpriseandtherebyinsurenotonlytheirownsocialreproductionbutalsothatthesurplusvaluestayswithinthecommons-cooperativesphere.Inthisvision,thesocialsolidarityeconomyisnotaparallelstreamofeconomicproduction,butthehyper-productiveandhyper-cooperativecoreoftheneweconomicmodel.
Thusinthenewvision,civilsocietycanbeseenasconsistingasaseriesofproductiveciviccommons,commonpoolsofknowledge,codeanddesign;themarketconsistsofpreferentiallyactorsofthecooperative,socialandsolidarityeconomywhichintegratethecommongoodintheirorganizationalstructures,andwhoselabor-contributingmembersco-producethecommonswiththeciviccontributors.Finally,inthisvision,thePartnerStateenablesandempowerssuchsocialcooperation,andcreatesthenecessarycivicandphysicalinfrastructuresforthisfloweringofinnovationandcivicandeconomicactivitytooccur.
ThePartnerStateisnotaweakneoliberalstate,whichstripspublic
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authorityofitssocialfunctions,andretainsthemarketstateandrepressivefunctions,asintheneoliberalmodel;itisalsonottheWelfareState,whichorganizeseverythingforitscitizens;butitisastatethatbuildsonthewelfarestatemodel,butatthesametimecreatesthenecessaryphysicalandcivicinfrastructuresforsocialautonomy,andforacivicproductionmodelthatcombinescivicimmaterialcommonsandcooperativesocialsolidarityenterprise.Theethicaleconomyandmarket,isnotaweakandparalleleconomythatspecializesinthelesscompetitivesectorsoftheeconomy;onthecontrary,theethicalmarketisthecoreproductivesectoroftheeconomy,buildingstrongenterprisesaroundcompetitiveknowledgebases.Itishowever,attheserviceofcivilsocietyandco-constructtheopenknowledgecommonsonwhichsocietyandcommercedepends.
Whyisthisapost-capitalistscenario?
Capitalist-drivensocietiesproduceforexchangevalue,whichmaybeuseful,ornot;andcontinuouslystrivestocreatenewsocialdesiresanddemands.Bywayofcontrast,theopen-commonsbasedknowledgeeconomyconsistsofaproductivecivilsocietyofcontributors,citizencontributorswhocontinuouslycontributetothecommonsoftheirchoicebasedonusevaluemotivations;itisaroundtheseuse-valuecommonsthatanethicalmarketandeconomyfindsitsplace,andcreatesaddedvalueforthemarket.Thecommonsiscontinuouslyco-producedbybothcitizencontributorsandpaidethicallaborfromthecooperative/socialsector.Inthisscenario,theprimarydriveristhesphereofabundanceofknowledgeavailableforall,whichisnotamarketdrivenbysupplyanddemanddynamics;butaroundtheimmaterialabundanceofnon-rivalorevenanti-rivalgoods,isdeployedamarketofcooperativesandsocialsolidarityplayerswhichaddandsellscarceresourcesonthemarketplace.
Inthissamescenario,thestateisnolongeraneoliberalmarket-stateattheserviceofpropertyowners,butisattheserviceofcivilsociety,theircommons,andthesphereoftheethicaleconomy.Itisnotattheserviceoftheprivatecapitalaccumulationofpropertyowners,butisattheserviceofthevalueaccumulationandequitablevaluedistributiontakingplaceinthecommons-cooperativesector.
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Itisattheserviceoftheopen-commonsofitscitizens,andthegoodknowledgetheyneedforthis.Insteadofafocusonpublic-privatepartnerships,whichexcludesparticipationfromcivilsociety;acommons-supportingpartnerstatewilllookatthedevelopmentofpublic-socialorpublic-commonspartnerships.WhereappropriatethePartnerStatelooksatthepossiblecommonificationofpublicservices.
Forexample,followingthemodelofQuebecandNorthernItalyincreatingSolidarityCooperativesforSocialCare,inwhichthestateenablesandregulatesthedirectprovisionofcarebymulti-stakeholdergovernedcivilsocietybasedorganizations.Itisverylikelythatoncethestateundertakesthesupportofacommons-basedcivicandethicaleconomyinthesphereofknowledge,thatitwillalsolookatthedevelopmentofinstitutionalcommonsinthephysicalsphere.Forexample,developingcommons-basedhousingdevelopmentpolicies,whichkeepsocialhousingoutsideofthespeculativesphere.
Asocietyandstatewhichdesirestodevelopacommonsintheimmaterialsphereofknowledge,willalsolookatexpandingthecommonssphereinotherspheresofhumanactivity.Anexamplemayshowwhythismaybesometimesnecessary.Inthesphereoffreesoftwareproduction,nearlyallfreesoftwareknowledgecommunitieshavetheirownfor-benefitassociationwhichenablesthecooperation,protectsthelicenses,etc…Thisismostlylikelybecauseengagementrequiresknowledgeandaccesstonetworks,whichhavebeenlargelysocializedinoursocieties.Butopenhardwaredevelopershavenotdevelopedsuchassociations,andaremoredependentonthecompaniessellinghardware.Thisisbecauseopenhardwarerequiressubstantialmaterialresourceswhichneedtobepurchasedprivately,whichfavorstheownersofcapitalandweakenstheproductivecommunitythatcontributestothecommons.Insuchascenario,theideathatopenhardwaredeveloperscouldmutualizetheirmeansofproduction,wouldre-establishmorebalancebetweendevelopersandcompanyowners.Ourillustrationalsomentionsthecommons-orientedownershipandgovernanceformswhichcanassistcitizensinhavingmorecontrolovercrucialinfrastructuressuchaslandandhousing.
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Discussion:Theroleofthecapitalistsector
Whatistheroleofthecapitalistsectorinsuchascenario?
Thefirstkeyissuehereisthecreationofalevelplayingfieldbetweenthesocialsolidaritysectorandtheprivatesector.Whereasthesocialsolidarityeconomyvoluntarilyintegratesthecommongoodinitsstatutesandoperations,andisasitwere‘naturallycommons-friendly’,theprivatecapitalsectorisregulatedsothatitsdenialofsocialandenvironmentalexternalitiesismitigated.ThePartnerStateencouragestransitionsfromextractivetogenerativeownershipmodels,whiletheassociationofprivatecompanieswiththecommonswillassisttheminadaptingtothenewemergingmodelsofco-creationandco-designofvaluewiththecommoners.Hyper-exploitationofdistributedlaborwillbemitigatedthroughnewsolidaritymechanisms.
Asthemutualadaptationbetweenthecommonssector,thecooperativesectorandthecapitalistsectorproceeds,theremainingcapitalistsectorshouldbeincreasinglysocializedinthenewpractices,aswellasownershipandgovernanceforms.Theaimistocreatealevelplayingfield,inwhichhyper-exploitationofsocialvaluebecomesagradualimpossibility,andinwhichextractiverent-takingbecomesequallyimpossibleandcounter-productivethroughtheexistenceofwell-protectedopencommons.
Thesecondkeyissueconcernstheself-reproductioncapabilitiesofthecommonscontributors.Underthedominanceofneoliberal,cognitiveandnetarchicalcapitalistforms,commonersarenotabletocreatelivelihoodsintheproductionofopenknowledgecommons,andundermostopenlicenses,privatecompaniesarefreetouseandexploitthecommonknowledgewithoutsecurereturn.Thisobligesmanyandmostcommonerstoworkforprivatecapital.Whatneedstobeachievedisanewcompactbetweenthecommonsandtheprivatecompanies,thatinsuresthefairdistributionofvalue,i.e.aflowofvaluemustoccurfromtheprivatecompaniestothecommonsandthecommonersfromwhomthevalueisextracted.Modelsmustbedevelopedthatallowprivatelyownedcompaniestobecomefairpartnersofthecommons.
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Intheend,noprivately-ownedcompany,usingitsownresearchstaffandproprietaryIP,willbeabletocompeteagainstopenecosystemsthatcandrawonglobalknowledgeproductionandsharing;thisprocessoffairadaptationmustbeencouragedandaccompaniedbybothmeasuresfromthecommonsandtheirassociatedethicalenterprises,andbythePartnerState,inacontextinwhichallplayerscanbenefitfromthecommons.Privatecapitalmustrecognize,andmustbemadetorecognize,thatthethatthevaluebeingcapturedisoverwhelminglyderivedfromthebenefitsofsocialcooperationinknowledgecreation:justastheyhadtorecognizethenecessityforbetterandfairpayforlabor,theymustrecognizefairpayforcommonsproduction.
AdescriptionofthenewtriarchyofthePartnerState,theEthicalEconomyandaCommons-basedCivilSociety
Theconceptofthepartnerstateandthecommonificationofpublicservices
ThusisborntheconceptofthePartnerState,whichisnotopposedtothewelfarestatemodel,but‘transcendsandincludes’it.ThePartnerStateisthestateformwhichenablesandempowersthesocialproductionofknowledge,livelihoodsandwell-being,byprotectingandenablingthecontinuationandexpansionofcommons.ThePartnerStateistheinstitutionofthecollectivitywhichcreatesandsustainsthecivicinfrastructuresandeducationallevels,andwhosegovernanceisbasedonparticipationandco-productionofpublicservicesandcollectivedecision-making.ThePartnerStateretainsthesolidarityfunctionsofthewelfarestate,butde-bureaucratizesthedeliveryofitsservicestothecitizen.Itabandonsitpaternalisticvisionofcitizensthatarepassiverecipientsofitsservices.
ThePartnerStateisthereforebasedonwide-spreadparticipationindecision-making,butalsointhedeliveryofitsservices.Publicservicesareco-createdandco-producedwiththefullparticipationofthecitizens.Themeanstothisendisthe‘commonificationofpublicservices’throughpublic-commonspartnerships.Public-
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privatepartnershipsdonotonlyaddtothecostofpublicservices,andcreatewidespreaddistrustandneedforcontroltocounterbalancetheprofit-interestsofthepartners,butareessentiallyanti-democraticastheyleaveouttheparticipationofthecitizenry.Inacommentary,SilkeHelfrichdefinesthegeneralrelationshipofthestatewiththecommonsassuch:
“Formetheroleofthestateisatleastfourfold:notonly-tostopenclosures,buttotriggertheproduction/constructionofnewcommonsby-(co-)managementofcomplexresourcesystemswhicharenotlimitedtolocalboundariesorspecificcommunities(asmanagerandpartner)-surveyofrules(charters)tocareforthecommons(mediatororjudge)-kickingoforprovidingincentivesforcommonersgoverningtheircommons-herethepointistodesignintelligentruleswhichautomaticallyprotectthecommons,liketheGPLdoes(facilitator)”.
DavidBollieraddsthat:
“TheStatealreadyformallydelegatessomeofitspowerstocorporationsbygrantingthemcorporatecharters,ostensiblytoservecertainpublicpurposes.Whycan’tthestatemakesimilardelegationsofauthoritytocommons-basedinstitutions,whichwouldalso(intheirowndistinctways)servepublicpurposes?Ifthekeyproblemofourtimeisthemarket/stateduopoly,thenweneedtoinsistthatthestateauthorizetheself-organizingandlegalrecognitionofcommons-basedinstitutionsalso.JamesQuilliganhascalledforcommonerstocreatetheirown“socialcharters,”butthelegalstandingofsuchthingsremainssomewhatunclear.Thepublicvalueofstate-charteredcommons-basedinstitutionsisthattheywouldhelp1)limitthecreationofnegativeexternalitiesthatgetdisplacedontoothers(ascorporationsroutinelydo);2)declarecertainresourcestobeinalienableandlinkedtocommunitiesaspartoftheiridentity;3)assuremorecaring,conscientiousandeffectivestewardshipandoversightofresourcesthanthebureaucraticstateiscapableofproviding;and4)helpcommonersinternalizeadifferentsetofstewardshipvalues,ethics,socialpracticesandlong-termcommitmentsthanthemarketencourages.”(email,July2012)
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ButitisTommasoFattori,aleadingactivistoftheItalianWaterCommonsmovement,whichhasthemostdevelopedconceptofthecommonificationofpublicservices:
“ThefieldofCommonscanbeforthemostpartidentifiedwithapublicbutnot-statearena,inwhichtheactionsoftheindividualswhocollectivelytakecareof,produceandsharetheCommonsaredecisiveandfundamental.Inthissense,Commonsandcommoningcanbecomeameansfortransformingpublicsectorandpublicservices(oftenbureaucracy-boundandusedtopursuetheprivateinterestsoflobbygroups):ameansfortheircommonification(orcommonalization).Indeed,therearemanypossiblevirtuouscrossoversbetweenthetraditionalpublicrealmandtherealmofCommons.Commonificationgoesbeyondthesimplede-privatizationofthepublicrealm:Commonificationbasicallyconsistsofitsdemocratization,bringingbackelementsofdirectself-governmentandself-managing,bytheresidentsthemselves,ofgoodsandservicesofgeneralinterest(orparticipatorymanagementwithinrevitalizedpublicbodies).Commonificationisaprocessinwhichtheinhabitantsofaterritoryregaincapabilityandpowertomakedecisions,toorientatechoices,rulesandpriorities,re-appropriatingthemselvesoftheverypossibilityofgoverningandmanaginggoodsandservicesinaparticipatorymanner:itisthisfirst-personactivitywhichchangescitizensintocommoners.
Generally,thereareaseriesofcircumstances(includinglivingspaceandtimeschedules,jobprecariousnessandotherdifficultworkconditions,theurbanizationoflandandthecomplexityofinfrastructures)whichdonotphysicallyallowtheinhabitantsofalargemetropolistocompletelyself-managefundamentalservicessuchaswaterutilitiesorpublictransport,bypassingtheMunicipalitiesandthepublicbodies(ormanagingwithoutpublicfundstofinancemajorinfrastructureworks):itisontheotherhandpossibletoincludeelementsofself-governmentandcommoninginthedistinctstagesofgeneralorientation,planning,scheduling,managementandmonitoringoftheservices.
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Atthesametimeitisnecessarytoalsogivebackpublicserviceworkersanactiveroleinco-management.Whichmeansgoingtheotherwaydowntheroadascomparedtotheprivatizationofthatwhichis“public”.ButtherearealsootheroverlapspossiblebetweentheideaofpublicandthatofCommons,apartfromthenecessarycreationoflegislativetoolswhichcanprotectandencourageCommonsandcommoning.SeveralformsofPublic-Commonspartnershipcanbedeveloped,wheretheroleofstateisre-aligned,fromitscurrentsupportandsubsidizingofprivatefor-profitcompanies,towardssupportingcommoningandthecreationofcommonvalue.Thiscanbeachievedthroughtaxexemptions,subsidiesandempowermentofsharingandcommoningactivities,butalso,forexample,byallocatingpublicandstate-ownedgoodstocommonandsharedusagethankstoprojectswhichseepublicinstitutionsandcommonersworkingtogether.Thisisaroadwhichcouldbethebeginningofageneraltransformationoftheroleofthestateandoflocalauthoritiesintopartnerstate,“namelypublicauthoritieswhichcreatetherightenvironmentandsupportinfrastructuresothatcitizenscanpeerproducevaluefromwhichthewholeofsocietybenefits”.
TommasoFattorihasofferedanin-depthunderstandingofthepreciserelationshipbetweenthenewstateformandthecommons:
“Tounderstandinwhatsenseandunderwhatconditionspublicservicescanbeconsideredcommons,itisnecessarytooffersomebriefnotesonwhatismeantbypublicserviceandwhatbycommons.Inbothcasesitisdifficulttobeconcise,becauseofthebreadthofthedebateontheareasandtheissues.
PublicServices:Asiswellknown,inmostlegalsystems,thelawsdonotprovideanydefinitionofwhatismeantbytheconcept‘publicservice’.Inshort,inthedoctrinalreconstruction,therearetwomainpositions:thesubjectivetheoryfocusesattentiononthepublicnatureofthesubjectsupplyingtheservice,whereastheobjectivetheoryfocusesattentiononthepublicinterestwhichdistinguishestheactivityperformed.Accordingtothesubjectivetheory,theelementsnecessarytoidentifypublicservicearethedirectorindirect
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responsibilityoftheStateoranotherpublicbodyfortheservice,anditssupplyforthebenefitofitscitizens.
Ontheotherhand,fortheobjectivetheory,thenecessaryelementisthattheservicebeprovidedtothecollectivityandplacepublicinterestatitsheart.TheEUhoweverpreferstoducktheissueandspeakof“servicesofgeneralinterest”:services(bothmarketandnon-market)whichareconsideredofcentralinterestforthecollectivityandthatforthisreasonmustbesubjectedto“specificobligationsofpublicservice”.Inthesepages,bypublicserviceswemeantheservicesofgeneralinterest,thatis,thatplethoraoffundamentalserviceswhichwereonceanintegralpartofwelfareservicesbutnowadayshavemostlybeenprivatized,followingpoliticaldecisions,oraresuppliedbypublicbodiesbutrunalongthelinesofprivatizedcompanies.Theseservicesinclude,althoughthisisnotanexhaustivelist,healthservices,schoolsanduniversities,powersupply,transportandotherlocalutilitiessuchasthewaterorwasteservices.
Commons:Thedefinitionofwhatismeantbycommons,andwhatcommoningis,ismorecomplex,asthisisanareainwhichdifferentapproachesandparadigmsclash.Inverygeneralterms,commonsiseverythingweshare;inparticulargiftsofnatureandcreationsofsocietythatbelongtoallofusequally,andshouldbepreservedforfuturegenerations:materialorimmaterial,rivalornon-rival,naturalorartificialresourcesthateludetheconceptofexclusiveuseandbuildsocialbonds.Inadditiontosharedresources,thereareanothertwofundamentalbuildingblocksofthecommons:commonersandcommoning.Commonersareallthemembersofacommunity,orevenlooselyconnectedgroupsofpeople,whostewardandcareforthesharedresources,orproducecommonresources,adoptingaformofself-governmentbasedontheircapacitytogivethemselvesrules(andincentivesandsanctionstoensuretheyarerespected,aswellasmechanismsformonitoringandresolvingconflicts),calledcommoning.Commoningisaparticipatoryandinclusiveformofdecision-makingandagovernancesystemforsharing,producingandreproducingcommonsintheinterestofpresentandfuturegenerationsand
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intheinterestoftheecosystemitself,wherenaturalcommonsareconcerned.Stillingeneralterms,althoughalmostallgoodsandresourcescanpotentiallybecomeobjectsofsharing,afterachoiceanddecisionbypeople,andthusbecome“sharedresources”or“commons”,itishoweverprobablethatmostofhumanitywouldagreeonanucleusofresourceswhich,atleastinprinciple,“cannotnotbecommons”,onpainofdenyinglifeitselfandthepossibilityoffreeindividualandcollectivedevelopment:primary,fundamental,naturalorsocialresources,whichrangefromwatertoknowledge.Afuturewithoutcouch-surfing,whereallbedsaregivenamonetaryvalueandnotshared,iscertainlylessdesirablethanafuturewithcouch-surfing;butafuturewithoutaccesstowaterforallisunacceptable.
Theseprimarycommonsmustnotallowdiscriminationinaccesstothemaccordingtoindividualwealth,re-introducingtheelementofequalityandfairness,aswellasarelationshipofcare—ratherthanoneofdominationorsubjection—betweenhumanityandtherestofnatureofwhichitisapart.TheseareresourceswhichdonotbelongtoandwhicharenotatthedisposalofgovernmentsortheState-as-person,becausetheybelongtothecollectivityandaboveall,tofuturegenerations,whocannotbeexpropriatedoftheirrights.Distributedparticipatorymanagementandself-government,inclusionandcollectiveenjoyment,noindividualexclusiverights,prevalenceofusevalueoverexchangevalue,meetingofprimaryanddiffuseneeds:commons,inthisunderstanding,meansallthesethings.”[12].
Oneofthemechanismsforthedeliveryofcommonifiedpublicservicesarethroughcontractsbetweenthestateasfundingandqualitycontrolmechanism,and“Solidaritycooperatives”,whicharemulti-stakeholdercoops,bringingtogetherallpartiesinvolvedinaparticularendeavor―workers,consumers,producersandmembersofthelargercommunity―inademocraticstructureofownershipandcontrol.Thisnewsystemofdeliveryhasbeenpioneeredinthefieldofsocialcare,forhealthandsupportservicesforparticularpopulationssuchastheelderly,thephysicallyhandicappedetc…andisparticularlystronginnorthernItaly(Emilia-Romagna,the
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regionaroundBologna),aswellasinQuebec.TheexamplesaredescribedinthepolicyreportfromJohnRestakis.
Toconclude:Inamaturesocialknowledgeeconomy,thestatewillstillexist,butwillhavearadicallydifferentnature.Muchofitsfunctionswillhavebeentakenoverbycommonsinstitutions,butsincetheseinstitutionscareprimarilyabouttheirowncommons,andnotthegeneralcommongood,wewillstillneedpublicauthoritiesthataretheguarantorofthesystemasawhole,andcanregulatethevariouscommons,andprotectthecommonersagainstpossibleabuses.Soinourscenario,thestatedoesnotdisappear,butistransformed,thoughitmaygreatlydiminishinscope,andwithitsremainingfunctionsthoroughlydemocratizedandbasedoncitizenparticipation.Inourvision,itiscivil-societybasedpeerproduction,throughtheCommons,whichistheguarantorofvaluecreationbytheprivatesector,andtheroleofthestate,asPartnerState,istoenableandempowerthecreationofcommonvalue.Thenewpeertopeerstatethen,thoughsomemayseethatasacontradictio in terminis,isastatewhichissubsumedundertheCommons,justasitisnowundertheprivatesector.
TheEthicalEconomy
Whatexactlyisthenatureandtheroleoftheethicaleconomyinthesocialknowledgeeconomy?Firstofall,theethicaleconomy“realizes”thevaluethatiscreatedbythe‘commoners’inthecommonpools,bycreatingaddedvaluefortheethicalmarketsector.Therealizedsurplusgoesdirectlytotheworkerswhoarealsothecontributorstothecommons,therebyrealizingtheirself-reproduction,independentlyoftheclassiccapitalaccumulationeconomy.Anew‘cooperativeaccumulation’processistherebycreatedthatmediatesbetweenthecommonsandtheclassicalcapitalsector,anddirectlyservethecommonsandthecommoners.Theethicaleconomycanrealizeprofits,buttherealizedprofitsserveapurpose,amission,atthedirectserviceofthecreationofusevalue.Itdoesn’tcoincidethereforetothecivicnonprofitsector,butisbettercalledaNot-For-Profitsector,sincetheprofitsaresubsumedtothesocialgoal.Thisisinessencewhythenewsectoriscalledanethicaleconomy,becausethegoalsarenottheaccumulationofprofit,butof‘benefits’.Soasynonymistotalkabouta‘for-benefit’
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sector.Theethicalcompanies,cantakeverydifferentform,or‘opencompanyformats’,withtheircommongoalbeingtocontributetothe‘commongood’generally,andtothecommonsspecifically.Theymaybealliedamongstthemselvesasentrepreneurialcoalitionsaroundcertainspecificcommonpools(butlikelywillusemorethanonecommons).ThedifferentlegalregimesmaybeB-Corporations,FairTradecompanies,socialentrepreneurs,worker’sorotherformofcooperatives…Oneofthekeyinnovationshasbeenthedevelopmentof‘SolidarityCooperatives’,whoseemergencehasbeendescribedelsewherebyJohnRestakis.SolidarityCoopsintegratethecommongoodintheirstatutes,andaremulti-stakeholdergoverned.Theethicaleconomymaybefocusedonre-localizedproductionforreasonsofsustainability,butitsworkerscooperategloballydirectedthroughtheopendesigncommunitiesthatareessentialfortheiroperations.Organizationally,theycanbegloballyorganizedthroughmodelslikesolidarityfranchising,or“Phyles”,i.e.throughglobalcommunity-supportiveormission-orientedethical‘transnational’forms.
Discussion:MaterialandImmaterialInfrastructuralRequirementsfortheEthicalEconomy
TheemergenceandstrengtheningoftheEthicalEconomyasacoreofthesocialknowledgesocietywillrequirebothmaterialandimmaterialinfrastructuraldevelopment.Thefirstisthedevelopmentofaseriesofalternative‘corporate’structures,whicharenotlinkedtotherealizationofprofitasaprimarygoal,butallowmarketentitiestooperateforsocialgoals,missions,purposes,etc…ThisisanareawhichwecallOpenCompanyFormats,andisashiftwhichisalreadywellunderwayinvariouscountries.Thesecondisthesupporttocreateviable“OpenBusinessModels”.Thesearemodelsforfinancialresilienceandsustainabilitythataregearedtowardstherecognitionanddevelopment,andnotthesuppression,ofsocializedknowledgepools.Thethirdisthedevelopmentofdistributedfinance,bothcrowdfundingdirectlyfromcitizens,‘cloudfunding’directedtoethicalfinancepartners,andstateorpublicfinancing[13].
Thekeyissueisthatwithoutthesuper-profitsrealizedthrough
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IntellectualPropertyrents,privateriskcapitalwillbemuchlesskeentoinvestinpatent-freeinnovations,andanalternativefinancialsystemneedstobebuiltandsupportedthroughpublicpolicyframeworks.Thus,anewlegal,pro-sharing,pro-socialknowledge,infrastructureneedstobedevelopedaswell,onewhichsupportstheethicaleconomyanditslogic,andpromotesandeasesthemutualizationofknowledgeandotherimmaterialresources,andofthematerialinfrastructuresofproductionaswell.Alegalinfrastructureisneededtopromoteanddevelopformsof‘sharing’and‘cooperative’economics.Atechnicalinfrastructurewillbeneeded,notonlyagenericandopeninternetinfrastructure,butthesupportforthedevelopmentofcollaborativeplatformsthatareappropriateforthedifferentindustrialandeconomicsectors.
Examplesarethedepositoriesofdesignobjectsthatareneededineachsector;andtheinfrastructurefortheinterconnectionofsmartobjects,theso-called‘InternetofThings’.Aninfrastructurewillbeneededforbothopenanddistributedmanufacturing,andfordistributedproductionofrenewableenergy,closetotheplaceofneed.Newformsofopenvalueaccountingwillneedtobedevelopedinordertorecognizethenewformsofvaluecreationinacommons-basedcontributoryeconomy.Inthiscontext,weseetheroleofthePartnerStateasbeingresponsibleforincubatingtheEthicalEconomythroughvarioussupportpolicies,whichmaytakethefollowinginstitutionalform:
TheInstituteforthePromotionandDefenseoftheCommons:thisisaninstitutewhichpromotestheknowledgeaboutthecommonsandtheirlegalandinfrastructuralforms,forexample,thepromotionandprotectionfortheuseofCommons-BasedLicenses,suchastheGPL,theCreativeCommons,etc…ThisInstitutesupportsthecreationofcommonpoolsofknowledge,codeanddesign,bothgenericallyandforspecificsectorsandregions.
TheInstitutefortheIncubationoftheEthicalEconomy,supportstheemergenceofeconomicpracticesaroundthecommonpoolsofknowledge.Ithelpsthecivicandethicalentrepreneurstocreatelivelihoodsaroundthesecommonpools.Itteachesentrepreneurialcommonerswhatthepossibilitiesare
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tocreateaddedvaluearoundthecommons,andwhatthelegal,commercialandtechnicalenablersare.Itpromotesthecreationofentrepreneurialcoalitionsinnewsectors,andsupportsestablishedethicaleconomyplayerstosolvecommonproblems.
TheTransitionIncome:beforecommonscancreatethrivingethicaleconomies,aperiodofcivilengagementandinvestmentisneeded,whichmaynotimmediatelyyieldlivelihoods.Thus,astructurecanbecreatedwhichcanmateriallysupportthecreatorsofnewcommonpoolstosustainthemselvesinsuchtransitionperiods.Thiswillbeavitalmechanismincombatingprecarityintheearlystagesofcommonscreation,beforetheentrepreneurialcoalitionscantakeuptheirroleinthenewcommonseconomiesinvarioussectors.
TheCommons-BasedCivilSociety
AcontributionfromJohnRestakis:
Initsbroadestandmostacceptedsense,civilsocietyisthesocialimpulsetofreeanddemocraticassociation,tothecreationofcommunity,andtotheoperationsofsociallife,whichincludespolitics.ThisisthesenseofcivilsocietythatisusedbywriterssuchasVaclavHavel.Civilsocietyisdistinguishedfromthestateasitisfromtheoperationsoftheprivatesector.Somewritersalsostressadistinctionfromthefamilyaswell.ForHavelandalonglineofwritersextendingbacktoAristotle,civilsocietyremainstheelementaryfactofhumanexistence.Itiswhatmakeshumanlifepossible.ForAristotleitwasboththemeansandtheendofhumanassociationasthepursuitofthegoodlife,whichisinessenceasociallife.Andinthissense,itistheinstitutionsthatarisefromcivilsociety(theschools,thevoluntaryassociations,thetradeunions,thecourts,thepoliticalparties,etc.)thatprovidetheindividualwiththemeanstorealizetheirownhumanityandbysodoingtoperfectthewholeofsocietyintheprocess.Thestateisanoutgrowthofthisimpulse.
AsThomasPainewrote:“Thegreatpartofthatorderwhichreignsamongmankindisnottheeffectofgovernment.Ithasits
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originsintheprinciplesofsocietyandthenaturalconstitutionofman.Itexistedpriortogovernment,andwouldexistiftheformalityofgovernmentwasabolished.Themutualdependenceandreciprocalinterestwhichmanhasuponman,andallthepartsofcivilizedcommunityuponeachother,createthatgreatchainofconnectionwhichholdsittogether.Infine,societyperformsforitselfalmosteverythingwhichisascribedtogovernment.”
AlexDeToqueville,visitingAmericainthelateseventeenfamouslyattributedthevitalityoftheyoungdemocracytotherichnessanddiversityofitsassociationallife.Withincivilsociety,ahugeportionofcivicactivitiesarecarriedoutbyorganizationscreatedtoprovidegoodsandservicesthroughcollaboration,bypeopleactingtogethertorealizemutualinterests.Theyconstitutethatsectorwhichiscomposedofnon-profitandvoluntaryorganizations,servicegroups,culturalorganizationssuchaschoralsocieties,charities,tradeunions,andcooperatives.Thiseconomicaspectwithincivilsocietyhasalsobeendescribedasthecivileconomy,thethirdsectororthesocialeconomy.Foralltheseconceptions–thecommons,civilsocietyandcivileconomy–thenotionofreciprocityisfundamental.
OnReciprocity
Reciprocityisthesocialmechanismthatmakesassociationallifepossible.Itisthefoundationofsociallife.Initselements,reciprocityisasystemofvoluntaryexchangebetweenindividualsbasedontheunderstandingthatthegivingofafavorbyonewillinfuturebereciprocatedeithertothegiverortosomeoneelse.Willingnesstoreciprocateisabasicsignalofthesociabilityofanindividual.Takentoanextreme,thecompleteunwillingnessofanindividualtoreciprocateistantamounttoseveringthebondsbetweenthemselvesandotherpeople.Reciprocityisthusasocialrelationthatcontainswithinitselfpotentemotionalandevenspiritualdimensions.Theseelementsaccountforanentirelydifferentsetofmotivationswithinindividualsthanbehaviorintheclassicalsenseof“maximizingone’sutility”asaconsumer.Reciprocityanimatesavastrange
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ofeconomicactivitiesthatrestonthesharingandreinforcementofattitudesandvaluesthatareinterpersonalandconstituteessentialbondsbetweentheindividualandthehumancommunity.
Whatisexchangedinreciprocaltransactionsarenotmerelyparticulargoods,servicesandfavors,butmorefundamentallytheexpressionofgoodwillandtheassurancethatoneispreparedtohelpothers.Itisthefoundationoftrust.Consequently,thepracticeofreciprocityhasprofoundsocialramificationsandentailsaclearmoralelement.Reciprocityisakeyforunderstandinghowtheinstitutionsofsocietywork.Butitisalsoaneconomicprinciplewithwhollydistinctcharacteristicsthatembodysocialasopposedtomerelycommercialattributes.Whenreciprocityfindseconomicexpressionintheexchangeofgoodsandservicestopeopleandcommunitiesitisthecivileconomythatresults.Itisinturn,akeyprincipleunderlyingtheformationanduseofcommons.
Civileconomyorganizationsarethosethatpursuetheirgoals,whethereconomicorsocial,onthebasisthatindividuals’contributionswillbereciprocatedandthebenefitsshared.Reciprocityandmutualityaretheeconomicandsocialprinciplethatdefineboththeactivitiesandtheaimsoftheseorganizations-whethertheyarecooperatives,voluntaryassociations,orconventionalnon-profits.Theirprimarypurposeisthepromotionofcollectivebenefit.Theirsocialproductisnotjusttheparticulargoodsorservicesthattheyproduce,buthumansolidarity-thepredispositionofpeopleinasocietytoworktogetheraroundmutualgoals.Anothernameforthisissocialcapital.And,asopposedtothecapitalistprincipleofcapitalcontroloverlabor,reciprocityisthemeansbywhichasocialinterest-whetherittakestheformoflabor,orcitizengroups,orconsumers–canexercisecontrolovercapital.
Asasubdivisionofcivilsociety,theuseofreciprocityforeconomicpurposesiswhatdistinguishesthecivilorsocialeconomyfromtheprivateandpublicsectors.Thereisnoquestionthatthelong-termsuccessandtheimplementationof
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asocialknowledgeeconomy,willrelyheavilyonthestrengthanddevelopmentofacivileconomythatisstrong,autonomous,democratic,innovative,andcapableofplayingthecentralrolethatisassignedtoit.Thecivileconomyisthesocialandeconomicspacethatmostreflectsthevaluesandprinciplesofthesocialistandcivicidealsofthegovernmentandthesourceofthosecivilinstitutionsthatwill,inthelongrun,defendandadvancethoseideals.Forthisreason,publicpolicyandlegislationmustserveasavitalpoliticalandlegalresourceforbuildingthevalues,skills,andinstitutionsthatenablethecivileconomytoflourishandtoprovidetheindispensablesocialfoundationsthatwillultimatelyservetotransformthepoliticaleconomyofthecountry.Inourview,progressivepublicpolicyandlegislationwithrespecttothecivileconomywillserveastheprimarymechanismforcreatinganewsocialcontractandsocialpraxisthatreflectsthecomplementaryaimsandpurposesofthestateontheonehandandthecollectivevaluesofcivilsocietyontheother.
Beyondthemarket,beyondplanning?
ThekeyroleofCommons-BasedReciprocityLicenses
Herewearemakingakeystrategicargumentaboutthepreciseinteractionbetweenthecommonsandthenewethicalmarketsectors,throughtheintermediationofanewtypeofcommonslicensethatsupportstheactualemergenceofareciprocity-basedethicaleconomy.Today,thelabor/p2p/commonsandothersocialchangemovementsareindeedfacedwithaparadox.Ontheonehand,wehavethere-emergenceofthecooperativemovementandworker-ownedenterprises,buttheysufferfromstructuralweaknesses.Cooperativeentitiesworkfortheirownmembers,arereluctanttoacceptnewcooperatorswhowouldshareexistingprofitsandbenefits,andarepractitionersofthesameproprietaryknowledgeandartificialscarcitiesastheircapitalistcounterparts.Whiletheyareinternallydemocratic,theyoftenparticipateinthesamedynamicsofcapitalistcompetitionwhich,overtime,tendtounderminetheirowncooperativevalues.
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Ontheotherhand,wehavetheemergentfieldofopenandcommons-orientedpeerproductioninfieldssuchasfreesoftware,opendesignandopenhardware.Whilethesedocreatecommonpoolsofknowledgeforthewholeofhumanity,theyareatthesametimedominatedbothbystart-upsandlargemultinationalenterprisesusingthosesamecommons.Ourproposedsolutionisanewconvergenceorsynthesis,an‘opencooperativism’thatcombinescommons-orientedopenpeerproductionmodelswithcommonownershipandgovernancemodels,suchasthoseofcooperativesandsolidarityeconomicmodels.Theseopencooperativeswoulduseamorerestrictiveformofsharing,whichwouldensureastrongerreciprocityintheethicalmarketcoalitionsthataregeneratedaroundthecommons.Theargumentsfortheopencooperativemodelarethelimitationsofthecurrentcooperativeform,sowhatfollowsistheargumentationforthenewlicense.
Today,wehaveaparadox.Themoreshareablethelicenseweuseinthepeerproductionoffreesoftwareoropenhardware,themorecapitalisticthepracticeoftheentrepreneurialcoalitionwhichformsaroundit.AnexampleofthisistheLinuxcommonsbecomingacorporatecommons,enrichingIBMandthelike.Itworks,inacertainway,andseemsacceptabletomostfreesoftwaredevelopers,butitisinsufficientforthecreationofatrueethicaleconomyaroundthecommons.Indeed,theGeneralPublicLicense(anditsvariants)allowanyonetouseandmodifythesoftwarecode(ordesign),aslongasthechangesarealsoputbackintothecommonpoolunderthesameconditionsforfurtherusers.Thisis,infact,technically‘communism’asdefinedbyMarx(fromeachaccordingtohisabilities,toeachaccordingtotheirneeds)butwhichthenparadoxicallyallowsmultinationalstousethefreesoftwarecodeforprofitandcapitalaccumulation.Theresultisthatwedohaveanaccumulationofimmaterialcommons,basedonopeninput,participatoryprocess,andcommons-orientedoutput,butthatitissubsumedtocapitalaccumulation.
Itisatpresentnotpossible,oratleastnoteasy,tohavesocialreproduction(i.e.livelihoods)withinthesphereofthecommons.Hence,thefreesoftwareandculturemovements,howeverimportanttheyareasnewsocialforcesandexpressionsofnew
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socialdemands,arealsoinessence‘liberal’.Thisisnotonlyacknowledgedbyitsleaders,suchasRichardStallman,butalsobyanthropologicalstudieslikethoseofGabrielaColeman.Withoutbeingterriblytongue-in-cheek,wecouldsaytheyareliberal-communistandcommunist-liberalmovements,whichcreatea‘communismofcapital’.Truetotheliberaltradition,theycareforthefreedoms,butnotforthefairnessoftheconditionsinwhichthesefreedomscanbeexercised.Isthereanalternative?Webelievethereis.Thiswouldbetoreplacenon-reciprocallicenses,i.e.thosewhichdonotdemanddirectreciprocityfromusers,toonebasedonreciprocity.Technically,wecouldcallitaswitchfrom‘communist’,to‘socialist’licenses’,socialismbeingtraditionallydefinedasthatintermediarystageinwhicheveryonereceivesaccordingtoeffort.ThisisthechoiceofthePeerProductionLicenseasdesignedandproposedbyDmytriKleiner;itisnottobeconfusedwiththeCreativeCommonsnon-commerciallicense,asthelogicisdifferent.ThelogicoftheCC-NCistoofferprotectiontoindividualswhoarereluctanttoshare,astheydonotwishacommercializationoftheirworkthatdoesnotrewardthemfortheirlabor.Thus,theCreativeCommons‘non-commercial’licensestopsfurthereconomicdevelopmentbasedonthisopenandsharedknowledge,andkeepsitentirelyinthenot-for-profitsphere.ThelogicofthePPListoallowcommercialization,butonthebasisofademandforreciprocity.Weseeitasaforerunnerofbetter-oratleastbroader–reciprocitylicenses,asthePPLisgearedexclusivelytoworker-ownedcooperatives.
ThePPLisdesignedtoenableandempoweracounter-hegemonicreciprocaleconomythatcombinescommonsthatareopentoallthatcontribute,whilechargingalicensefeetothefor-profitcompanieswhowanttousewithoutcontributing.Notthatmuchchangesforthemultinationals.Inpractice,theycanstillusethecodeiftheycontribute,asIBMdoeswithLinux,andforthosewhodon’t,theywouldpayalicensefee,apracticetheyareusedto.Itspracticaleffectwouldbetodirectastreamofincomefromcapitaltothecommons,butitsmaineffectwouldbeideological,or,ifyoulike,value-driven.TheentrepreneurialcoalitionslinkedaroundaPPLcommonswouldbeexplicitlyorientedtowardstheircontributionstothecommonsandthealternativevaluesystemthatthatrepresents.
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Fromthepointofviewofpeerproducersorcommoners,i.e.thecommunitiesofcontributorstothecommonpool,thiswouldallowthemtocreatetheirowncooperativeentitiesinwhichprofitwouldbesubsumedtothesocialgoalofsustainingthecommonsandthecommoners.Eventheparticipatingfor-profitcompanieswouldconsciouslycontributeunderanewlogic.Itlinksthecommonstoanentrepreneurialcoalitionofethicalmarketentities(coopsandothermodels),andkeepsthesurplusvalueentirelywithinthesphereofcommoners/cooperatorsinsteadofleakingouttothemultinationals.
Inotherwords,throughthisconvergence,orrather,combinationofacommonsmodelfortheabundantimmaterialresources,andareciprocity-basedmodelforthe‘scarce’materialresources,theissueoflivelihoodsandsocialreproductionwouldbesolved,andsurplusvalueiskeptinsidethecommonssphereitself.Itisthecooperativesthatwould,throughtheircooperativeaccumulation,fundtheproductionofimmaterialcommons,becausetheywouldpayandrewardthepeerproducersassociatedwiththem.Inthisway,peerproductionwouldmovefromaproto-modeofproduction,unabletoperpetuateitselfonitsownoutsidecapitalism,toanautonomousandrealmodeofproduction.Itcreatesacounter-economythatcanbethebasisforreconstitutinga‘counter-hegemony’withafor-benefitcirculationofvalue,which,alliedtopro-commonssocialmovements,couldbethebasisofthepoliticalandsocialtransformationofthepoliticaleconomy.
Hencewemovefromasituationinwhichthecommunismofcapitalisdominant,toasituationinwhichwehavea‘capitalforthecommons’,increasinglyinsuringtheself-reproductionofthepeerproductionmode.ThePPLisusedexperimentallybyGuerrillaTranslation,andisbeingdiscussedinvariousplaces,forexample,inFrance,intheopenagriculturalmachininganddesigncommunities.Thereisalsoaspecificpotentialinsidethecommons-orientedethicaleconomy,suchastheapplicationofopenbookaccountingandopensupplychains,whichwouldallowadifferentvaluecirculationwherebythestigmergicmutualcoordinationthatalreadyworksatscaleforimmaterialcooperationandproductionwouldmovetothecoordinationofphysicalproduction,creatingpost-marketdynamicsofallocationinthephysicalsphere.
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Replacingboththemarketallocationthroughthepricesignal,andcentralplanning,thisnewsystemofmaterialproductionwouldallowformassivemutualcoordinationinstead,enablinganewformof‘resource-basedeconomics’.Finally,thiswholesystemcanbestrengthenedbycreatingcommons-basedventurefunding,soastocreatematerialcommons,asproposedbyDmytriKleiner.Inthisway,themachineparkitselfistakenoutofthesphereofcapitalaccumulation.Inthisproposedsystem,cooperativesneedingcapitalformachinerywouldpostabond,andtheothercoopsinthesystemwouldfundthebond,andbuythemachineforacommonsinwhichbothfundersanduserswouldbemembers.Theinterestpaidontheseloanswouldcreateafundthatwouldgraduallybeabletopayanincreasingincometotheirmembers,constitutinganewkindofbasicincome.
So,tosummarizeourproposalforthenewCommons-BasedReciprocityLicense,itwouldallowthefreeusageofaparticularcommonsonthefollowingconditions:
thattheentityisacommongoodinstitutionorenterprise,structurallylinkedtoasocialorcommongoodobjectivethroughitsinternalstatutes.
thattheactivityorentityisnon-commercial.
thatthefor-profitusageoftheparticularcommonsisbasedonreciprocity.
smallandcooperative,worker-ownedenterpriseswithfor-profitactivitiesorgoalscanalsomakeuseoftheparticularcommonsgovernedbyaCBRL.
Thekeyexceptionisthatfor-profit,shareholderownedenterprisesthatdonotcontributetotheparticularcommonsarerequiredtopayalicensingfeeoranotherformofnegotiatedreciprocity.Theinterpretationsoftherules,particularcases,andanyexceptions,aredecidedbythedemocraticallyelectedandmanagedfor-benefitassociationthatislinkedtotheparticularcommons.Letusnowreturnbrieflytoourproposalforanewformatforthecooperativeeconomy,i.e.theethicalentrepreneurialcoalitionsthatareformedaroundthecommons:Thenewopencooperativismissubstantially
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differentfromtheolderform.Intheolderform,internaleconomicdemocracyisaccompaniedbyparticipationinmarketdynamicsonbehalfofthemembers,usingcapitalistcompetition.Hence,anunwillingnesstoshareprofitsandbenefitswithoutsiders.Thereisnocreationofthecommons.
Weneedadifferentmodelinwhichthecooperativesproducecommons,andarestatutorilyorientedtowardsthecreationofthecommongood,withmulti-stakeholderformsofgovernancewhichincludeworkers,users-consumers,investors,andthecommunitiesconcerned.Todaywehaveaparadoxthatopencommunitiesofpeerproducersareorientedtowardsthestart-upmodelandaresubsumedtotheprofitmodel,whilethecooperativesremainclosed,useIP,anddonotcreatecommons.
Inthenewmodelofopencooperativism,amergershouldoccurbetweentheopenpeerproductionofcommons,andthecooperativeproductionofvalue.Thenewopencooperativismintegratesexternalities,practiceseconomicdemocracy,producescommonsforthecommongood,andsocializesitsknowledge.Thecirculationofthecommonsiscombinedwiththeprocessofcooperativeaccumulation,onbehalfofthecommonsanditscontributors.Inthebeginning,theimmaterialcommonsfield,followingthelogicoffreecontributionsanduniversaluseforeveryonewhoneedsit,wouldco-existwithacooperativemodelforphysicalproduction,basedonreciprocity.Butasthecooperativemodelbecomesmoreandmorehyper-productiveandisabletocreatesustainableabundanceinmaterialgoods,thetwologicswouldmerge.Insummary,opencooperativesarecharacterizedasfollows:
Thecooperativeisstructurallyaligned,throughitsinternalstatutesorregulations,toasocialgoalorcommongoodobjective,towhichprofit-makingissubordinated(profitisusedtoachievethesocialgoalorcommongood).
Thecooperativeisdemocraticallyco-managedandco-ownedbyitsvariousstakeholders,i.e.thekeysocialgroupsthatareaffectedbyitsactivities,servicesandproducts.
Thecooperativeactivelyco-producescommons,immaterialor
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material.
Thecooperativehasaglobalorientation.
Mutualcoordinationmechanismsinthenew‘ethical’
entrepreneurialcoalitions:Cybersin[14]redux?
Traditionaleconomicdebatesareoftenbetweentheoptionsofstate-initiatedplanningontheoneside,andtheallocationthroughmarketpricingsignalsontheotherhand.Butthesocialknowledgeeconomyshowstheincreasinglikelypathofathirdmethodofallocation,thatoftransparentmutualcoordination.Thefirstattempttosuchatypeofresource-basedeconomy,intheSovietUnionofthe1960’s,whentheconstructionofaproto-internetwasinitiated,iswelldocumentedinthebookbyFrancisSpufford,RedPlenty.Theeffortfailedbecausetheoppositionofthebureaucraticforcesinthestateapparatus.ThesecondattempttookplaceinAllende’sChileintheearlyseventies,undertheadviseandleadershipofcomplexitythinkerStaffordBeer,andwassuccessfullyusedonasmallerscaletoovercomeacripplingstrikeofthetransportationindustry,wherewith25%ofthefleet,andusingtelexesforcoordination,thestrikewasovercome.ThustheprojectCybersinwasborn,aprojecttomutuallyanddemocraticallycoordinateChileanindustry,buttheprojectwasdestroyedthroughthemilitarycoup,andtheeffectivebombingofitsheadquarters.
Nevertheless,undertheimpulseofthesocialknowledgecommunities,mutualcoordinationofcomplexactivitiesismakingaverystrongappearance,evenifitislimitedatpresenttotheproductionof‘immaterial’value,i.e.knowledgeproducts.Thisemergenceneverthelesshasimplicationsforatransitiontoanewtypeofeconomiccoordination,thatwillco-existwithbothstateplanningandtraditionalmarketpricingmechanisms.Indeed,thereally-existingsocialknowledgeeconomyofcommons-orientedpeerproductionoffreesoftware,opendesignandhardware,isknowntofunctionaccordingtotheprincipleofmutualcoordination,or“stigmergy”.Theopendesigncommunitiesthatalreadyexistconstructandcoordinatetheirconstructionofcommonpoolsofknowledge,code,anddesign,throughmutualsignalingsystems
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becausetheirinfrastructuresofcooperationarefullyopenandtransparent.Intheworldofphysicalproduction,wecanseeanemergenceofopensupplychainsandopenbookaccountingonamuchsmallerscale.Nevertheless,thereisahistoricalopportunityforanemergenceofmutualcoordinationofphysicalproduction,ifthe‘ethicalentrepreneurialcoalitions’,whichmayemergearoundthesocialknowledgeeconomy,decidetosharetheiraccountingandlogisticalinformationstreams,withinthosecoalitions.Inthisscenario,whichishypotheticalatpresentbutcouldbeanintegralpartofamaturep2p/commonsorientedsocialknowledgeeconomy,wewouldseethegradualemergenceofathirdwayforthecoordinatedallocationofresourcesforeconomicproduction.
Thehistoricalandpresentimportanceofmutualizationintimesofincreasingresourcescarcity
Discussion:Theissueofecosystemsustainability
Facedwiththegraveecologicalcrisissuchasclimatechangeandspeciesextinction,butalsointermsofimpendingresourcecrises,itisimportanttokeepthehistoricalperspectiveinmindofhowhumankindhasfacedsuchsystemiccrisesinthepast.Oneoftheparadoxesofglobalizedcapitalismisindeeditsrelianceoneconomiesofscale,whichareincontradictionwiththeneedsofthebalanceoftheecosystem.Inshort,economiesofscalecreatecompetitivenessthroughtheproductionofmoreunitsatlowercost,whichnecessitatesmoreenergyandmoreresourceusetobecompetitive.Whatisneededintimesofresourcescarcityistheoppositeapproach:economiesofscope,orinotherwords,“doingmorewiththesame”.Thisisexactlyhowpastcivilizationalcrisesweresolved.FacedwiththecrisisoftheRomanEmpire,whichwasalsoaglobalizedsystemfacedwitharesourcecrisis,medievalEuroperespondedwitharelocalizationofproductionthroughthefeudaldomains,withthemutualizationoflivelihoodsandproductionthroughthemonasticorders,andaEurope-wideopendesigncommunity,i.e.theunifiedcultureoftheCatholicChurchandtheexchangeanddistributionoftechnicalknowledgethroughthemonasticorders.VerysimilarresponsescanbeseeninJapanand
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China.Today,theresponseofthesectorsofsocietythataremostsensitivetothecombinedcrisesareverysimilar,i.e.themutualizationofknowledgethroughtheopensourcemovements,andthemutualizationofphysicalinfrastructuresthroughthe‘sharingeconomy’.Thustheshifttothesocialknowledgeeconomyisalsothevitalandappropriateresponsetothecrisesoftheecosystems.
Whyinnovationshouldbelocatedinopendesigncommunities
Thereareseveralreasonswhyitiscrucialtomovetowardsasystemofopeninnovationthatislocatedincommonpoolsofknowledge,codeanddesign,especiallyasitrelatestotheissueofsustainability.Thefirstandgeneralreasonisthatpatentingtechnologyresultsinunacceptabledelaysforinventionanddiffusion,asshownbythestudiescitedbyGeorgeDafermos.Intimesofclimatechange,speciesextinctionandotherbiosphericdangers,itwouldbehighlydamagingtokeepthedevelopmentanddiffusionofsuchinnovationsunderthecontrolofprivatemonopolies,ifnottoallowpatentedtechnologiestobeshelvedaltogetherforreasonsliketheprotectionoflegacysystemsormarketshare.Thesecondreasonisequallystructuralandsystem.WheninnovationislocatedincorporateR&Ddepartments,thedesignisalwaysinfluencedbymarketandartificialscarcityconsiderations.InprivateR&D,plannedobsolescenceisnotabug,butafeature,ageneralizedpractice.Bycontrast,opendesign,openhardware,opentechnologycommunitieslackanymotivationforplannedobsolescenceanddesignbytheirverynatureforinclusion,modularity,andsustainability.Aquickcheckofthe25+opensourcecarprojectsimmediatelyshowsthatallofthemhavethoughtaboutsustainabilityaspartofthedesignprocess.
Thus,opendesigncommunitieshaveamuchgreaterpotentialtodesigninherentlyforre-use,recycling,upcycling,circulareconomyprocesses,biodegradablematerial,interoperability,modularity,andotheraspectsthathavedirecteffectsonsustainability.Eachinnovationinthisareaisinstantlyavailableforglobalhumanitythroughopenaccesstothesharedopenpoolsofknowledge.Corporationsandmarketentitieswhichproduceandsellonthe
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basisofsuchdesigns,arenaturallyalignedtothesustainabilitywhichisinherentintheopendesignprocesses.Opendesignpoolscanbestrategicallyalliedtosustainablepracticesthatincreasethispotential.Forexample,byallyingitselfwiththe‘sharingeconomy’practicesofshareduseintermsofconsumptionpractices.
Opendistributedmanufacturingofopenhardwarecomeswithenormouscostsavings;itisestimatedthatopenhardwareisgenerallyproducedatoneeightofthecostofproprietaryhardware.Forcountriesembarkingonthisroad,thishasimportantimplicationsforthebalanceofpayment,theneo-colonialdependencyontheglobalizedneoliberalsystem.Thecost-savingsfreessubstantialresourcesthatcanbeinvestedinotherareasofdevelopment,toincreasethediffusionofaparticulargoodorservice,etc…Finally,intermsofproduction,thecombinationofopendesignwithdistributedmachinerycanorwillhaveatremendouseffectonthegeographyofproduction,byallowingarelocalizationofproductioninmicro-factories.Currently,studiesshowthatthetransportationofgoods,isthree-quartersoftherealecologicalcostofproduction.Manyofthesetransportationcostscanbeeliminatedbythestimulationoflocalanddomesticindustriesthatcombinethegeneralizationofthemicro-factorysystemwiththeglobalengineeringbyopendesigncommunities,underthegeneralmotto:‘what’sheavyislocal,what’slightisglobal’.
Theroleof‘idle-sourcing’andthesharingeconomy
Theemergenceofthesocialknowledgeeconomy,asaprocessofmutualizationofimmaterialresources,isalsoaccompaniedbytheemergenceofa‘sharingeconomy’,i.e.aprocessofmutualizationofmaterialresources.Thissharingeconomyisemergingasapartlycrisis-drivenresponsestotheglobaleconomiccrisis,andpartlybecausecurrentnetworkedtechnologiesdrasticallydiminishthecoordinationandtransactioncostsnecessarytomanagesuchmutualization.Inoneoftheearlierbooktreatmentsonthisemergence,i.e.RachelBotsman’s‘RiseofCollaborativeConsumption’,theauthordistinguishesthreemajorcategoriesofsharing:
ProductServiceSystemslikeBikesharingandCarsharing,based
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ona‘usagemindset’wherebyyoupayforthebenefitofaproduct–whatitdoesforyou-withoutneedingtoowntheproductoutright.
RedistributionMarketslikeFreecycleandeBay,usedorpre-ownedgoodsareredistributedfromwheretheyarenotneededtosomewhereorsomeonewheretheyare
CollaborativeLifestyleslikeCouchsurfing,andtheLendingClub:sharingandexchangeofresourcesandassetssuchastime,food,space,skills,andmoney.
Thesharingeconomyisanimportantresponsetoresourceandenergyscarcitychallenges,andinparticulartotheenormouswasteinmaterialresourcesthatistheresultofaprofit-drivenconsumptiveeconomy.Thesharingeconomyallowsmassiveidle-sourcing,i.e.there-useoflittleusematerialpossessions.Mutualizingcertaininfrastructures,likecar-sharingforexamples,allowsforsubstantialsavingsintheuseofenergyandmaterialresources,necessarytofulfillcertainfunctionsliketransportation.Thesharingeconomyisideallysupportedandenablebyasocialknowledgeeconomy,whichallowsopeninformationaboutidleresourcestobesharedacrossusercommunities.Itisimportanthowever,tolookattheownershipandgovernanceissuesunderpinningthisemergence.
Onepartofthesharingeconomyisdrivenbyprivatelyownedplatformsthatmonetizesuchidleresources;anotherpartofthesharingeconomyconsistofsocialandnon-profitinitiativesthataimfornon-monetarysharingofsuchresources.Thepartofthesharingeconomythatisclearlydrivenbyprivately-owned,profit-drivenplatformsthatactasintermediariesbetweenuserscanclearlyderailsomeoftheadvantages.Forexample,theuseofdis-aggregateddistributedlabor,whereisolatedfreelanceworkersarefacingademandsidethatisclearlyempoweredbytheplatformdesign,canexertadownwardtrendonwages.
Asocialknowledgepolicyshouldmakesurethatownershipandgovernanceformsdonotderailthefreesharingofknowledgeamongstallusers,andneedstomakesurethatprivateownershipof
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platformsdoesnotendangersuchpossibilities.However,manyoftheactivistforcesinthesharingeconomyareworkingforsociallyprogressivepolicies.ThisforexamplethecasefortheeBook“Guide”:Policies for Shareable Cities,co-producedbyShareablemagazineandtheSustainableEconomiesLawCenter.Otherpolicyproductions,likeforexamplethecampaignsofpeers.orgintheU.S.,aretheproductofanorganizationthatblurthesocialcontradictionsbetweentheusersandtheownersofthesharinginfrastructures.However,itremainsapriorityforatransitiontowardsasocialknowledgeeconomy,tosystematicallyenableandempowerthemutualizationofinfrastructuresthattheemergentsharingeconomyrepresents,whilematchingittoownershipandgovernanceformsthatincludetheusercommunities.
Ahistoricalopportunity:TheConvergenceofMaterial/TechnicalP2PInfrastructures,Digital/ImmaterialCommons,andCommons-OrientedGovernanceandOwnershipModels
Thetransitiontowardsasocialknowledgeeconomyistodayfavoredbyastrongconvergenceoftechnological,socialandtechnologicaltrendsand‘affordances’,i.e.technologicalpossibilitiesthatcanbeembracedbyemancipatorypoliticalandsocialforces.Thefirstisofcoursethepeertopeerlogicofopentechnicalinfrastructuresliketheinternet,whichallowforpermissionlessself-organizationandvaluecreationbyproductivecommunitiesthatcanoperatebothonalocalandglobalscale.Theinternetisineffectnotjustacommunicationmedium,butmoreproperlyaproductionmedium.Thesecondisthe‘distribution’ofthemeansofproductionthrough3DPrintingandothertrendsintheminiaturisationofmachinery.Thisallowsmuchlowerentrybarriersfortheself-organizationofacivicandcooperativeeconomy.Thisisthe‘InternetofManufacturing’.
Theso-calledSharingEconomyallowsforthemutualizationofcriticalinfrastructuresandthe‘idle-sourcing’ofisolatedandscatteredresources.TheInternetofThingsallowsforamorefine-grainedcontrolandtheautonomyandinterconnectionofobjects.
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Thethirdisthedistributionoffinancialcapital,throughcrowdfunding,sociallendingandotherpossibilities,whichallowamorefine-grainedallocationofinvestmentsbycitizen’sthemselves.ThisthetheInternetofEthicalFinancialCapital.Thefourthisthedevelopmentofrenewabledistributedenergy,whichallowsforanInternetofEnergy,andenergeticautonomyatmorelocallevels,suchasvillage,neighborhoodandevenhousehold.Freesoftware,openknowledge,opendesignshowthepossibilitiesfortheincreasednetworkingandmutualizationofimmaterialresources.Thethreeotherformsofdistributionpointtoapotentialforthenetworkingandmutualizationofphysicalresources.
Inotherwords,wehaveagreatpotentialtoengineeraconvergenceofboththeimmaterialandmaterialcommons.Thuswecanenvisagethesocialknowledgeeconomyasenablingavastseriesofinterconnectedknowledgecommons,foreveryfieldofhumanactivity,butwhichisenabledbothbymaterialconditions(theinternetofmanufacturingandenergy),andimmaterialconditions(metrics,legalframeworks,etc…).However,aswehaveshowninourintroductiontothevalueregimes,suchcommonscanstillbethesubjectofan‘extractivismofknowledge’whichbenefitsprivilegedeliteplayers.Andaswehaveshowninourdistinctionsregardingtechnologyregimes,thep2ptechnicalaffordancescanbeembeddedinvalue-sensitivedesignthatprivilegescertainplayers,liketheownersoftheplatforms.
Thegreatdangeristhereforethatwhatwedisintermediateanddecentralizewithonehand,canbere-intermediatedbynewdominantplayersthroughtheotherhand.Thepromiseofthesocialknowledgeeconomywillthereforenotberealizedwithoutprofoundchangesintheregimesofpropertyandgovernance.Thisiswhymemustinsistthatthesocialknowledgeeconomy,i.e.commons-orientedpeerproductionbyautonomousproductivecommunities,goeshandinhandwithbothpeerpropertyandpeergovernance.Today,socialmedialikeFacebook,searchengineslikeGoogle,areinthehandsofanewtypeof‘netarchical’oligopolies.Manyenablingplatforms,suchasthoseforcrowdfundingandsociallending,aremerelyformsofdistributedcapitalism,functioninglikereversemarketmechanisms(suchastheKickstartercrowdfundingplatform),thatdonotcreateandsustaincommons.Hence,the
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distributionofthemeansofknowledgecreationanddiffusion,ofproductionmachineryandfinancialcapital,ofdistributedenergyandofthevitallandresources,needstobematchedbydistributedandcommonownershipandland.Whiletheimmaterialcommonsofnon-rivalandshareablegoodscanbeprotectedbyopenlicenses,thematerialproductionresultingfromthemshouldtakeplacethroughethicalentitiesthatarethepropertyofthevalueproducersthemselves.
Thereistodayanemergenceofawiderangeofdynamicgovernanceandpropertyregimes,thatcanguaranteedistributionanddemocratizationofdecision-makingpower.GovernanceinnovationssuchastheViableSystemsModel,sociocracyandholocracy,havebeendevelopedtoallowfordemocraticdecision-makinginproductivecommunities;DynamicpropertyregimesasastheFairSharesModelofEnterprise,SolidarityCoops,CommunityLandTrusts,andmanyothers,havebeendevelopedtocommon-izeanddistributeproperty.Thelegalandregulatoryframeworksofthesocialknowledgeeconomyshouldfacilitatethedevelopmentandchoiceofsuchmodalities.ThekeyistoenableapluralisticCommonwealthrichinchoices,thathaveaskeyrequirementbothproductivedemocracyandtheintegrationofenvironmentalandsocialexternalities.Aswehaveseenaboveinourintroductiontofourdistinctsocio-technicalregimes,p2pinfrastructuresandpracticescanbeembeddedinnetarchicalmodels(hierarchicalcontrol,ownershipandgovernanceoftheenabledp2psociallogic);distributedcapitalism(monetisingofidleandshareableresources),butalsoinlocalcommunityandglobalcommonsorientedpropertyandgovernanceregimes.Ourrecommendationisforthecreationoftwoinstitutionsthatcaninsuredemocraticownershipandgovernancewithinthesphereoftheimmaterialandmaterialcommons:
*TheInstituteforPluralisticOwnership
Thisinstitute,incooperationwiththeInstitutefortheCommonspresentedabove,assistsindividualsandcommunitiesandactorsofthesocialknowledgeeconomytoknowtheownershipalternativesthatareavailable,facilitatesaccesstothatknowledge,tolegal
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enablement,etc…ItcanbemodeledonsuccessfulcivicinitiativesliketheSustainableEconomicsLawCenterinSanFrancisco,undertheleadershipofJanelleOrsi;andoftheShareLexmovementinEurope.
*TheInstituteforPluralisticGovernance
Thisinstitute,incooperationwiththeInstitutefortheCommonspresentedabove,assistsindividuals,communitiesandactorsofthesocialknowledgeeconomytoknowthegovernancealternativesthatareavailable,facilitatesaccesstothatknowledge,tolegalenablement,etc…Ithelpsfindtraininginthehumancapabilitiesthatfavormulti-stakeholderformsofgovernance.
ElementsofIdealizedandIntegrativeFullTransitionPlantoamatureSocialKnowledgeEconomy
Thisisaverysyntheticsummaryofthelogicofthetransitionstrategy
Analysis
1.Underconditionsofproprietary(industrial)capitalism
Workerscreatevalueintheirprivatecapacityasprovidersoflabor
Deskillingofworkersproductionknowledge;creationofmanagerialandengineeringlayerswhichmanagecollectiveproductiononbehalfoftheownersofcapital
CodifiedknowledgeisproprietaryandthevalueiscapturedasIPrent
Ownersofcapitalcaptureandrealizethemarketvalue,partialredistributionintheformofwages
Underconditionsofcapital-laborbalance,thestateredistributes
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wealthtotheworkersasconsumersandcitizens
Undercontemporaryconditionsoflaborweakness,thestateredistributesthewealthtothefinancialsectorandcreatesconditionsofdebtdependenceforthemajorityofthepopulation
2.Underconditionsofemergingpeerproductionunderthedominationoffinancialand‘cognitive’,‘netarchical’capitalism
Civicvoluntarycontributors,paidlaborandindependententrepreneurscreatevaluecodifiedincommonpoolsofknowledge,code,anddesign
Capitalownersrealizeandcapturethemarketvalueofbothcontributorsandlabor;proprietarynetworkandcollaborationplatformscaptureandrealizetheattentionvalueofthesharers/contributors
Capitalownersprofitfromthebenefitsofdisaggregateddistributedlabor(crowdsourcing)
Capitalco-createdthroughthefinancingoflaborandplatforms,thecontinuedaccumulationofcommonpoolsofknowledge,codeanddesign;underconditionsofprecarityforthevoluntaryciviccontributorsandunsupportedcommons-orientedentrepreneurship
Commonsaremanagedbyfor-benefitinstitutionswhichreflectthebalanceofinfluencebetweencontributors,labor,andcapitalowners,butcontinuetoexpandthecommonpools;thecommonssectorlackssolidaritymechanismstocopewithprecarity;civilsocietyisstillderivatetothemarketandstatesectors
Thestateweakensitspublicserviceandsolidarityfunctions,infavorofitsrepressivefunctionsandsubsidizesfinancialcapital;thestateonlyminimallyco-createstheconditionsforcommons-orientedpeerproduction,andredistributiontofinancialcapitalcontinues
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3.Underconditionsofstrongpeerproductionundercivicdominance
Civicvoluntarycontributorsandautonomouscooperativelaborcreatecodifiedvaluethroughcommonpools;laborandcivicreskillingoccurthroughcommons-orienteddistributedmanufacturingwhichplacesvaluecreatorsatthehelmofdistributedmanufacturingandotherformsofvaluecreation
Commonscontributorscreatecooperativecommons-orientedmarketentitiesthatsustainthecommonsandtheircommunitiesofcontributors
Cooperativeandothercommons-friendlymarketentitiesco-createcommonpoolsbutengageinthecooperativeaccumulationonbehalfoftheirmembers;commonscontributionsarecodifiedintheirlegalandgovernancestructures;Creationofentrepreneurialcoalitionsandphyles(structurednetworksoffirmsworkingaroundjointcommonpoolstosustaincommons-producingcommunities).
Societalmutualcoordinationofproductionthroughopensupplychainsdirectthemarketactivities.
Thecommons-enablingfor-benefitinstitutionsbecomeacorecivicformforthegovernanceofcommonpools;theassociatedmarketentitiescreatesolidaritymechanismsandincomeforthepeerproducersandcommoners,supportedbythePartnerState.
Thestate,dominatedbythecivic/commonssectorsbecomesaPartnerState,whichcreatesandsustainsthecivicinfrastructurenecessarytoenableandempowerautonomoussocialproduction.
Themarketbecomesamoralandethicaleconomy,orientedaroundcommonsproductionandmutualcoordination,supportedbythePartnerStatefunctions.
Themarketsectorisdominatedbycooperative,commons-
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orientedlegal,governance,andownershipforms;theremainingprofit-maximizingentitiesarereformedtorespectenvironmentalandsocialexternalities,includingredistributionofextracted‘commons-benefits’.
Governancemechanismsarereformedtowardscommons-orientationandmulti-stakeholdergovernancemodels;ownershipmodelsarereformedfromextractivetogenerativemodels.
ThePartnerStatemodelrenewspublicserviceprovision,solidaritymechanismsandsocialcarethroughthecommonificationofpublicservicesandpublic-commonspartnerships.
Socialredistributiontakesplacethroughbasicincomeprovisionsandreductionofnecessarylaborparticipationtocreateconditionsforciviccontributionsandacontributoryeconomy.
TransitionDynamic
TheState
ThestatebecomesaPartnerState,whichaimstoenableandempowerautonomoussocialproduction,whichitalsoregulatesinthecontextofcommongoodconcerns
Thestatestrivestomaximalopennessandtransparency
Thestatesystematizesparticipation,deliberation,andreal-timeconsultationwiththecitizens
Thesociallogicmovesfromownership-centrictocitizen-centric
Thestatede-bureaucratizesthroughthecommonificationofpublicservicesandpublic-commonspartnerships
Publicservicejobsareconsideredasacommonpoolresourceandparticipationisextendedtothewholepopulation
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Representativedemocracyisextendedthroughparticipatorymechanisms(participatorylegislation,participatorybudgeting,etc…)
Representativedemocracyisextendedthroughonlineandofflinedeliberationmechanisms
Representativedemocracyisextendedthroughliquidvoting(real-timedemocraticconsultationsandprocedures,coupledtoproxyvotingmechanisms)
Taxationofproductivelabor,entrepreneurshipandethicalinvestingisminimized;taxationoftheproductionofsocialandenvironmentalgoodsisminimized;taxationofspeculativeunproductiveinvestmentsisaugmented;taxationonunproductiverentalincomeisaugmented;taxationofnegativesocialandenvironmentalexternalitiesisaugmented
Thestatesustainsciviccommons-orientedinfrastructuresandethicalcommons-orientedmarketplayers
Thestatereformsthetraditionalcorporatesectortominimizesocialandenvironmentalexternalities
Thestateengagesindebt-freepublicmonetarycreationandsupportsastructureofspecializedcomplementarycurrencies
TheEthicalEconomy
Creationofacommonsandcommongoodorientedsocial/ethical/civic/solidarityeconomy
Ethicalmarketplayerscoalescearoundcommonsofproductiveknowledge,eventuallyusingpeerproductionandcommons-orientedlicensestosupportthesocial-economicsector
Ethicalmarketplayersintegratecommongoodconcernsanduser-drivenandworker-drivenmultistakeholderintheirgovernancemodels
Ethicalmarketplayersmovefromextractivetogenerativeforms
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ofownership;open,commons-orientedethicalcompanyformatsareprivileged
Ethicalmarketplayerspracticeopenbookaccountingandopensupplychainstoaugmentnon-marketcoordinationofproduction
EthicalmarketplayerscreateaterritorialandsectoralnetworkofChamberofCommonsassociationstodefinetheircommonneedsandgoalsandinterfacewithcivilsociety,commonersandthepartnerstate
WiththehelpfromthePartner-State,ethicalmarketplayerscreatesupportstructuresforopencommercialization,whichmaintainandsustainthecommons
Ethicalmarketplayersinterconnectwithglobalproductivecommonscommunities(opendesigncommunities)andwithglobalproductiveassociations(phyles)whichprojectethicalmarketpoweronaglobalscale
Theethicalmarketplayersadopta1to8wagedifferentialandminimumandmaximumwagelevelsareset
Themainstreamcommercialsectorisreformedtominimizenegativesocialandenvironmentalexternalities;incentivesareprovidedthataimforaconvergencebetweenthecorporateandsolidarityeconomy
Hybrideconomicforms,likefairtrade,socialentrepreneurship,B-Corporationsareencouragedtoobtainsuchconvergence
Distributedmicrofactoriesfor(g)localizedmanufacturingondemandarecreatedandsupported,inordertosatisfylocalneedsforbasicgoodsandmachinery
Institutesforthesupportofproductiveknowledgearecreatedonaterritorialandsectoralbasis
Educationisalignedtotheco-creationofproductiveknowledgeinsupportofthesocialeconomyandtheopencommonsof
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productiveknowledge
TheCommonsSector
Creationofcommonsinfrastructuresforbothimmaterialandmaterialgoods;societyisseenasaseriesofinterlockingcommons,thataresupportedbyanethicalmarketeconomyandaPartnerStatethatprotectsthecommongoodandcreatessupportivecivicinfrastructures
LocalandsectoralcommonscreatecivilalliancesofthecommonstointerfacewiththeChamberoftheCommonsandthePartnerState
Interlockingfor-benefitassociations(KnowledgeCommonsFoundations)enableandprotectthevariouscommons
SolidarityCoopsformpublic-commonspartnershipsinalliancewiththePartnerStateandtheEthicalEconomysectorrepresentedbytheChamberofCommons
Naturalcommonsaremanagedbypublic-commonspartnershipandbasedoncivicmembershipinCommonsTrusts
Politicalreconstructionofsocialmovementsinaconjunctureofpost-industrialtransformation
Theshifttoanopenknowledge-basedcommonssocietyalsocruciallydependsonthereconfigurationofpolitics.Thissectionaimstobeagenericblueprintforre-constitutionofpoliticalforcesaroundapro-commonsagenda,basedonabottom-upprocess:Theproposalistocreatethreeinstitutionalcoalitions,twofordomesticuse(local,regional,national)andonethataimstoplayaroleinreconstitutingglobalgovernance(supra-regionalandglobal):
*The‘local’civic/politicalinstitution:TheAllianceoftheCommons
Anallianceofthecommonsisanalliance,meetingplaceandnetworkofp2p-commonsorientednetworks,associations,places;
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whodonothaveeconomicrationales.Thesealliancescanbetopical,local,transnational,etc…AnexampleistheinitiativeParisCommunsUrbainswhichisattemptingtocreateacommonplatformforurbancommonsintiativesintheParisregion;anotherParisian/FrenchexampleisthefreeculturalnetworkLibreSavoirs,whichisdevelopingasetofpolicyproposalsarounddigitalrights.(bothexampleswerecommunicatedtomebyLionelMaurel).Anallianceofthecommonsisameetingplaceandplatformtoformulatepolicyproposalsthatenhancecivicinfrastructuresforthecommons.Anallianceofthecommons,could,incooperationwiththeChamberofCommons(seeinfra)orautonomously,produceasocialchartertoreconstitutepoliticalforcesaroundapro-commonspoliticalagenda.
*The‘local’political-economyinstitution:TheChamberoftheCommons
Inanalogywiththewell-knownchambersofcommercewhichworkontheinfrastructureforfor-profitenterprise,theCommonschamberexclusivelycoordinatesfortheneedsoftheemergentcoalitionsofcommons-friendlyethicalenterprises(thefor-benefit,missionorpurpose-driven,ethical/solidarity/socialeconomyactorsconcernedwiththecommongoodandnotprofitorcapitalaccumulation),butwithaterritorialfocus.Theiraimistouncovertheconvergentneedsofthenewcommonsenterprisesandtointerfacewithterritorialpowerstoexpressandobtaintheirinfrastructural,policyandlegalneeds.Incooperationwiththecivicallianceofthecommonsdiscussedabove,theChambercanproducesocialcharterstoreconstitutepoliticsaroundtheprioritiesofacommons-orientedethicaleconomy.
*Theglobaleconomicinstitution:theP2P/CommonsGloba-local«Phyle»
Aphyle(asoriginallyproposedbylasindias.net)isacoalitionofcommons-oriented,community-supportiveethicalenterpriseswhichtradeandexchangeinthemarkettocreatelivelihoodsforcommonersandpeerproducersengagedinsocialproduction.Theuseofapeerproductionlicencekeepsthecreatedexchangevalue
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withinthesphereofthecommonsandstrengthenstheexistenceofamoreautonomouscounter-economywhichrefusesthedestructivelogicofprofit-maximisationandinsteadworkstoincreasebenefitsfortheirown,butalsotheemergingglobalcommons.Phylescreatedintegratedeconomiesaroundthecommons,thatrenderthemmoreautonomousandinsurethesocialreproductionofitsmembers.Hyperproductiveglobalphylesthatgeneratewell-beingfortheirmemberswillgraduallycreateacounterpowertothehithertodominantMNO’s.Phylesarenecessarytoprojectethicaleconomicpowerbeyondthenation-stateintothesphereofglobalgovernancethatispresentlydominatedbymultinationalprivatefor-profitcompanies.
*Inconclusion:
Inshort,weneedanallianceofthecommonstoprojectcivilandpoliticalpowerandinfluenceateverylevelofsociety;weneedphylestostrengthenoureconomicautonomyfromtheprofit-maximizingdominantsystem;andweneedaChamberoftheCommonstoachieveterritorialpolicy;legalandinfrastructuralconditionsforthealternative,humanandnature-friendlypoliticaleconomytothrive.Neitheraloneissufficient,buttogethertheycouldbeapowerfultriadforthenecessaryphasetransition.
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ReferencesArrowK.(1962)‘EconomicWelfareandtheAllocationofResourcesforInvention’.InArrow,K.(Ed.)TheRateandDirectionofInventiveActivity:EconomicandSocialFactors(pp.609-625).PrincetonUniversityPressArvidsson,AdamandPeitersen,Nicolai(2013).TheEthicalEconomy.RebuildingValueAftertheCrisis.ColumbiaUniversityPress.Barandiarán,XabierE.&Vázquez,Daniel(2013).SumakYachay.DevenirSociedaddelConocimientoComúnyAbierto.DesigningtheFLOKSociety.v.1.5.2.Belfanti,Carlo(2004)‘Guilds,Patents,andtheCirculationofTechnicalKnowledge:NorthernItalyduringtheEarlyModernAge’.TechnologyandCulture45(3):569-589Berners-Lee,T.(1999)WeavingtheWeb.TexereBoldrin,M.,Levine,D.K.&Nuvolari,A.(2008)‘DoPatentsEncourageorHinderInnovation?TheCaseoftheSteamEngine’.TheFreemanOct.,pp.14-17Boldrin,M.&Levine,D.K.(2013)‘TheCaseAgainstPatents’.JournalofEconomicPerspectives27(1):3-22Brec,E.(2008)‘NIHilismandOtherInnovationPoison’.MSDNBlogs,Nov1.Retrievedfromhttp://blogs.msdn.com/b/eric_brechner/archive/2008/11/01/nihilism-and-other-innovation-poison.aspxBurrough,Xtine(2012)NetWorks,Routledge.Dosi,G.,Marengo,L.&Pasquali,C.(2006)‘Howmuchshouldsocietyfuelthegreedofinnovators?:Ontherelationsbetweenappropriability,opportunitiesandratesofInnovation’.ResearchPolicy35(8):1110-1121Gates,B.(1991)‘ChallengesandStrategy’.Memo,MicrosoftCorporation,May16.Retrievedfromhttp://www.std.com/obi/Bill.Gates/Challenges.and.StrategyGilfillan,S.C.(1935)Inventingtheship.FollettpublishingGilfillan,S.C.(1970)SociologyofInvention.MITPressHall,B.H.&Ziedonis,R.H.(2007)‘AnEmpiricalAnalysisofPatentLitigationintheSemiconductorIndustry’.UniversityofCaliforniaatBerkeleyWorkingPaper.Retrievedfrom
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http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.69.5271Levin,R.C.,Klevorick,A.K.,Nelson,R.R.&Winter,S.G.(1987)‘AppropriatingtheReturnsfromIndustrialResearchandDevelopment’.BrookingsPapersonEconomicActivity3(SpecialIssueonMicroeconomics):783–820Levy,S.(1984)Hackers:HeroesoftheComputerRevolution.NewYork:AnchorPress/DoubledayMann,C.C.&Plummer,M.L.(1991)TheAspirinWars:Money,Medicine,and100YearsofRampantCompetition.NewYork:KnopfMoser,P.(2013)‘PatentsandInnovation:EvidencefromEconomicHistory’.JournalofEconomicPerspectives27(1):23-44Nuvolari,A.(2004)TheMakingofSteamPowerTechnology:AStudyofTechnicalChangeduringtheBritishIndustrialRevolution.PhDDissertation,EindhovenUniversityofTechnologyPearce,J.M.(2012a)‘Physics:Makenanotechnologyresearchopen-source’.Nature491:519–521Pearce,J.M.(2012b)‘Thecaseforopensourceappropriatetechnology’.Environment,DevelopmentandSustainability14(3):425-431Scholz,Trebor(2012).CheaperbytheDozen:AnIntroductiontoCrowdsourcing,pp.47-54.Bookchapterfrom:XtineBurrough,NetWorks,RoutledgeScotchmer,S.(1991)‘StandingontheShouldersofGiants:CumulativeResearchandthePatentLaw’.JournalofEconomicPerspectives5(1):29-41Wark,McKenzie(2004).TheHackerManifesto.HarvardUniversityPress.
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RemarksPleaseseeDiscussion
1. ↑PlanNacionaldelBuenVivir2013-2017,p.19:“LaRevolucióndelConocimiento,queproponelainnovación,lacienciaylatecnología,comofundamentosparaelcambiodelamatrizproductiva,concebidacomounaformadistintadeproduciryconsumir.Estatransiciónllevaráalpaísdeunafasededependenciadelosrecursoslimitados(finitos)aunaderecursosilimitados(infinitos),comosonlaciencia,latecnologíayelconocimiento.”
2. ↑SpeechattheCampusPartyevent,https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Zjajy-ia-SE
3. ↑Hereisarelateddefinition:“Semiocapitalismoeselmododeproducciónenelcuallaacumulacióndecapitalsehaceesencialmentepormediodeunaproducciónyunaacumulacióndesignos:bienesinmaterialesqueactúansobrelamentecolectiva,sobrelaatención,laimaginaciónyelpsiquismosocial.Graciasalatecnologíaelectrónica,laproduccióndevieneelaboraciónycirculacióndesignos.Estosuponedosconsecuenciasimportantes:quelasleyesdelaeconomíaterminanporinfluirelequilibrioafectivoypsíquicodelasociedady,porotrolado,queelequilibriopsíquicoyafectivoquesedifundeenlasociedadterminaporactuarasuvezsobrelaeconomía.”FrancoBerardi(Bifo);Retrievedathttp://www.lavaca.org/notas/quien-es-y-como-piensa-bifo/)
4. ↑Thissubjectiscoveredbythecompanionpaper:Torres,Jenny.OpenTechnicalInfrastructures(stream4)-FreeSoftware.Retrievedathttps://floksociety.co-ment.com/text/pW2QAIp4w79/view/
5. ↑Thisresearchresult,communicatedorally,isasyetunpublishedbutisprefiguredinthefollowingpublication:TreborScholz,“CheaperbytheDozen:AnIntroductiontoCrowdsourcing,”pp.47-54;achapterfromXtineBurrough,NetWorks,Routledge,2012.
6. ↑Text,detailsanddiscussionviahttp://p2pfoundation.net/Peer_Production_License
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7. ↑Ascientificbibliographyonstigmergyisavailablehereathttp://p2pfoundation.net/Stigmergy#Bibliography
8. ↑HumanizingtheEconomy:cooperativesintheAgeofCapital:http://www.newsociety.com/Books/H/Humanizing-the-Economy
9. ↑Formoredetails,seethepaperbyJohnRestakis:Institutionsforsocialknowledgeeconomy(stream3)-SocialKnowledgeandtheSocialEconomy;retrievedathttps://floksociety.co-ment.com/text/HBlnwquAi25/view/
10. ↑Theruling,FCC14-61isavailableathttp://transition.fcc.gov/Daily_Releases/Daily_Business/2014/db0515/FCC-14-61A1.pdf
11. ↑http://p2pfoundation.net/What%27s_Wrong_with_the_Current_Monetary_System#7._Money_as_debt_contributes_to_growth_pressure.
12. ↑Source:ExcerptsfromatextpreparedbyTommasoFattoriaspartofthebook-project“ProtectingFutureGenerationsThroughCommons”,organizedbyDirectorateGeneralofSocialCohesionoftheCouncilofEuropeincollaborationwiththeInternationalUniversityCollegeofTurin.Thetextwillbepublishedsoonin“TrendsinSocialCohesion”Series,CouncilofEuropepublications.
13. ↑Anexampleofsuchfinancingisthe‘ArtisticVoucherSystem’,whichhasbeeninscribedinthe‘OrganicCodeforSocialKnowlege’(COESC+1)
14. ↑Cybersynwasademocraticplanning/mutualcoordinationprojectforChileanindustry,undertakenbyStaffordBeerforthegovernmentofSalvadorAllende,youcanfinddetailshereathttp://p2pfoundation.net/Cybersyn
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AcknowledgementsTheCommonsTransitionPlanisanon-regionspecificadaptationofthe1stCommonsTransitionplandevelopedbyMichelBauwensforEcuador’sFLOKSocietyproject.TheEcuadorianplanwasitselfbuiltontheoriginalFLOKProposal“SumakYachay.DevenirSociedaddelConocimientoComúnyAbierto.DesigningtheFLOKSociety.v.1.5.2.ByXabierE.Barandiarán&DanielVázquez,2013.”,i.e.DesigningtheFLOKSociety,byXabierE.Barandiarán&DanielVázquez.TheFLOKSocietyteamleaderswereDanielVázquezandXabierBarandiarán,withMichelBauwens,asresearchdirector,assistedbyfiveresearchstreamcoordinatorsandtheassistantcoordinatorDanielAraya.Buildingonthoseproposals,theplanspecificallycallsforanintegrativeor‘wholistic’approach,whichgoesbeyondtechnology,andcallsformeasuresthattakeintoaccountdifferentaspectsofsocialchangethatneedtooccurifnotsimultaneously,thenatleastlinkedthroughapositivefeedbackloop,inwhichvariousmeasuresreinforceeachother.Italsobroadensanddeepensthecallbylookingatcommons-basedinfrastructuresnotjustforknowledge,butforothersocialandproductiveactivities.
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PublicPolicyforaSocialEconomybyJohnRestakis
“Thefundamentalpremiseofdemocracyisthatgovernmentsareaccountabletotheircitizensandthatgovernmentpoliciesserveandprotectthecommoninterest.Anirreplaceableaspectofthiscommoninterestarethecommonsthemselvesthatunderlietheoperations,attitudes,andskillsthatmakepossiblethecollectiveformsoflivingandactingthatdefinethesocialandsolidarycharacterofahealthycivilsociety.Itfollowsthatunlessthecollectivevaluesofcivilsocietyandthecommongoodcandeterminehoweconomiesoperate,thepresentmodelofpoliticaleconomywilldonomorethantinkerwithasystemthatisindireneedofradicalreform.ThePartnerStateisonewayofusheringinthisreform.”
Overthelast20years,therehasarisenaglobalinterestintherolethatthesocialeconomyplaysintheeconomicandsociallifeofnations.Thisinteresthasspawnedagrowingliteratureonthenatureandroleofthesocialeconomy,itssizeandcomposition,itsoperatingrulesandorganizingprinciples,itsrelevancefortheeconomicandsocialwellbeingofsocieties,anditsrelationtothestateontheonehandandtheprivatesectorontheother.
Increasingly,thesocialeconomyisbeingviewedastherepositoryofthosesocial,cultural,andpoliticalvaluesthataremostrelevantforprotectingandadvancingthecollectivegood.Thesevaluesincludetheideaofreciprocityasthedrivingforceofsocialeconomyorganizations,thepursuitofsocialaimsthroughthepracticeofmutuality,andthepromotionofsocialsolidaritythroughtheadvancementofsocialandeconomicequity.
Forthesereasons,andasaresultoftheupheavalsbroughtonbyfreemarketcapitalism,thesocialeconomyisalsoemergingasacomplementtothestateforthesocialwelfareofcitizens–arolemadeincreasinglynecessarybytheabrogationofthisdutyonthe
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partofgovernments.Theeconomiccrisisandthedominationofneoliberalideologyhavethuscombinedtothrustthesocialeconomyintoahistoricspotlightandtoplayacentralroleinthereconfigurationofthebodypoliticofnationstheworldover.
However,thesocialeconomyisfarmorethantheapplicationofco-operativeorself-helpstrategiesoperatingatthemarginsoftheeconomytohelpthepoorasissometimesbelieved.Noristhesocialeconomymerelyacollectionofeconomicself-defensemeasuresagainstthefailuresanddepredationsofthe“freemarket”economy.Rather,thesocialeconomyrepresentsawhollydifferentconceptionofeconomicsinwhichmarketforcesandeconomicpracticeservesocialorcollectiveinterests,ratherthanjustthoseofcapitalortheindividual.Thesocialeconomyisthetestinggroundforakindofeconomicsthatcanactuallydeliveronthepromisesofsocialjustice,equity,andcollectivewellbeingthataremanifestlybeyondthecapacityofthecapitalistparadigm.
TheCaseofEcuador
AllthesequestionshavecomeintotheforegroundinEcuador,wherethegovernmenthasadoptedtheconceptofBuen Vivir,or“GoodLiving”asthecenterpieceofitsNationalPlanandits(proclaimed)politicaloutlook.1Itiswithreferencetothisplanthatthispaperwasoriginallypenned,withtheintentionofshowinghowthesocialeconomy,anditsrelationtothestateandtothequestionofgovernance,playsacentralroleinrealizinganalternativetothemarketlogicofneo-liberalismthroughtheestablishmentofasocialknowledgeeconomy2astheframeworkforanewkindofpoliticaleconomy.This,inessence,wastheaimoftheFLOKSocietyProject(Free/LibreOpenKnowledge)launchedin2013.
AsenvisagedinEcuador’sNationalPlan,Buen Vivirrelatestoamodelofpoliticaleconomythatopposesneo-liberalismandattemptsauniquebalancebetweenfreeandopenaccesstoknowledge;aninformedandmobilizedcitizenry;aformofdecentralized,democratic,andlocallyaccountablegovernance;aneconomicandpublicpolicyinservicetothecollectivegood;andaboveallrespectandstewardshipoftherightsofnatureas
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guaranteedbytheconstitution.
ThispaperrelatestheideasandpolicyproposalsdevelopedforEcuadortoalargerframeworkforthepromotionofsocialeconomyprinciplesandtheconceptofthePartnerStateascomponentsofaradicalre-visioningofpoliticaleconomyingeneral.Inourview,thesearetwofundamentalelementsforunderstandinghoweconomicscanbereconnectedtosocialvaluesandtothepursuitofthecommongoodasthefoundationofanew,ethicalmodelofpoliticaleconomy.TheworkundertakeninEcuadorforthearticulationandrealizationofasocialknowledgeeconomy3andtheaimsoftheNationalPlanhaveauniversalrelevanceandassuch,thecaseofEcuadorservesasavaluablespringboardandreferencefortheexplorationofaradicalalternativetoneo-liberalismasthegoverningparadigmforeconomicandsocialdevelopment.
WhileEcuadorwastheinitialreferenceforthiswork,inthisbroadercontext,weexaminehowboldpublicpolicycanplacethesocialeconomyinacentralrolefortransformingtheproductivematrixofacountry.Whetherwearespeakingoftheprovisionofhumanandsocialservices,orofthematerialproductionofgoodsandservicesinthecommercialeconomy,wearguethatwithintheprevailingneo-liberalparadigmthelogicandorganizationofthesocialeconomyisfundamentaltoanymeaningfultransformationofanation’seconomicstructure.Assuch,thesocialeconomyandthePartnerStateappearascentralelementsinanytransitiontoaCommonsandCo-operative-BasedEconomy.
Incontrasttoneoliberalism,inwhichcapital(withthehelpofcompliantgovernments)underminesanddisplacesthestatethroughthecolonizationandprivatizationofthepublicdomain,weexaminehowgovernmentscanstrengthenthesocialeconomythroughthecreationofpoliciesthatreinforcethecivicprinciplesandpurposesthatarethebasisofpublicgoodsandservices.
InEcuador,wherethestateisplayinganincreasingroleinthenations’bodypolitic,thisrequiresawhollynewrelationshipbetweenthestateandcivilsociety.Itisarelationshipthatembodiesfundamentalprinciplesofsharedpower,ofcollaborationandco-constructionofpublicpolicy,andthecreationofnewinstitutions
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capableoftransitioningtoamodelofPartnerStateinwhichthestateistheenablerandpromoterofcivicvaluesandthecommongoodastheprimaryaimsofgovernment.Butthesearealsoprinciplesthatapplyequallytocountries–manyofthemintheindustrializednorth–inwhichthestateisbeingdiminishedandwherepublicservicesarebeingprivatizedandcolonizedbycapital.
Acentralpurposeofthisstrategyistoalsoaddressthedependenceofcivilsocietyinstitutionsongovernment.Thisisespeciallytruewithrespecttotheproductionofhumanandsocialservices.Inthisarena,anddespiteitsformaldistinctionsfromthestate,thesocialeconomyremainsadependentsector–inmanywaysaclientsectorofthestate.Atatimewhengovernmentsinmanycountrieshaveallbuterasedthedistinctionsbetweentheprivateandpublicsectors,thiscontinuingdependenceisafatalweaknessthatallowscapitalintereststocontinuetheirdominationofpublicpolicyandtoperpetuateaneconomicsystemthatissubservienttotheseinterests.Thisisonereasonwhyspecialattentionispaidtothevitalareaofsocialgoodsandservices.
Thisisnottosaythatsocialeconomyenterprisesoperatinginthecommercialeconomyaretobeignored.Socialeconomyenterprisessuchasco-operativesareabsolutelyvitaltotheeconomicinterestsofsmallproducersintheagriculturaleconomy,toartisansandcrafters,tocommunity-basedfinancialservicessuchascreditunionsandcommunitybanks,andincreasinglytotheemergenceofimmaterialgoodsandservicesprovidedbydigitaltechnologythroughtheoperationofpeer-to-peernetworksthatarealsobasedonco-operativeandcommonsvaluesandpractices.
Oneofourkeyargumentsisthatifthesocialeconomyistomatureasanindependentsocialandpoliticalforce,thenatruesocialmarketcorrespondingtotheuniqueroleofthesocialeconomyasaforcefordemocratizingtheeconomyisfundamental.Onlyinthiswaymighttheoverwhelmingpowerandinfluenceofthecapitalistmarketbebroughtintobalancewithcivicvalues.Astrongandautonomoussocialeconomybasedonreciprocity,mutuality,andcivicvaluesmakespossiblealsothepoliticalpowernecessarytonegotiateanewsocialcontractforapostneo-liberalage.
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TowardaNewParadigm–BeyondtheWelfareState
Intheglobalsouth,thequestionsconcerningthetraditionaloperationsofthewelfarestatearequitedifferentfromthoseoftheindustrializednorth.Foraverylongperiodoftime,countrieslikeEcuadorsufferedfromaweakstateinfrastructurethatwasunabletoprovidethekindsofsocialservicesthatcitizenshadcometoexpectintheindustrializedstates.Theideaofthewelfarestatewasstillawork-in-progress–somethingtobeaimedforinthefutureasopposedtobeingdismantledinthepresent.
Inthesecases,wherenationaleconomieshavebeengrowing–alongwithstateinstitutions–thesituationisoftenoneofgrowingstateinterventionandinvolvementinthepubliceconomy.Ineducation,inhealthservices,intheprovisionofsocialsecurity,governmentshavedevelopeduniversalpublicservicesthatwereneveravailablebefore.Inthesecases,thechallengeslieratherwiththestatistformsoftheseservicesandtheweaknessesinherentinapurelystatistconceptionofsocialcare.
Whatwearearguingisthatratherthanrepeatingthemistakesofmassproductionstatewelfaresystemsofthemid-20thcentury,thatanewformofsocial economywelfarismcanbedevelopedwhichtakesfurtherthesocialinnovationsdevelopedbysuchjurisdictionsasItalyandQuebec.Thereisanopportunityheretocreatenewmodelsofsocialwelfarethatlearnfrom,andmovebeyond,theweaknessesoftheoldstatiststructures.Health,education,andotherformsofsocialwelfareareallopentomoreresponsive,moreflexible,andultimatelymoreeffectiveformsofcarewhencoupledwiththeuntappedpowerandpotentialofthesocialeconomy.
Theapplicationofsocialeconomyprinciplesandpracticessuchasreciprocityandco-operation,andtheemergenceofdemocratic,distributed,anduser-controlledsocialcaresystems,mayallownationstatestomovetoanewconfigurationofsocialwelfare–thatofthePartnerState–whichreinforcestheriseofcivilnetworks,supportsnewformsofsocialinnovation,andrecognizesthecentralroleofcivilsocietyinpromotingthecommongood,especiallyinthe
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areaofsocialcare.
Bothintheindustrializednorthandthe“developing”south,thestewardshiproleofthestateisundersiege.Thecolonizationofpublicandsocialspacebycapitalinthenorthisoneoftheeffectsofshrinkingopportunitiesforprofitmakingintheprivatesector.Inthesouth,andnowinthedebt-riddenregionsofsouthernEurope,itisalsothemethodbywhichglobalcapitalanditsinstitutions(e.g.theIMF)imposeausterityonnationaleconomiesbydismantlingthepubliceconomiesofthesecountries.Attheverymomentwhenweakeconomiesandrisingunemploymentdemandastrongsocialsafetynet,publicservicesarebeingturnedintosourcesofprivateprofit.Withgovernmentsaswillingpartners,theprivatizationofpublicgoodsandthemonetizationofsocialcarenowbeckonasanewfrontierfromwhichprofitsmightbewrung–fromtheprovisionofhealthcareandcleanwater,totherunningofeducationsystemsandprisons.
Itisquiteclearhowtheinstitutionsofprivatecapitalmightinvestin–andprofitfrom–whatwereoncepublicservices.Whatisfarfromcleariswhethertheinstitutionsofthesocialeconomyareequippedtorespondtothisnewreality.Themarketfailuresinhumanservicesinboththeprivateandthepubliceconomiesarenowarguablythecentralpublicpolicyissueofmodernsocieties.Itisforthisreasonthatwefocusmuchofourdiscussionbelowonthisquestion.
Howmightgovernmentsrespondtothisdilemma?Cantheyfostercivicsolutionsthatprovideanalternativetotheprivatizationofsocialgoodsontheonehand,andthestiflingeffectsoftop-downstatismontheother?Howmightthesesolutionsbefashionedtoreflect,andreinforce,thosesocial-servingvalues,operations,andprinciplesthatarethegreateststrengthofthesocialeconomyitself?
Finally,howmightthesocialeconomyenlargeitspresenceandinfluenceinthebroadercommercialeconomy?Howdosocialeconomyenterprisesacquiretheresourcesandskillstheyneedtoflourishwithinanovertlyhostileenvironmentdominatedbyprivatecapital?Howdotheybuildontheirsuccessesandscaleupandout?Andfinally,howdotheycapitalizeonthenewlogicofnetworks,
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distributedproduction,anddigitaltechnologythataresoconsonantwiththeirinherentsocialvaluesandstrengths?
Thecreationofwhatwemaycallasocialmarketforthesepurposes,andthedevelopmentoffreeandopenknowledgesystemsthatservethem,isessentialtothistask.
TheSocialEconomyandtheSocialMarket
Theriseofinterestinthesocialeconomyhasalsogivenrisetoaninterestinmeasuringitseconomicvalueanditsrelativesizewithinthebroadereconomy.InEcuador,accordingtotheInstituteforSocialSecurity,thesocial/solidarityeconomycomprises25.7%ofthenation’sGDPand48.9%ofemploymentgeneratedinenterprisesoffewerthan11employees.AstudybytheDGRV(Cruz,2003)alsoshowsthatin1999-2002,thecurrentportfolioofcreditunionsexperiencedagrowthof384.73%comparedto49.94%forthebanks.4Thesefiguresareimpressiveandhelptogaugekeyaspectsofthesocialeconomy.Butwhileappropriateforthemeasureofcommercialexchange,thedeterminationofvaluesolelyonthebasisofcommercialprinciples–ofmonetaryvalue–isantitheticaltothecharacterandneedsofthesocialeconomy.Adifferentvaluationisrequired.
Thepurposeofthesocialeconomyisnotprimarilyabouttheproductionandexchangeofgoodsandservicesinpursuitofprivateends,orofmonetaryvalue–butratherthecreationanduseofsocialrelationsfortheproductionofsocialvalue.Thisistruewhethersocialeconomyorganizationsareproducingsocialgoodsandhumanservicesorwhethertheyareengagedincommercialproductionwithinthemainstreameconomy.Itisthesocialaimsandcollectivenatureoftheseenterprisesthatdistinguishthemfromcapitalistfirms.Socialvaluesareembeddedinthestructureoftheseorganizationsandamarketforthecreationofsocialvalueisnotthesameasamarketforcapitalistaccumulation.Whatthenisamarketforsocialvalue?
Inmostcountries,thecharacterofsocialeconomyorganizationsandtheirroleinsocietyisimplicitlyacknowledgedasdifferentfromthatofprivatebusinessesandrequiringadifferentapproach.For
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example,governmentsprovidetaxsupportstosocialeconomyorganizationssuchasco-operatives,non-profitsandcharitiesbecausetheycreatesocialbenefitsthatareworthsupportingandareinthepublicinterest.
Aroundtheworld,theprincipleoftaxexemptiontonon-profitsiswellestablished.Traditionally,theworkofthesesocietieswasconceivedasrelievingaburdenthatwouldotherwisebebornebythestateforsuchthingsasprovidingrelieftothepoor,runninghospitals,caringforthevulnerableandindigent,etc.Inreturnfortheseservices,thestatecompensatedsocietiesthroughanexemptionontax.Butitwasalsoaconditionoftheexemptionthatnoprofitscouldberetainedbythesocietynordistributedtoitsgovernorsormembers.Thisistheconstraintonthedistributionofprofitsthattodaydefinesnon-profitsunderlegislationthatgovernstheiroperation,asisthecaseinEcuador.
Butinanagewherethesophisticationandcomplexityofsocialeconomyorganizationsextendsfarbeyondsimplecharitymodels,andwherehybridmodelssuchassocialenterprisesandcommunitybenefitcompaniesemploymarketmechanismstopursuesocialgoals,theoldtaxexemptionsbasedonconstraintstothedistributionofprofitarewhollyinadequate.Theyfailtocaptureboththerealityandthepotentialofthesocialeconomyasaneconomicspheredeservingequaltreatment,onitsownterms,tothatgrantedtheprivateandpublicsectors.Theyalsoperpetuatethefalsenotionthatthegenerationofprofitisincompatiblewiththepursuitofsocialbenefit.
Thereasonforthisisthatprofitisstillconceivedstrictlyincapitalistterms,whichistosayasaprivategood.Butwhatofprofitthatisasocialgood,acollectiveasset,asinthecaseofco-operatives,whereitisdesignatedasa“surplus”?Therealquestionisnottheissueofprofitbutratherthepurposesforwhichthisprofitorsurplusiscreatedandutilized.Recognitionofprofitasasocialassethasparadigmchangingimplications–notonlyforthesocialeconomybutalsoforhowthepublicinterestisdefined,developedanddefended.
Oneofthekeytasksbeforeusinthisageofunfetteredprivatization
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ishowtoreversethecolonizationofthepublicdomainbycapitalandinstead,tofosterandexpandthesocialcontrolofcapitalforthecommongood.Thisistheessentialattributeofthesocialeconomy–itssocialcharacterandtheembeddednessofmarketexchangeswithinanetworkofsocialrelationsthataredrivennotbytheprivateinterestsofthecapitalistmarket,butbythecollectiveandmutualistaimsoffriends,neighbours,communitiesandsocietyasawhole.
ANewApproach
Whatareneededaresocialandeconomicpoliciesthatrecognizethesocialandmutualfoundationsofthesocialeconomyasadistinctparadigmthatrelatessocialprinciplestotheeconomy,toresourceallocation,andtoanewunderstandingofwealthcreation.Anation’ssocialeconomycontributestothesocializationanddemocratizationofmarketsandtheeconomyandisakeyforcefortransformingtheproductivematrix.Inshort,thesocialeconomyisauniquespacewithitsownrequirementsandinneedofinstitutionsthatreflectthelogicandaimsofitsoperations.Thisentailsaholisticandintegratedapproachtosocialeconomydevelopmentandthecreationofwhatmightbecalledan“ecosystem”ofinstitutionalsupportsanalogoustotheexistingecosystemofcapitalistinstitutionsthatservicethecapitalisteconomy.
Withrespecttotheproductionofsocialorrelationalgoodsandservices,thereisalsoanurgentneedtounderstandandtoconstructatypeofsocial marketthatsupportsandvaluestheproductionandexchangeofsocialrelationswithoutturningthemintocommoditiesasisthecaseincapitalistmarkets.
Onwhatbasiscouldsuchapolicy,andsuchamarket,operate?Theanswerliesinthesocio/economicprinciplesthatlieattheheartofsocialeconomyorganizationsandofthesocialeconomyasawhole–reciprocity, mutualityandsocial benefit.
Unlikethedriveforprivateprofitthatanimatesthebehavioroffirmsintheprivatesector,social economy organizations are animatedby the principles of reciprocity and mutuality for the pursuit of collectiveeconomic and social aims, largely through the social control of capital.
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Reciprocityandmutualityinpursuitofsocialaimsdefineboththeactivitiesandtheaimsofsocialeconomyorganizations-whethertheyareco-operatives,volunteerorganizations,orsocialenterprises.Theirprimarypurposeisthepromotionofcollectivebenefit.Theirproductisnotjusttheparticulargoodsorservicesthattheyproduce,buthumansolidarityandsocialcapital.And,asopposedtothecapitalistprincipleofcapitalcontroloverlabour,reciprocityandmutualityarethemeansbywhichasocialinterest-whetherittakestheformoflabour,orcitizengroups,orconsumers–canexercisecontrolovercapital.
Withrespecttopublicservicesandsocialgoodsthekeyquestiontherefore,isthis:
How can reciprocity and mutuality be actualized as institutional forces toprovide for the human services that are not being met by government or theprivate sector?
Taxation,CapitalFormation,andSocialBenefit
Oneofthekeyideasweproposeisthecentralrolethatsocialmarketsplayinpreservingandexpandingthesocialeconomy’srolewithrespecttosocialgoods.
Thecreationofsocialmarketsentailstwothings:allowingsocialeconomyorganizationstoraisecapitaldirectlythroughtheissuanceofsocialcapitalsharesorthroughtheuseofsocialcurrencies,andthedevelopmentofasocialmarketexchangethatfunctionsasaparallelinstitutiontothestockmarketforcapital,exceptforusebythesocialeconomy.Boththeseconceptsareexploredmorefullybelow.
Butthefirstpointtobemadeisthatofallthechallengesthatimpedethegrowthandpotentialofthesocialeconomy,thedifficultyinaccessingandcontrollingcapitalissurelythemostcrippling.Solvingthisproblemisthereforeessentialforalltypesofsocialeconomyorganizations,whethertheyoperateinthefieldofhumanandsocialservicesorinthecommercialeconomy.
Therearemanywaysthatpublicpolicycanexpandthecapacityof
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socialeconomyorganizations.Rethinkingandreformingtaxpolicyisamongthemostimportantandthemostpotent.
SocialGoods
Onelineofapproachistoprovidetaxbenefitsandexemptionstoinvestmentsinsocialeconomyorganizations.Butthereisastrongcaseforextendingthesebenefitstocontributionsmadebysupporters–whetherassociationmembersorothercommunitymembers–toanyorganizationwhoseprimarypurposeistheprovisionofasocialgood.
Itisessentialthatnon-profitsandawiderangeofsocialenterprisesbeabletogeneratecapitalfortheirservicesthroughtax-exemptcontributionssourcedfromwithincivilsocietyitself.Notonlywouldthedependenceofsocialeconomyorganizationsonthestatebemitigated,buttheperpetualrationingofcapitalduetothesocialeconomy’sdependenceonstatefundingcouldalsobelessened.Butforthistohappen,theideaofnon-profitsasorganizationswhosegoalsareincompatiblewiththegenerationandutilizationofcapital(profit)hastobeleftbehind.Itisarelicofafalseunderstandingofprofitasaprivategood,andassociatedwithanequallyoutmodedunderstandingofmarketsasexclusivelycapitalist.
Allenterprises,whethercommercialorsocial,mustgenerateaprofit(orsurplusinthecaseofco-operatives)iftheyaretosurvive.Thequestionis:towhatpurposeisthisprofitorsurplusput?Isitprivateorisitsocial?Thecaseofco-operativesclearlyshowshowprofitcanbeasocialgoodaswellasaprivateone.
Co-operativesareaformofsocialeconomyorganizationwhosesurplusiscollectivelyownedandutilizedbyitsmembersfortheirmutualbenefit.Whennon-profitsgenerateasurplusthatisthenreinvestedinservicestocommunitythistoo,isprofittransmutedintoacommongood.Andjustasprivatecapitalisbentonprivatizingsocialwealth,soshouldthesocialeconomybefocusingonwaystosocializecapital.
Asocialeconomyunderstandingofthemarket,andofprofit,makesitpossibletorethinksocietylegislationsoastoallownon-profitsto
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issuesharestoraisecapital,toaccumulatecapitalintheformofundistributedreservesforthepursuitofsocialends,andtoinvestinothersocialeconomyorganizationsandinstitutionsthathavethesamepurpose.Thedevelopmentofthekindsofsocialpurposecapitalthatarenowpossibleinthecaseofco-operativesshouldbeextendedtothewholeofthesocialeconomy,withtheprovisothattheirusebetransparentanddemocraticallyaccountabletocontributorsandserviceusers.
Thisisessential.Withoutsuchaccountability,thereistheriskthatcapitalaccumulatedbyanorganizationforsocialpurposesmayultimatelybeusedtopursueprivateinterests–asissometimesthecasewithnon-profitsthathavenostructureforaccountabilitytostakeholders.What is central in protecting the pursuit of social ends is notthe conventional prohibition on the accumulation and distribution of profit,but rather the social constraint imposed by democratic accountability forthe use of that profit.Itisexactlythesameprinciplethatservestoprotectthepublicinterestwhenappliedtothetaxingandspendingpracticesofthestate.
LetusnowexamineacasestudyfromJapanthatillustrateswellthemainpointswearemakingwithrespecttohowsuchasystemmightworkwithrespecttotheprovisionofsocialgoodsandinparticular,theuseofsocialcurrenciesforthispurpose.
CaseStudy–FureaiKippu,Japan
Japancurrentlyhasthemostnumerousanddiverseformsofsocial,orcomplementarycurrenciesinuseintheworld.5Therewereapproximately258complementarycurrenciesinuseacrossJapanin2008.
FureaiKippuisareciprocity-basedtimebankingsystemthatwasdevelopedover40yearsagotoprovidecarefortheelderly.FureaiKippuliterallymeans“TicketforaCaringRelationship”andreferstotheticketorcreditthatisearnedwhenonevolunteerstheirtimehelpingseniors.AccordingtothefirstpublishedresearchinJapanesein1992,FureaiKippuis:
Agenerictermforvarioustime-basedsystems,suchasTime
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Deposit,PointDeposit,LabourBank,etc.…wherememberscanearntimecreditsorpointsforthehourstheyvolunteer,providingphysicalcare,homehelpandemotionalassistancetothecare-dependentmembers.Thesecreditscanthenberegisteredbythehostorganizationandsavedintheirpersonalaccounts.Timecreditholderscanwithdrawandusetheircreditstobuycareforthemselvesorrelativesasrequired(SawayakaWelfareFoundation(SWF),1993).
FureaiKippuadherestoastricttimebankingmodelwhichtracksandthenreimbursesvolunteertimeonthebasisofearnedcredits.Howevertherearevariationsinhowbankedtimeisreimbursed.Thetraditionalmodelisonethatisstrictlyreciprocalandwhereearnedcreditsareredeemedinreceivedservices,eitherforoneselforforone’srelatives.Asecondmodelalsoincludestheredemptionofvolunteertimethroughacombinationofearnedtimecreditsandcash.Inbothmodels,dependentusersofservicesmaypayasmalluserfeeiftheyareunabletoearntimecreditsbecauseofillhealthorincapacity.Theseuserfeesarepaidtothehostorganization,whichinturncanofferacashpaymentincombinationwithtimecreditstovolunteers.
Liketimebankingstudieselsewhere,(Seyfang,2004;Collom,2007;Ozanne,2010),FureaiKippugeneratesanumberofpositiveimpacts,inadditiontotheobvioussocialbenefitofofferinganeffectivemeansofprovidingcaretotheelderly.Theseincludebuildingpersonalrelationshipsandexpandingsocialconnections,improvingthementalandphysicalhealthofparticipants,promotingmutualityandresponsibilitywithrespecttothecareofvulnerablepeople;andhelpingtocreateamoreequalrelationshipbetweencaregiversandrecipients.6Moreover,thesystemoffersacivilmodelofcarethatismorecost-effective,flexible,andhumanethanexpensive“top-down”modelstypicallyassociatedwithstatecareprovision.
TheFureaiKippumodelisnotwithoutitsproblems,however.Oneofthesehastodowithdesigningreciprocalexchangesystemsthateffectivelymatchearnedcreditstoservicesreceived.InthecaseofNALC,during2010atotalof12,367volunteermembersassisted3,126dependentmembers,earning198,091creditsintotalwhile
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onlyredeeming10,548(5%).Thebalancewasredeemedbyuserfeesorbytheorganization(thesewerepaidinreturnfornon-personbasedactivitiesorworkfortheorganizationsuchasofficeworkortraining).Overtime,atotalofnearly1.7millioncreditshavebeenaccumulatedinindividualmembers’accounts.Userfeesarethusakeymeansofguaranteeingameansforvolunteermemberstoearntheirtimecreditswhileallowingdependentmemberstopurchaseservicestheycannototherwiseearn.
Meanwhile,thesystemhasadaptedtothechallengeofmatchingtimecreditstoservicesbyexpandingthewaysinwhichreciprocalexchangescanbemade.Unlikethetraditionalmodelwherecreditsareexchangedforelderserviceswithinthehostsystem,eitherlaterinlifeforoneselforcurrentlyforone’srelatives,anew“horizontal”systemofexchangehasbeendevelopedinwhichtimecreditsmayberedeemedinashorttimeframeinexchangeforsuchservicesaschildcareandarangeofotherlocalservices(museums,recreationalfacilities,cashvoucherswithlocalbusinesses,etc.).Thisallowslocalmunicipalitiesandlocalbusinessestosupportthesystemwhilepromotingbothcommunitybuildingandthelocaleconomy.Timecreditsmayalsobeusedtopayforthemonthlyinsurancepremiumsofthestateeldercaresystem.Finally,unredeemedcreditsmaybedonatedtoasharedpoolforusebythosewhohaven’tthemeanstoaccessservicesotherwise.
WhiletheFureaiKippusystemisnotapanacea,themodelisasuccessfulcomplementtoformalstatecaresystems.Itisakeyreasonwhygovernmentsatbothlocalandfederallevelshavesupportedthesystem,includingstateeffortstorecruitvolunteersfortheprograms.Startingin2009,YokohamaCitynearTokyoattractedover4,000volunteersinasingleyear,largelyduetotheschemethatallowsmemberstoexchangetimecreditsforservicesotherthaneldercare.
Moreover,withtheprovenvalueofFureaiKipputothecommunitiesitservesandtostateeffortstoprovidecaretoitsageingpopulation,themodelhasbeenreceivingseriousattentionforapplicationincountriesliketheUKwherecivilalternativestostatesystemshavebecomeapriorityforgovernment.
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Lessons
AkeylessonprovidedbyFureaiKippuinJapan,isthatreciprocityandmutualismcanbevaluatedinstrictlysocialasopposedtomonetaryterms.Timebankingisoneapproachthatcontinuestooffernon-commercialsolutionstotheprovisionofsocialservices,especiallyifthesearecomplementedbytheroleofthestate.FureaiKippushowshowareciprocity-basedsystemrootedinlocalcommunitiescanworkwithstatesystemstoformthebasisofpublic-civilpartnershipsthatofferanalternativetotheprivatizationandcommodificationofwhatshouldremainsocialrelationshipsofcaring.
ThereisnoreasonwhyvouchersorothermechanismsforplacingmarketpowerinthehandsofcitizensshouldbeassociatedexclusivelywiththepoliticalRight–astheyare.Theuseofmarketpowerforsocialcareisjustasamenableforsociallyprogressivepurposesif the market in question is structured around civic principles.Marketsarenotnecessarilycommercial,orcapitalist,andthesoonerthisisunderstoodthesoonersocietycanaddressthecontradictionbetweensocialgoodsontheonehandandchronicallyunderfundedandantisocialdeliverysystemsontheother.
Governmentsandcivilsocietymustbothgrapplewithhoweconomicscanbemadetoworkforcivicpurposes,andthecreationofsocialmarketsisessentialtothis.Innovativetaxpolicyisalsocentraltothisaim.
Whatwearetalkingaboutisthecreationofaninstitutionalsocialmarketthroughtheformalvaluationofsocialgoodsandthecapitalizationofthesegoodsdirectlybycitizensandthepromotionofinformalsocialmarketsthroughcommunitarianmechanismslikesocialcurrenciesthatbothvaluateandexpandreciprocityandsocialcapitalintheprovisionofsocialgoods.The state retains a central rolehowever, as co-funder and facilitator of these systems.
Tobeclear:thisisnottoadvocateforthecommodificationofsocialrelations,norisitthepromotionofatomizedandutilitarianrelationsinplaceofsocialonesasisnowthecasewithprivatization.Rather,weareproposingformsofsocialcurrencythatactas
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mediumsofcirculationfortheexpansionofanewkindofsocialrelationshipbetweenproduceranduserbasedonthereciprocalandmutualcharacterofsocialrelationsthatarecharacteristicofthesocialeconomyitself.
TheSocialMarketExchange
Whatwouldsuchasocialmarketexchangelooklike?Therearecurrentlyanumberofsocialstockexchangesandtheyallshareacommonfeature:theabilitytoinvestinasocialenterprisethroughthepurchaseofsharesthatyieldalimitedreturntoinvestors.Thisisoneapproach,andsolongasreturnsarenotspeculativeandcontainedbyclearsocialprioritiestheycanbeakeysourceofneededcapital.Otherwise,returnstoinvestorsforsupportofsocialenterprisemovesawayfromreciprocityandtowardacapitalistconceptionofsocialinvestment.7Bycontrast,whatweareproposingissomethingthatvaluesbothcontributionandreturnintermsofreciprocity.Thisisthereasonweusethetermcontributorasopposedtoinvestor.
Whatdoesthisentail?First,itwouldmeantheextensionoftaxexemptionsandbenefitstocontributionsthatsupportthecreationanddistributionofsocialgoods.Inthisway,theprovisionofataxbenefittosocialcontributorsacknowledgesthekeynotionofapublicbenefitcompensatedbythetaxsystemonthereciprocityprinciple.Italsoembodiesthefundamentalprincipleofpublicresponsibilityforsocialcareasacivicright.Thisiswhattaxesshoulddo.Butinaddition,thereneedstobeare-alignmentofpowerswithrespecttocontroloverthedesignanddeliveryofsocialcareitself.Anumberoffactorsseemessential.
Thefirstrequiresshiftingtheproductionofsomesocialcareservicesfromgovernmenttodemocraticallystructuredcivilinstitutions.Governmentwouldretainitsroleasaprimefunderfortheseservicesandfortheregulationandoversightthatisnecessarytoprotectthesocialcharacterandpublicinterestentailedintheseservices.Thefirstpartofthisequationisalreadywellunderway.Governmentshavebeenunloadingsocialservicestoprivateandnon-profitprovidersforovertwodecades.Itisthesecondaspect,
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theneedforusercontrolandserviceaccountabilitythatislacking(astoo,isthefunding).Socialservicesthatreceivepublicfundingandarenotunderthedirectcontrolofthestateshouldbeconveyedonlytothoseorganizationsthatprovidecontrolrightsoverthedesignanddeliveryofthoseservicestousers.
Thisappliesequallytonon-profitandfor-profitservices.Examplesincludeorganizationsthatprovideeldercare,familyservices,servicestopeoplewithdisabilities,orchildcare.Moreover,thoseservicesthatremainunderstatecontrol(socialsecurity,publicpensions,publicautoinsurance,publicschools,healthcareservices,etc.)shouldbedemocratizedthroughtheprovisionofcontrolrightstousers.
Second,governmentfundingshould,atleastinpart,flowdirectlytosocialcarerecipientswhowouldthenselecttheservicestheyneedfromaccreditedorganizationsoftheirchoice.Toqualifyforreceiptofpublicfunds,theseorganizationsmusthaveprovisionsforusercontrolintheiroperations.Inaddition,fundsmustbemadeavailablefortheorganizationofindependentconsumer-runorganizationstoassistusersandtheirfamiliesintheidentification,evaluation,andcontractingofservicestotheirmembers.Thisiscrucial,especiallyinthecaseofusersthathaven’tthemeans,orthecapacity,toadequatelyselectandcontractservicesontheirown.
Third,socialcareorganizationsmusthavethelegalabilitytoraisecapitalfromamongusersandfromcivilsocietyingeneral,onthebasisofsocialinvesting.Bothusersandcommunitymemberswouldbeabletopurchasecapitalsharesforthepurposeofcapitalizingtheassociation.Asasocialinvestment,theseshareswouldyieldaprescribedvalueinservicestoinvestorsbutunlikeconventionalsocialinvestmentmodels,investorcontrolwithintheassociationwouldbelimitedtoensuredemocraticcontrolbymembers.Associalinvestmentsthesecapitalassetswouldnotbetaxed.
Fourth,surplusesgeneratedbytheseorganizationsshouldbeconsidered,atleastinpart,associalassets.Allsocialcareorganizationsreceivingpublicfunds–whetherintheformofvouchersordirectpaymentsfromgovernment–wouldestablishanindivisiblereservefortheexpansionanddevelopmentofthat
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organizationanditsservices.8Aportionofoperationalsurpluswouldalsohavetobeusedforthepartialcapitalizationofasocialmarketexchangethroughthepurchaseofsharesintheexchange.
Socialcapitalizationrequiresthecreationofasocialmarketbasedonreciprocityandmutuality.Forexample,individualcontributorscouldpurchasesharesyieldingamonetaryvaluethatisredeemedthroughtheuseofasocialgoodorserviceprovidedbyanyoneoftheaccreditedorganizationsinthesystem,asintheexampleofFureiKippu.
Amechanismformediatingtheissuanceofsocialvouchersontheonehandandtheirredemptionontheotherneedstobeestablishedtobalancewhatsomeorganizationsreceiveincontributionsandothersredeeminservices.Thecreationofacollectivecapitalpooltohelporganizationspayforredeemedsharesmightbeonewayofmanagingthis.Thecollectivepoolwouldbecapitalizedbythecontributionsofparticipatingorganizations,andmayincludecontributionsofsupportingindividuals.Asocialcapitalexchangeofthistypegeneratesanindependentsourceofcreditandinvestmentcapitaltosocialeconomyorganizations,inadditiontowhattheywouldreceivefromthestate.Shareswouldbeeligiblefortaxcreditsonthebasisthatsuchcontributionshaveaclearanddirectsocialbenefit,aswouldacapitalpool.
Inthesemodels,theprimaryroleofgovernmentwouldbetocontinuetoprovidepublicfundsforsocialcareservicesandtoestablishtherulesofthesystem.Inpartnershipwithservicedeliverers,caregivers,andusers,thestatewouldregulateandmonitorservicedelivery,establishservicestandards,licenseserviceproviders,andenforcelegalandregulatoryprovisions.
Finally,thelocusofservicedesignandthedesignationofserviceneedswouldtakeplace,asmuchaspossible,atthecommunityandregionallevelofdelivery.Thisrequiresthecreationofcivilandmunicipalassociationsofpublicandcommunitystakeholderstoensuretheaccountabilityofservicesandtheflowofinformationnecessaryforeffectivebudgeting,servicedesignanddelivery.
Thedevelopmentofopenknowledgesystemswherebydataand
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informationistransparent,open,andfreelyaccessiblebycitizensandsocialeconomyorganizationsisaconcretewayinwhichasocialknowledgeeconomycanbelinkedtotheoperationsandsocialaimsofsocialeconomyorganizations.
Mostimportantly,thisdecentralizationofservicedeliverymustincludethedemocratizationofdecision-makingthroughthesharingofcontrolrightswithserviceusersandcaregivers.ThisispreciselythesystemthatisinplaceinciteslikeBolognawheresocialco-opsandtheirfederationsdealdirectlywithmunicipalitiestodeterminetheserviceneedsofcommunitiesandtomanagetheirdelivery.
Awordofcautionhowever,mustbenoted.SuchpolicieshaveprovenhighlyeffectiveinthecasesofplaceslikeQuebec,Italy,andJapanbecausethereexistedfairlyhighlevelsofsocialcapitalthatwereinturnreinforcedbyaculturethatvaluedreciprocity.ThisisespeciallytrueofJapan,andhencetheFureaiKippusystembothreflectedandreinforcedthiscultureeventhoughtheredidnotexistalargenumberofnon-profits,aswasthecaseforexample,inQuebec.9InItaly,alongtraditionofco-operativeorganizationshelpedformtheinstitutionalfoundationfortheevolutionandspreadofsocialco-ops.
What this means in practical terms is that democratizing and de-centralizing policies from government are not enough.Whatmustalsobeconsideredistheeducationalandcommunitydevelopmentworkthatisneededtoprovidefortheongoingevolutionofthecivilinstitutionsandculturalattitudesthatformthebasisforthiskindofcivilandculturaltransformation.
Crucialtothisisthedevelopmentofmulti-stakeholderintermediariesthatcanactasinterlocutorswithgovernmentonbehalfofthebroadersocialeconomy.Ataservicelevel,multi-stakeholderorganizationsrepresentingdifferentstakeholdersandinterestscannegotiatecontractsandservices,co-ordinateorganizationandproduction,andsupportthesocialeconomyproviderswithcrosssectoraltraining,logisticssupport,collectivepurchasing,financing,etc.
Populareducationprogramstoraiseawarenessandunderstanding
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ofthisnewapproachamongcommunitiesarealsokey.And,asoutlinedinmoredetailbelow,thereisanurgentneedforhigher-levelacademicresearch,education,andprofessionaltrainingforbothcivilservantsandsocialeconomyactors.
APolicyEcosystem
Areviewofpublicpolicytrendsandinstrumentsforsupportingthesocialeconomyrevealsahighlydevelopedarrayofstrategiesdevelopedbymanycountries.
Mostimportantly,itiscrucialthatagovernment’ssocial,educational,developmental,andfinancialpoliciescombinetocreateanintegrated,yetdiversified,ecosystemofinstitutionalsupportsthattogethercreateanenvironmentwithinwhichthesocialeconomymightflourishthroughouttheeconomy.Theseintegratedprogramsmaybebroadlyorganizedalongfourmutuallysupportiveaxes:
1. TaxPolicyandPublicSubsidy2. FinancialSupportsandSocialInvestment3. CommunityEducation,Mobilization,andDevelopment4. Research,HigherEducationandProfessionalTraining
Ingeneral,theroleofgovernmentinadministeringtheseinitiativesmaybesummarizedasfollows:
a)Facilitatingtheco-constructionandco-implementationofnationalSocialEconomypolicythroughdirectcollaborationwithsocialeconomyandotherprimarystakeholders(e.g.municipalities,territorialgovernments);b)Directfinancialinjection(seedmoney,whichisalsoacreditenhancement)c)Investment(interestfreeloansforacertainperiodandpossiblyrenewed)d)Fiscalpolicy–taxmeasures/incentivese)Financialguaranteesf)Enablinglegislationandregulation
Manyoftheseinitiativeshaveprovensuccessfulinstrengtheningthecapacityofsocialeconomyorganizationstocontributetosocial
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wellbeingthroughtheproductionofmuch-neededsocialservicesandtheincreaseintrainingandemploymentthattheseservicesprovide.Inparticular,theuseofco-operativemodelsfortheprovisionofsocialcarehasyieldednotonlyanincreaseintherangeandqualityofservicesavailabletothepublic,butinjurisdictionslikeItalyandQuebecwherepublicpolicyhassupportedtheirdevelopment,socialco-opshavegeneratedahighproportionofthenewemploymentgeneratedbythesocialeconomy.
InQuebec,thegovernmentfunds85%ofthecostsofdaycareprogramsdeliveredbysolidarityco-opsandothersocialeconomyorganizations,makingthesectorthe4thlargestemployerintheprovince.10Solidarityco-opsinQuebecaccountforfully40%ofthehomecareservicesinthatprovince.InItaly,althoughsocialco-opscomposeonly2%ofnon-profits,theyareresponsiblefor23%ofjobsinthatsector.InBologna,87%ofthesocialservicesinthatcityareprovidedbysocialco-opsundercontracttothemunicipality.
Withinthebroadercommercialeconomy,socialeconomyorganizationslikeco-operativeshaveprosperedwhenaccesstobasiccapitalresources–ownedandcontrolledbythesocialeconomyitself–hasbeenbolsteredbyprogressivetaxpolicy,byenablinglegislation,byeducationandprofessionaldevelopment,andmostofall,bythesupportofrepresentativecivilassociationsthatcanidentifyandaddressthecollectiveneedsofthesector.Multi-stakeholderstructuresrepresentingabroadrangeofsocialeconomyactorshavebeenkeyinthisregard.
Insummary,thereisnoquestionthataconcerteduseofpublicpolicesbygovernmentcanhaveadecisiveeffectonthecapacityofthesocialeconomytoplayamuchenhancedroleintheprovisionofnewgoodsandservices,ingeneratingnewopportunitiesfortrainingandemployment,andinstrengtheningtheproductivecapacitiesofkeysectorsthroughtheuseofco-operativeandothercollectivesystems.
Butmorethanthis,thegrowthofacountry’ssocialeconomyalsolendstothediffusionofprogressiveideasandpracticesthatinturnreinforceaprogressivepoliticaleconomybothinthestateandinthebroadersociety.Thisisessentialforthepursuitand
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institutionalizationofthosevaluesthatwill,inthelongterm,bethefoundationforamoresociallyjustandequitablesocialorder.
PublicPolicyforaPartnerState
WhenthegovernmentofEcuadorintroducedtotheworlditsvisionaryconstitutionanditsboldplanforreframingthedirectionofdevelopmentaccordingtothepreceptsofasocialknowledgeeconomyandBuen Vivir,itheldopenthepossibilityofawhollynewconceptionofgovernanceandoftheroleofcitizensinbothdefininganddefendingthecommongood.
ThispaperexaminestheconceptofthePartnerStateinrelationtotheconceptofBuen VivirasproposedinEcuador’sNationalPlanforGoodliving.DrawingonboththetheoreticalandpracticalfoundationsofthePartnerStateasamodelofgovernance,thepaperarguesthattheproposedtransitiontoaneconomybasedonsocialknowledgeandtherealizationofBuen Vivirrequiresaradicalrestructuringofthestateapparatustowardadirectionofincreasedempowermentandmeaningfulengagementofbothcivilsocietyandeconomicagentsinthesmallfirmeconomyasprerequisitesforthistransition.11Inthiscontext,thePartnerStateispresentedbothasthenecessaryvehicleforthefulfillmentofBuen Vivirandastheculminationofthisprocess.TheideaofthesocialmarketisalsoadvancedasameansofenlargingthescopeofsocialeconomyactivitiesthroughouttheeconomyandasacentralaspectofaPartnerStateapproachtoempoweringcivilsociety.
JustasthevisionofasocialknowledgeeconomyandBuen Vivirrepresentaradicaldeparturefromneo-liberalism,sodoesthePartnerStaterepresentadeparturefromthestateasthecommandandcontrolapparatusfromwhicheconomicandsocialdevelopmentproceed.ThePartnerstate,inwhichactivecitizenshipforthecommongoodisadefiningfeature,isthepoliticalexpressionofasocietyinwhichknowledge,economics,andsocialpolicyareallinservicetocivicvaluesandthecommongood.
Atatimewhenmanyaresearchingforviablealternativestothe
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traditionalWelfareStateontheonehand,andtheemergingCorporateStateontheother,theideaofthePartnerStateisanewformulationinwhichthestateisboththeguarantorofpublicwelfareandthepromoterofcivicvalues.
ThroughoutLatinAmerica,therejectionofneo-liberalpoliciesbytheregion’selectoratehasbeenreflectedintheascensionofgovernmentsthatarereclaimingandresurrectingthestateasanindispensibleplayerineconomicandsocialplanning.ThisiscertainlytrueinEcuadorwhereaccordingtotheNationalPlanforGoodLiving,
Recovering the state and its role in planning, administrating, executing,distributing and redistributing has … been vital to guarantee and open upopportunities for participation by persons, communities, peoples andnationalities in order to formulate, implement, evaluate and oversee publicpolicies and public services.12
Thequestionthatneedstobeansweredhoweveris:whatkindofstatebestreflectsthesevaluesandprinciples?
ToachievethekindofsocietyenvisagedbytheNationalPlan,afundamentalreframingoftheroleofthestateisnecessary.AsstatedbyAnaRavegna,DirectorofEquityandPovertyReductionattheWorldBank,“Thisincludestheimplementationofstructuralpoliciesaimedatprovidingallmembersofsocietywithafarhigherdegreeofsocio-economicsovereigntyandpoliticalagencysothatcitizenshave“thewherewithaltooperatenormallyandproperlyin…societywithouthavingtobegorborrowfromothers,andwithouthavingtodependontheirbeneficence.”Accesstotheessentialsofaproductiveandrewardinglifearenotafunctionofmarketpowerbutratheroftherightsofcitizenship.Suchapolicyisalsoindispensibleforthedevelopmentofasocietythatisdecent,whichistosay,asocietywhoseinstitutionsdonothumiliateitsmembers.13Theemergenceofadecentsocietyisthusintimatelylinkedtothedemocratizationandhumanizationofitspublicinstitutions.
ThePartnerState14
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Initsevolution,theideaofthePartnerStateproceedsdirectlyfromtheprinciplethatcivilsocietyisthesourceofpoliticallegitimacyinademocracy.Inthisview,thestateisintheserviceofcivilsocietyasavehicletoadvanceandprotectthecommongood.
ThePartnerStateisanenablingstate.Itsprimarypurposeistomaximizethecapacityofcivilsocietytocreatesocialvalueandtoactasanequalpartnerintheformationanddeliveryofpublicpolicyforthecommongood.Theenablingroleofthestateisnotconfinedtothepromotionofsocialvalue.Italsoentailsthepromotionofopenaccesstotheeconomy.Itprovidesspaceformanymodelsofentrepreneurship,includingcollectiveandcommons-basedformsofenterprisesuchasco-operativesandpeer-to-peernetworks,andthepromotionofparticipatorypolitics.ThePartnerStateenlargesthescopeofpersonalautonomyandlibertywhilereinforcingthesocialbondsthatbuildhealthycommunitiesandavibrantcivilsociety.Centraltothisprocessisthedemocratizationofthestateitself.
Traditionally,thestatehasbeenviewedasthefinalarbiterfortheregulationandoperationofthreebroadeconomicsectorsinsociety–theprivatesector,thepublicsector,andthesocial/solidarityeconomy.Eachofthesesectorsoperatesonadistinctsetofeconomicprinciplesandvalues.Theprivatesectorutilizestheprincipleofexchangeequivalence(price)tocreateprofit–itsvaluesarewealthaccumulationandmarketefficiency;thepublicsector(thestate)usestheeconomicprincipleofwealthredistributiontoprovideforpublicgoods–itsvaluesareequity;thesocialeconomyutilizestheprinciplesofreciprocityandmutualitytopromotesocialaims–itsvaluesaresocialutilityandhumansolidarity,whethertheyoperateintheareaofsocialgoodsandservicesorinthebroadermarketeconomy.
Inmoderntimes,theregulatoryroleofthestatehashabituallyswungfromthepromotionofeithertheprivatesectorthroughsupportofthecapitalisteconomy,ortheredistributivefunctionofgovernmentthroughstatecontrolofeconomicplanning.Thefirstsubmitsthepublicandsocialeconomiestotherequirementsofcapital;thesecondsubmitsthecapitalistandsocialeconomiestotheneedsofcentralizedstateplanning.Bothmodelshavecomeat
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unsustainablyhigheconomicandsocialcosts.Andwhiletherehavebeenvarietiesofthesetwomodels,mostlyinsomecombinationofpublicandprivatedominance,therehasneverbeenaninstanceinwhichtheneedsofcivilsocietyandthevaluesofthesocialeconomyhavepredominatedinthestate’smanagementofeconomicandsocialpolicy.Intheoryandpractice,thePartnerstateisthefirststateformationtodothis.
Consistentwiththevaluesandoperatinglogicofthesocialeconomy,theuseofreciprocityandmutualityascentraltenetsofeconomicandsocialdevelopmenttransformsandre-orientsthestatetowardcivilsocietyastheprimaryengineforthecreationofsocialvalueforthecommongood.Withsocialvalues,equity,andsustainabilityatthefoundationofpublicpolicythePartnerStatealsore-orientstheroleofgovernmenttowardtheprivateeconomyandtheoperationsofthepublicsector.Theprivateandpublicsectorsstillretainessentialfunctionsinthenationaleconomyandinsociety.Theprofitmotiveandprivatebusinesscontinuetoplayarole.ThedifferenceisthatinthePartnerStatetherespectiverolesandpowersofthecommercialmarketandthepubliceconomyarecounterbalancedbytheprimacyofthecommongoodastheframeworkwithinwhichpublicpolicyisformulatedandenacted.
Theinstitutionsofcivilsocietyarethuscentraltotherealizationofthisvisionasisthedevelopmentofpublicpoliciesandpracticesthattranslatethisvisionintomeaningfulpoliticalparticipationfromtheleveloflocalneighborhoodstothedirectinginstitutionsofgovernmentitself.
Howthen,maysuchamodelbemadereal?Whatarethepoliciesandpracticesthatareessentialtoitsoperation?Wherearetheexamplesthatmayserveasmodels?
SocialEconomyandtheState
BeforediscussinghowaPartnerStatewouldoperate,wemustfirstconsidertheeconomic,cultural,andstructuraldifferencesthatdifferentiatethestatefromthesocialeconomy.Asoutlinedabove,thestateandthesocialeconomyaretwoverydifferenttypesofeconomy.15Thestateisstructuredintermsofbountiesandlevies
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anditsprinciplesourceofincomeistaxationthatisleviedonbehalfoftheentirecitizenry.Itsservicesaregenerallyfreeandadministeredthroughahighlycentralizedsystemofhierarchicalcontrol.Inarepresentativedemocracy,theoperationofstateservicesdependsonaladderofaccountabilitythatreachesfromthefrontlineworkerupthroughthedepartmentalhierarchytoaMinisterwhoisthenanswerabletoarepresentativeParliament,ordirectlytoaheadofstate.
Thisisasystemthatischaracterizedbyahighdegreeofcontroloverfunctionsandbehavioursandwhichhasabuilt-inbiasagainstuncertainty,innovation,andindividualinitiative.PowerisimposedandflowsfromtoptobottomandthelegitimateexerciseofthispowerrestsinternallywiththedesignatedmanagersofthecivilbureaucracyandtheMinisterstheyreportto,nottoexternalstakeholders,exceptasmandatedperiodically,andveryindirectly,throughthebroaderelectoralprocess.16
Theinternaleconomyofthissystemisbasedonthenegotiationoftaxordebt-financedbudgetsthatarebargainedoverbyasmallgroupofMinistersandseniorcivilservants.Themainformsofcontrolareoverexpendituresratherthanoutcomes(ordesires),andinsofaraspowerisexercisedthroughcontroloverbudgetsitisasystemthatencouragesexpenditureuptothebudgetallocated.
Thesocialeconomyoperatesverydifferently.AsRobinMurrayremarks,17whetheritinvolvessocialventuressellingintomarkets,orgrantbasedorganizations,orinformalassociationsofhouseholds,thesocialeconomyisimpelledbyastrongelementofenthusiasmandasenseofvocation.Itreliesonthewillingcontributionoftime,financeandideasinpursuitofanideaorsocialmission.Itisthequalityofthisideaandthecapacitytocommunicate,inspireinterest,mobilizeresources,andrealizetheideainpracticethatdeterminestherelativemagnetismoftheventure.Iftheideaormissiongrowsstaleand/orthehopeofitsrealizationebbs,thenthewillingcontributionsofcitizenswilldecline.Itisthiswhichactsasthediscipline–similarinsomewaystothedisciplineofthemarket–asagainstthedisciplinesofaccountabilityinrelationtobudgetsandpoliticalaimsthatcharacterizethestate.Thesocialeconomyismissiondrivenrather
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thancostcontrolledonthebasisofbudgets,asisthecasewiththestate.
Thestructures,labourcontracts,aims,andcultureofthetwosystemsfollowfromtheabove.Anditisthesedifferencesthatmakeeffectivepartneringbetweenstateandcivilsocietystructurallydifficult.Thediagrambelowhighlightssomeofthedifferencesthatneedtobeaddressedforapartnershiptofunction.
Features State Social EconomySize Largescale DistributedStructure Verticalhierarchy HorizontalCulture Rulebased/impersonal Entrepreneurial/affective
Accountability MediatedtaxpayersUnmediated,voluntaryenergy,civilstakeholders
Sourceoffinance
Tax Voluntary/dues/grants/market
Organizationalstability
Permanence Fluctuating/fluid
Relationalstability
Fluid Stable
KnowledgeAggregated/governmentthroughstatistics,controlled
Granulated,distributed,open
Atmosphere Routine,predictable Uncertain,exploratorySystem Stable Chaotic
Dynamic CostdriftSocialCapitalaccumulationandmissionachievement
Labour Structuredroles/unionsStructuredaroundcapacitiesandsocialvocationoflabourandvolunteers,nonunionized
Wagestructure
Unequal Egalitarian
Externalrelations
Transactional Generative
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Giventhesedifferences,itiseasytoconcludethataworkingpartnership–anewsocialcontractineffect–isimpossiblebetweenthestateeconomyontheonehandandthesocialeconomyontheother.Butthiswouldbetoignorethefundamentalcommonalityofpurposethatissharedbetweenthetwosystems.Bothareconcerned,andtheirlegitimacyisderived,fromacommitmenttosocialasopposedtoprivategoals.Inthisveryfundamentalsense,theyareextensionsofthesolidaryprinciplesthatconstitutetheoperationsandaimsofthebroadercivilsocietythatsustainsandvalidatesbothsystems.Inpursuitofthesecivilaims,thestateoffersstabilityandscalewhilethesocialeconomygeneratescreativityandsocialconnection.
Alllivingthingsandallsocialsystems,aswithallmatter,areadelicatebalanceoforderandchaos.Orderaloneleadstoentropy.Creativityaloneleadstochaos.Astatemodelbasedonpublic-civilpartnershipoffersthepotentialofachievingavitalityandefficacythateachsectoronitsownisunabletoachieve.Theartistoestablishadivisionoflabourthatcorrespondstotheaimsanddispositionsofthetwocultures.
Thestatehasthecapacitytobeasynthesizerandfacilitator,tosettherulesandprovideabasicflowofcorefundsthatallowsadistributedsystemofsocialenterprisestoflourish.Ithasthecapacitytoorganizelargeprojects,andatnationalscales.Initsnormativerole,ithasthemechanismstoreinforcebehavioursthatreflectabroadersocietalconsensus.Itrepresentsthegeneralinterest,howevermediateditsmechanisms.Thesocialeconomyontheotherhandisasourceofinnovation,ofdistributedproduction,andinparticularofrelationalproduction–somethingessentialtotheprovisionofhumanservices.Itisaspaceofpersonalandproductivedemocracyincontrasttothestate’srepresentativeanddeliberativedemocracy.Inaveryrealsense,thetwodomainsmanifesttherequirementsofcollectiveversuspersonalcitizenshipandeachisthenecessarycomplementtotheother.Anewsocialcontractmustbebasedonthisfundamentalframework.
Howthen,mightsuchapartnershipwork?Howcantheinterfacebetweenthesetwoadmittedlycontrastingeconomiesbemademorepermeableandproductive?Thefollowingdiscussionofferssome
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directions.
1.DemocratizationandCo-constructionofPublicGoodsandServices
Inthesection“PublicPolicyandtheSocialEconomy”,weexploredthekindsoflegalandpolicyinstrumentsthatarenecessaryforstrengtheningtheinstitutionsofthesocial/solidarityeconomysothatitisabletoplaytheroleofpartnerasenvisagedinthePartnerState.Chiefamongtheseare
1. Thedevelopmentofatruesocialmarketthatenlargesthescopeofthesocial/solidarityeconomyandofsocialeconomyorganizationsthroughouttheeconomy;
2. Thecreationofcivilandcommunity-basedinstitutionsthatmediatebetweengovernmentandindividualsforthecreationofsocialgoodsandservices;and
3. Theprogressivedemocratizationofpublicgoodsandservicesthroughthetransferofinstitutionalcontrolfromstatebureaucraciestodemocratically–governedcivicbodies.
Earlier,wealsohighlightedtheeconomic,social,andqualityoflifebenefitsthataremadepossiblebythedemocratizationanddecentralizationofpublicgoodsandhumanservices.18Withrespecttosocialcare,theseincludethereductionofservicecostsduetotheeliminationofbureaucracyandrent-seeking;theincreaseinservicequalityandserviceinnovationduetotheinvolvementofusersinthedesignanddeliveryofservices;theincreaseinself-esteemandpersonalempowermentforserviceusersthroughtheexerciseoftheircontrolrights;andmostimportantlythecreationandexpansionofcaringrelationshipsamongpersonsastheprimarypurposeandoutcomeofsocialcaresystems.
Neithertheprivatizationofsocialcare,whichinstrumentalizespeopleforthegenerationofprofit,northede-personalizationofcarebythestate,whichsubmitsindividualstotheimpersonalrequirementsofbureaucracy,arecapableofhumanizingcareorofrespondingadequatelytotherealneedsofindividualsandtheircommunities.Thecreationofcivilbodies,operatingatlocaland
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regionallevels,andprovidingamechanismwherebyindividualsmaydirectlydeterminethenatureofthecaretheyreceive,isoneindispensibleconditionfortheoperationofaPartnerStatemodelwithrespecttotheprovisionofsocialcare.Theotherisamechanismthroughwhichgovernmentandcivilinterestscancollaborateonthedesignanddeliveryofhumanservices,atlocal,regional,andnationallevels.
TheuseofsubsidiarityisthereforeakeyprincipleofinclusiveplanningiscentraltothereformofpublicservicesasadefiningcharacteristicofthePartnerState.Tothisend,specificprovisionsthatrecognizeandreinforcetheroleofsocialeconomyorganizationsinthedevelopmentanddeliveryofsocialcaretotheircommunitiesareofparamountimportance.
Theseprovisionswouldinclude:
Therecognitionofsocialco-opsandmulti-stakeholderstructuresasuniquemodelsfortheprovisionofsocialcare;Therecognitionandpromotionofmutualinterestsforservingthecommongoodbylocalpublicauthoritiesandsocialcareco-operatives,withparticularemphasisonsocialinclusionandservicetothemostvulnerable;Theimplementationoftaxandfinancingsupportsthatsupporttheoperationofsocialco-opsandothersocialorganizationsaskeypartnersintheprovisionofhumanservicesandtheadvancementofpublicpolicy;Thecreationoflocalandregionalcouncilsthatenablethecollaborationandco-constructionofhumanservicesthroughthejointparticipationofcivilandgovernmentalbodies;19
Thedevelopmentofparticipatorybudgetingandtheallocationofresources–includingfreeandopenaccesstogovernmentdata–fortheprovisionofhumanservicesatlocal,regional,andnationallevels.
AmongthebestexamplesofthisapproachtothedecentralizationanddemocratizationofhumanservicesistobefoundinItaly.20IntheItalianmodel,socialco-operativesworkcloselywithlocalgovernmentauthoritiestoidentifyserviceneeds,todesigntheprovisionofservices,andtonegotiatethetermsforthedeliveryof
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services,includingbudgetsandqualitycontrolmeasures.Theco-designanddeliveryofsocialcareservicesissupportedthroughasystemofsubsidiaritythatgrantslocalauthoritiesthepowertoidentifyserviceneedsandtocommissiontheprovisionoftheseservicesthroughaccreditedco-operativeorothernon-profitservicegroups.
Inthisway,theprogressivedemocratizationofhumanservicesentailsanewgovernancematrixthatmaximizescitizenparticipationinthedesignanddeliveryofhumanservicesatthoselevelsclosesttotheactualprovisionofcare.
Inadditiontofacilitatingapartnershipapproachatthelocallevel,thematrixmustalsoallowforefficientplanningandgovernanceofhumanservicesatregionalandnationallevels.Tothisend,weproposetheadoptionofviablesystemsmodels(VSM)thatmaximizelocaldecision-makingandautonomy.ViableSystemModelsenablescalingtohigherordersofservicedeliverythroughtheadoptionofco-operativegovernancestructuresthatengagebothcivilsocietyandgovernmentinjointlycontrolledinstitutionsattheprovincial,regional,andlocallevelsofgovernance.21
Theco-constructionofpublicgoodsandservicesthroughaninstitutionalframeworkthatfosterspublic-civicpartnershipsisattheheartofthePartnerStateasenvisionedhere.Tothisend,thefollowingarethekindsofpoliciesthathelptorecasttheroleofthestatefromoneofdominatingcontrolovertheproductionofpublicgoodsandservices,tothatofpromotingandenablingthecivicproductionofgoodsandservicesasaformofprotectedcommons.
InstitutionalSupport
Recommendations:
1. Thatregionalandlocalgovernmentsparticipateinasocialprocurementpolicythatpromotessocialeconomyorganizationsfortheproductionofsocialandhumanservices;
2. Thattheprovisionoftheseservicesbedesignedanddevelopedincollaborationwithsocialeconomyassociationsinthelocaljurisdiction;
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3. Thatareviewofexistingprocurementpolicies,including tradeagreements,beundertakentoidentifyandremoveexistingbarrierstosocialprocurementbysocialeconomyassociations;22
4. Thatanofficeforsocialprocurementbeestablishedtoprovideadviceandtechnicalassistancetogovernmentandsocialeconomyassociationsinthedesign,development,andprocurementofpublicservices.
5. Thatastrategicreviewbeundertakenbygovernmenttoexaminehowco-constructionofpublicgoodsandservicesmightbestbeundertakenandinwhichareas.
SharedServices
Recommendations:
1. Thatthegovernment,incollaborationwithsocialeconomyorganizations,identifyspecificareasinwhichservicesmaybeshared,andco-produced,bysocialeconomyorganizationsworkinginco-operation;
2. Thatthecreationofsharedserviceconsortiabesupportedtoprovidestrategicsharedservicesonthebasisoflocalandregionaljurisdictions;
3. Thatsharedserviceconsortiaandcentresbefundedfromthecontributionsofmemberassociationsandinvestmentsfromsocialeconomyfunds;
4. Thatsharedserviceconsortiaandcentresbecollectivelyownedandcontrolledbytheirusermembers;
5. Thatsharedservicecentresincludethepossibilityofrepresentationontheirboardbyanappropriategovernmentdesignate;
6. Thatamajorityofconsortiaandcentreboarddirectorsbederivedfromusermembersandthatnon-memberdirectorsmaynotexceed20%ofaboard’sdirectors.
7. Thatthegovernment,inpartnershipwiththeco-operativesector,establishaco-opdevelopmentprogramtofundthedevelopmentandsupportofnewco-operativeenterprises,includingtheprovisionoftechnicalassistanceandtraining;
8. Thatthegovernmentprovideincentivesforco-operationamongsocialeconomyorganizationsfortheproductionofsocialgoods
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andservices;9. Thatadedicatedobservatoryforthesocialeconomybe
mandatedtostudy,monitor,trackemployment,identifystrategicneedsandtrends,andprovideeducationalandresearchservicesforthesocial/solidarityeconomy..
StrategicPlanning&Design–RegionalandNeighborhoodCouncils
Recommendations:
1. Thateachmunicipalityberequiredtoestablishajointmunicipal/civilcouncilforthepurposeofdeterminingpriorityneedsfortheprovisionofsocialservices;
2. Thatmunicipal/civilcouncilspromotetheproductionofgoodsandservicesbysocialenterprisesthatmeetsocialandenvironmentalobjectivesandcontributetojobcreation,responsibleconsumption,personalandsocialwellbeing,andnewservicesnotprovidedbyeitherthepublicorprivatesector;
3. Thatthecouncilbecomposedofanequalnumberoflocalgovernmentandcivilsocietyrepresentatives;
4. Thatcivilrepresentativesbeselectedthroughafreeandopendemocraticselectionprocessbysocialeconomyorganizationsinthatjurisdiction;
5. ThatthechairmanshipofthecouncilsbesharedbetweenaChairandaViceChairtobedrawnfromgovernmentontheonehandandcivilsocietyontheother;
6. ThatthepositionsofChairandViceChairbeheldforatermoftwoyears;
7. ThatthepositionofChairalternatebetweenthegovernmentandthecivilrepresentativeeverytwoyearterm.
2.GuaranteeofMinimumEconomicIndependence
SocialIncome
AmongthemostsignificantachievementsoftheEcuadorianstatefortheadvancementofsocialprotectionistheuseoftheBono de
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Desarrollo Humano(BDH)forthealleviationofpovertyandtheimprovementofeducationalandhealthoutcomes.TheBDHhasledtoincreasedschoolretentionrates,increasedhealthcarevisits,andareductionofpeoplelivingbelowthepovertylinefrom49percentin2002to37percentin2010.Additionally,theratioofincomeinequalityinEcuadorhasbeendecliningsteadilysince2003.23
ComparedtootherConditionalCashTransfers(CCTs)inusebygovernmentsintheregion,Ecuador’sBDHhasalsoachievedahigherlevelofcoverageasapercentageofthetotalpopulation(44.3percentfor2010).24
InconjunctionwithothersocialprogramssuchastheRed deProteccíonSolidaria(RPS)–thefamilyinsuranceprogram,Coberturade Proteccíon Familiar(CPF),andtheCrédito de Desarrollo Human(CDH),Ecuador’ssocialprotectionprogramsarerightsandopportunity-basedpolicies.TheyarefoundedonthetheoreticalunderpinningsofBuen Vivirasastrategythatlooksbeyondthequantitativemeasurementsofeconomicperformanceandestablishesanewvisionforeconomicinclusion,transparencyandcitizenparticipation.
TheseareessentialtheoreticalandpoliticalfoundationsforthetransitiontoaPartnerState.Notonlydosuchsocialincomeprogramsensureameasureofsocialsecurityandequity;theyalsoestablishthesocio-economicbasisfortheemergenceofanautonomouseconomicspaceforatruesocialmarket.Theyprovideasocialformofcapitalthatcanbeusedtofinancethedevelopmentofnewformsofsocialenterpriseandtoenlargethescopeofthesocial/solidarityeconomyasanautonomous,civilcomplement(notasubstitute)tothepublicsector.
Butimportantassuchprogramsare,iftheyremainundertheexclusivecontrolofstateinstitutionstheyarenotyetinaformwheretheycouldplayatransformativerolefortheinceptionofaPartnerState.Forthis,anewmechanismforthesharedmanagementofthesesystemsbygovernmentandindividualcitizen-usersisrequired.
Howthen,mighttheideaofsocialincomebere-imaginedforittobecomeabuildingblockinsuchatransition?Thatistosay,how
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mightastate-supportedsocialincomebefullyintegratedintothesocial/solidarityeconomyandsobecomeacollectivesocialresourcethatcanbeusedbycivilinstitutionsfortheproductionofsocialvalue?Bysocialvaluewemeanthecreationofgoodsandserviceswhosevalueisdeterminedbytheirsocialutilityandsocialbenefit,nottheirexchangevalueascommoditiesinthemarket.A key area forimplementing such a transition is in the use of social income to create asocial market for the production and consumption of human services.
Oneavenuetoexploreisthecreationofauniversalsocialincomethatcanbeusedtofueltheexpansionofthesocialeconomythroughthecreationofasocialmarketforhumanandsocialservices.InthecaseofEcuador,oneapproachistoprovideanadditiontotheBDHintheformofasocialvoucherorsocialcurrencythatmaybeexchangedforservicesthatwouldbeofferedbysocialeconomyorganizationsthathavebeenestablishedforthispurpose.Suchasystemcouldbeginwithatargetedsocialcurrencythatprovidessupportforhumanservicessuchashomecare,eldercare,childcare,orservicestopersonswithdisabilities.Asocialincomeshouldnotberestrictedtothepoor.Forpurposesofcultivatingnewformsofsocialservice,theprovisionofasocialincomeshouldbedesignedtoincludealsohigherincomestrataandadjustedtoincomelevels.Thisapproachwouldalsoremoveanystigmaassociatedwiththeprogram.
Asocialincomeforhumanservicesopensupanumberofopportunitiesforincreasingthecapacityofthesocialeconomytocreatetheinstitutionsthatcandeliverhumanservicesasacommongoodandalsotoestablishaninitialframeworkforapartnershipbetweengovernmentandsocialeconomyorganizationsforjointlydesigningandproducingtheseservices.Anumberofinstitutionalresourceswouldberequiredforthisapproachtosucceed:
1. Thereneedtobesocialeconomyorganizationswiththeskill,capacity,andresourcestoprovidesuchservices;
2. Thereneedstobeaclearconstituencyofpotentialserviceusersthatwouldbepreparedtoparticipateinthedevelopmentofsuchamodelwithprospectiveserviceproviders;
3. Thereneedstobealong-termeducationandtrainingprogramtosupportbothserviceprovidersandusersinthedesignand
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developmentofthissystem;4. Thereneedstobeastrongcommunityofinterestwherethis
modelmightbepiloted,includingtheinvolvementoflocalgovernmentauthorities,socialeconomyorganizations,keycommunitystakeholders,andprospectiveusers.
3.DemocratizationoftheEconomyandRestructuringtheProductiveMatrix
EconomicandSectorDevelopment
ThedemocratizationofthebroadercommercialeconomyisoffundamentalimportancetotheevolutionofaPartnerState.Butifaneconomyistrulytoservethecommongood,itsdrivingvalues,itsrewardsandpunishments,mustreinforcethevaluesandaimsofcivilsocietyasawhole.Forthisreason,theeconomyasawholemustbesocializedandhumanized.Bythis,wemeanthesupportandexpansionofthoseformsofenterpriseandeconomicrelationsthatutilizethemarketforthepursuitofsocialobjectives.Thisincludesalltypesofco-operatives,socialenterprises,andprivatecompaniesthataimatsocialutility–notmerelythepursuitofprofit.Insum,itmeanstheexpansionofenterprisesinwhichcapitalisundersocialcontrol.
Presently,marketsaretreatedasiftheyarethepreserveofprivate,for-profit,capitalistfirms.Oneoutcomeisthatthespacethatisavailableforotherformsofenterpriseisincreasinglyreducedasmoreofthemarketcomestobedominatedormonopolizedbylargecorporateinterests.Bycontrast,thePartnerStatefostersaneconomywhoseinstitutionssupportandrewardplurality,co-operation,sharing,socialbenefit,andopen accesstothemarket.
Asanenablerofcivicformsofeconomicdevelopment,thePartnerStatehasacrucialroletoplayintheformationofeconomicpolicythatsupportsthegrowthofenterprisesthatpromotesocialvalue,environmentalsustainability,equity,andeconomicwellbeing.Centraltothisistheuseofparticipatoryplanningandlocalizedco-operativesystemstosupporttheemergenceandoperationofmicro,smallandmediumsizedenterprises(MSMEs)instrategicsectorsof
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theeconomy.
ThePartnerStateseekstodeveloppoliciesthataligneconomicdevelopmentwiththeexpansionofeconomicopportunityforallkindsofenterprises.Priorityisplacedonthoseenterprisesthatcontributetolocalandregionaldevelopmentthroughthegrowthanddiversificationofproductivecapacitythatisrootedtocommunity.Economicpolicyisthusgearedtothestrengtheningoflocaleconomiesthatcanmaximizeeconomicopportunityforindividualsandmicro,small,andmediumenterprises,whetherprivatelyorcollectivelyowned.
Asinmostdevelopingeconomies,MSMEscompriseasignificantportionofEcuador’sGDPandaccountforahighpercentofemployment.InEcuador,theyarepredominantlyinthesectorsofsmall-scaleagriculture,forestry,fishing,construction,artisan/craftproduction,andservices.25Theseenterprisesconstitutetheseedbedfromwhichlocaleconomiesaregrown;theyarethebasisforalocalizedgenerationandcirculationofwealth.
Forthisreason,Ecuador’spoliciesfortransformingtheproductivematrix,includingthedemocratizationoflandownershipanduse,placeahighpriorityondevelopingthisvitalcomponentofthenationaleconomy.AsstatedinthepolicydocumentsproducedbytheInterInstitutionalCommitteeforTransformingtheProductiveMatrix(2013),
Themicro,smallandmediumenterpriseshaveastrategicimportanceinthegrowthoftheeconomy,forthetransformationofthelocalproductionsystem,andthebestcompetitivepositionforthecountry.Inaddition,thesebusinesssegmentscontributetoreducingpovertyandinequality…”
TheaimisthatMSMEshaveprioritytreatmentatallstages,frominitiativestoimproveproductivity,quality,andmarketingtothosethatpromotestrategicandrewardingparticipationindomesticandinternationalmarkets.”26
Inthepromotionoftheseaims,thegovernmenthasinitiatedananalysisoftheproductivecapacitiesofeachofEcuador’s23regions,
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itemizingandanalyzingtheoperationsofMSMEsaswellasprivateandpublicactorsineachregion,identifyingtherelativeimportanceofspecificeconomicsectors,andidentifyingtherelativestrengthsandchallengesoftheproductivesystemsineachterritory.Throughout,thedocumentsstressthecentralimportanceofcollaborationamongeconomicactors,thesharingofresearchandinnovation,andthecreationofinstitutionsthatfacilitateeconomicandsocialsolidarityintheregion.
WithrespecttoMSMEs,anumberofgeneralpoliciesareproposedtoadvancethisvision:
1. Facilitatingandmanagingtheinteractionoftheactorsindifferentproductivechains;
2. Supportingtheparticipationofruralfarmersinpublicprocurementsystems;
3. Establishingaprogramofcontinuousinnovationtailoredtotheparticularitiesoftheregion;
4. Creatingpreferentialcreditprogramsofpublicbanksandstrengthenmicrofinanceinstitutionsandco-operatives;and
5. Promotingentrepreneurship.
Thisfocusoneconomicdemocratizationthroughthesupportoflocalsmallandmediumenterprises,aswellasthepromotionofrepresentativeRegionalCouncilsinthedevelopmentprocess,arekeyaspectsofaPartnerStateapproach.Asenablingagent,thePartnerStatedevelopspoliciesandresourcesthatprovideasupportiveframeworkforthiskindofdevelopment.Anumberofelementsareessentialtothis.Theyinclude:
Theexpansionofsocial/solidarityeconomyvaluesthroughouttheeconomythroughthepromotionofco-operativeandcommons-basedmodelsofenterprise;Thedevelopmentofco-operativenetworksthatencouragecollaborationandthepromotionofcollectiveinterestsandaregionalperspectiveamongindividualenterprises;Thecreationofinstitutionsthatenablejointplanningbetweenlocalenterprisesandgovernment;Theidentificationofstrategicsectorsandthedevelopmentofregionalpoliciesthatunderstandandaddresssectoralstrengths
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andweaknessesforthelong-term;Thedevelopmentoflocalizedservicecentres–controlledbytheenterprisesthatusethem–thatarecapableofprovidingspecialized,sharedservicestoenterprisesoperatinginspecificsectors;Thecreationoflocalizedinstitutionsthatsupportthecapitalizationofenterprise;Thecreationofentrepreneurialnetworksthatarecapableofaccessingandutilizingknowledgetoadvanceenterprisedevelopment,topromoteinnovation,andtotransformproductionthroughthesharingofinformationandtechnology(ICTs);Theprovisionofincentivesforco-operationamongsectorenterprisesforthepromotionofsharedproductionsystems,thesharingofknowledge,researchandtechnology,andthesharingofenterprisesupportssuchasmarketing,training,financing,accounting,bookkeeping,andICTuse;Theidentificationofresearch&developmentknowledgefromtheacademyforpracticaladaptationandapplicationtotheadvancementofindividualenterprisesandmaterialproductionthroughtheinvolvementofacademicinstitutions;Thelinkageofopenknowledgesystemstonewformsofproductionthatcanadapttechnologytotheconcreteneedsoflocalenterprises,includingtheadoptionofopensourcetechnology;
Mostofthesepracticesarenowacceptedasstandardpolicyforstrengtheningtheperformanceandresilienceofsmallfirmeconomies.However,thevitalquestionremains…How are thesepolicies to be realized in practice so that the institutions that are vital totheir success reflect the principles of a Partner State?
SectorDevelopment
PerhapsthemosteffectivemeansofimplementingaPartnerStateapproachtoeconomicdevelopmentistofocusonsectordevelopmentandthecreationofpartneringinstitutionsatregionalandlocallevels.Thisallowsforaconcentratedfocusonstrategicareasofeconomicactivityandonthemobilizationofpartnershipsandresourcesatthoselevelsofgovernancethataremost
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appropriatefortheimplementationofpolicy.Focusingonsectorsallowspolicyandpracticetobetailoredtotheuniqueinstitutionalandorganizationalcharacteristicsofadefinedareaofeconomicactivityanditsactors.Thisapproachalsohastheadvantageofactivatingthegovernancestructuresandgivingeffecttothedemocratizationanddecentralizationofdecision–makingandeconomicplanning.
ThefirststepinsectordevelopmentusingaPartnerStateapproachistheestablishmentofapartneringagencythathasthecapacitytoundertakeadetailedsectoranalysisoftheeconomyatbothnationalandregionallevels.Thepurposeofthisdevelopmentagencyistoanalyzetheoperationsofkeyeconomicsectors;toforecasttherolethesesectorsshouldplayintheevolutionofacountry’seconomicfuture;todiagnosethestrengthsandweaknessesofeachsectorinthecontextofbotharegionalandaglobalmarketplace;todiagnosetheevolvingtrade,technological,andregulatorydynamicscurrentlyunderway;andtoidentifythosesectorsthataremoststrategicforthetransitiontoaneconomythatpromotesresilience,sustainability,equity,andthesocialaimsofBuen Vivir.
Needlesstosay,thisdevelopmentagencywouldbedesignedasavehiclefortheinclusionofbothgovernmentandnon-governmentstakeholdersintheformationofstrategicplanningthatrelatesregionaldevelopmenttoglobalrealitiesandprovidesacounterweightofregionalandsmall-scaleentrepreneurialintereststothoseintereststhatformthecurrentpowerstatusquo.Includedinthegovernanceofthisagencyshouldbemicro,smallandmediumsizedbusinessinterests;organizedlabour;theco-operativeandsocialenterprisesector;thecreditunionsector;andkeyacademicinstitutions.
Aswiththeco-constructionofsocialgoodsandservices,thesecondelementinthedevelopmentofasector-basedeconomicpolicyisthecreationofspecializedservicecentresthatcanpromotethedevelopmentofstrategicsectorsbyassistingmicro,small,andmediumfirmstosucceedthroughtheprovisionofsharedservices;thedevelopmentofco-operativeproductionnetworks;thepromotionofshareduseoftechnology,research,andequipment;andtheutilizationofopenknowledgesystemsforcollective
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economicbenefitintheregion.
Thesecentreswouldformtheorganizationalinfrastructurethatfacilitatestheutilizationofopenknowledgeandopensourcetechnologyforgreatesteffectinthesectorstheyareintendedtoserve.Theoveralldirectionandcontrolofthesecentresmustrestprimarilyinthehandsofthoseenterprisesthatusetheirservicesalongwithrepresentationofotherregionalandsectoralstakeholderssuchasgovernment,universities,andlocalfinancialinstitutionssuchascreditunions.Thesectoralcentresshouldalsobecloselylinkedtothestrategicplanningroleplayedbythenationaleconomicdevelopmentagencyandthecorrespondingministryingovernment.AlltheseattributesofasectorstrategyarewellillustratedinthecaseofEmiliaRomagna.
CaseStudy–EmiliaRomagna
EmiliaRomagnaisaregionoffourmillionpeopleinthenorthofItaly.Itisoneofthebestexamplesofhowagovernmentcanemployco-operativeandcommons-basedprinciplesaspartofaPartnerStateapproachforbotheconomicandsocialdevelopment.
Theco-operativeeconomicsysteminEmiliaRomagnahasachievedaninternalcoherenceandintegrationthatisunique.Over8,000co-operativesaccountforalmost1/3oftheregion’sGDPwhichisthehighestpercapitainItaly.27ThisisItaly’slargestexportingregion,accountingforthirteenpercentofthecountry’stotal.28Butthiswasn’talwaysthecase.Inthe1950’sthiswasoneofItaly’spoorestregions.Today,EmiliaRomagnaisamongEurope’stoptenperformingeconomicregions.Howwasthisaccomplished?
Overaperiodof30yearscommencingwiththeformationofregionalgovernmentsin1971,EmiliaRomagna’sregionalgovernmentblendedthestrengthsoftheco-opsystemwiththepowerofgovernmenttocreateaco-operativeeconomicmodelthatextendsbeyondco-operativestotheeconomyasawhole.
ThemostdistinctivefeatureofEmiliaRomagna’sindustrialparadigmistheemergenceofwhathassincebecomeakeystrategyforthesuccessfuldevelopmentofasmallfirmeconomy–the
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clusteringofsmallfirmsinindustrialdistricts.IndustrialclusterswereperfectedinthisregionandanextensiveliteraturehasbeendevotedtowhathassincecometobeknownastheEmilianModel.Andalthoughthemodelhasundergonesignificantchangessinceitsdiscoveryintheearly‘70s,thepatternofindustrialdevelopmentthatitrepresentsisauniqueinstanceofsuccessfulco-operationinacapitalistframework.
ERVETandtheRealServiceCentres
Oneofthefirsttasksoftheregionalgovernmentwastocreateamechanismthroughwhichtheregionaleconomyasawholecouldbeunderstood,itsstrengthsandweaknessesdiagnosed,andaprogramofdevelopmentestablished.ItcreatedERVET,theeconomicplanninganddevelopmentagencythathadalastingimpactonthedevelopmentoftheregion’sstrategicsectors.
ERVETwasapublic/privateagencythatwasfundedanddirectedbyapartnershipbetweentheregionalgovernmentanditskeyalliesamongbusiness,labour,andacademicinstitutions.Itundertookacarefulanalysisoftheregions’keyeconomicsectors,diagnosedtheparticularstrengthsandweaknessesofthefirmscomprisingthesesectors,andestablishedaseriesofwhatwerecalled“realservicecentres”toprovidestrategicassistancetothefirmsandtheindustrialdistrictsofwhichtheywereapart.
Whiletheparticularservicesprovidedbyeachservicecentreweretailoredtotheneedsofthesectorinwhichtheyoperated–ceramics,agriculturalmachinery,footwear,clothing,etc.–theoverallstrategywasthesame:toincreasetheproductivecapacityandcompetenceofindividualfirmsandtoensurethatthelinkagesbetweenfirmsintheindustrialdistrictsremainedstrongandwerefurthermobilizedtostrengthenthesystemasawhole.
Someoftheseservicecentres(ASTER,Democentre)wereengagedexclusivelyinresearch,training,andtechnologytransfer.Theservicecentreswerestructuredonaco-operativemodel–theywerefundedthroughamixofERVETfundsandmemberfeesanddirectedbyelectedrepresentativesofthefirmsthatusedtheirservices.Thisensuredthatthecentres’serviceswouldcorrespondtothereal
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needsofthefirms.
Theco-operativenatureofthesenetworkswereakeyreasonwhySMEswereabletoaccesstheresearch,training,andknowledgethatwerecentraltocreatingtheinnovationsthatwereindispensibletothesuccessandsurvivaloftheseenterprises.TheprogramsandservicesofERVETandthecentresreinforcedtheco-operativebondsbetweenfirmsandwithintheindustrialdistricts.Forexample,researchfundsforproductdevelopmentorthedevelopmentofnewtechnologyweregrantedonlytogroupsoffirmsthathadagreedtoworktogether.
Onthequestionofcapitalinvestment,firmswouldorganizecreditco-operatives.Thesegroups,orconsorzi,wouldthentakeresponsibilityfortheloanstakenoutbytheirmembers,operatingmuchasaloancircleforsmallfirms.AdaptedtothecreditneedsofEmilianfirms,consortioloansareprovidedatverylowratesbyco-operativebanks,manyofwhichwerefirstestablishedasasourceofcreditforfarmers.Sosuccessfularetheseconsortia,andthedefaultratessolow,thatthelargenationalbankshavebeentryingtobreakintothismarketforyears,butwithlittlesuccess.Thesmallerregionalbanksprovideforalmostalloftheregion’scapitalneeds.
TheseandsimilarpoliciesarealreadyhighlightedintheideasandproposalspromotedinEcuador’sNationalPlanandnumerouspolicydocuments.ThereisastrongaffinitybetweenEcuador’ssocialandeconomicaimsandwhatEmiliaRomagnahasbeenabletoachieve,andbothcasesrelyonelementsthatarecentraltotheideaofaPartnerState.
Undoubtedly,countriesandregionsdiffer.Theeconomic,social,andpoliticalantecedentsthatgaverisetotheEmilianModelareinsomewaysunique.However,thelessonsofco-operationasaninstrumentofregionaldevelopmentandofsmallfirmempowermentareevenmorerelevantinthecaseofcountrieslikeEcuadorwhereeconomicinequitiesandthedominationofestablishedpowerstructuresareevenmoreadversetotheinterestsandprospectsofsmallandmediumfirms.
Inthesecontexts,co-operationamongMSMEsataregionallevelis
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evenmoreofanimperativeiftheyaretodevelopandcontributesignificantlytoanew,morepluralistic,productivematrix.And,justasthenewdigitaltechnologyofthe1970sand80sgaveimpetustothespecializationsandinnovationsofEmiliaRomagna’ssmallfirms,theopensourcetechnologyandcommons-basedknowledgesystemsoftodayprovideameansforsmallfirmstosimilarlyadaptemergenttechnologytotheparticularconditionsofMSMEsinEcuadorandelsewhere.
Today’sInternetmakespossibletheadaptationoffarmmachinerytolocalneedsthroughopensourcedesignsthatcanbesharedatminimalcost.Opensourcetechnologyprovidesameansforsmallfarmerstoaccessinformationonlinethatgreatlyenhancestheircapacitytoimproveproductionbyadjustingtheirpracticestotheparticularitiesofcrops,soils,andclimates.Newavenuesforglobalmarketingoflocalproductsareavailable,asistheintegrationofproductsintofairtradedistributionnetworksthataremeanttosupportthekindsoflocallycontrolledproductionmodelsdescribedabove.
Mostimportantofallaretheexamplesofsuccessfuldevelopmentstrategiesthatcanbenefitbothprivateandcollectiveformsofownershipthroughtheuseofco-operativesystems.JustasthesesystemshaveprovensuccessfulinregionslikeEmiliaRomagnaandtheindustrialdistrictsofGermany,FranceandtheUS,sotoohavethesemodelsbeenadaptedtoservetheneedsofregionaleconomiesincountrieslikeSriLanka,Mexico,andCostaRica.Here,thechallengesofsmallscale,isolation,absenceofsecondaryprocessing,inaccessiblemarkets,andthecontrolofproductdistributionbyintermediariesareidenticaltotheproblemsfacedbysmallproducersandentrepreneursinEcuador.
4.SecuringtheCommons
Therecognition,protection,andexpansionofthesociety’scommonsarecentralfeaturesofThePartnerState.Whatdowemeanbythecommons?
Thecommonsreferstoanyresourcewhoseuseisfreelyaccessibletoacommunityofusersandwhichinturn,ismanagedbythemin
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common.Acommonsisnotownedintheconventionalsense.Rather,itsvalueliesinthefactofitsfreeandopenaccess.Itistheantithesistoenclosureofaresourceforprivatebenefit.Instead,acommonsisbasedonthesocialethicsofinterdependenceandco-operationandthevalueofacommonsisgeneratedthroughthepracticeofsharing.Mostimportantly,acommonsistheproductofthosesocialrelationshipsthatenablethisuse.
Traditionallycommonshavereferredtosuchnaturalgoodsaswater,fisheries,forests,pastures,etc.However,theconcepthasbeenbroadenedtoincludealsonon-materialcommonresourcessuchasknowledge,culture,freesoftware,andtheInternet.Thesesamequalitiesofopenaccess,sharing,andcollectivemanagementbytheusersarecommontoallofthem.Thecommonsthen,areamanifestationofthosesamevaluesofreciprocity,mutuality,andsocialbenefitthatunderlietheoperationsofcivilsocietyandthesocial/solidarityeconomy.
Historically,thecommonsmaybeseenasthematerialandeconomicfoundationsthathelpedsustaincollectiveformsofliving.Theywere,andremain,boththeproductandtheindispensiblesupportofthosesocialrelationsthatbindpeopletoeachotherandtotheirenvironment.TheideaofthecommonsisthuscentraltotheaimsofBuen VivirandisalsointimatelylinkedtotheprotectionsaffordedtonaturebytheConstitution.Theseprotectionsaredeeplylinkedtotheprotectionandpromotionofthecommonsandtothenotionofsubsidiaritythatgrantslocalterritoriesandindigenouspeoplestheconstitutionalrighttoparticipateinthedecisionsaffectingthedevelopmentoftheirterritoryandtheenjoymentoftheirtraditionalwaysofliving.Protectionofthematerialcommons,especiallynaturalresources,isintimatelyconnectedtotheestablishmentofaplurinationalpolity.
Thenotionofcollectiverightsisinseparablefromtheideaofthecommonsandofthecommongood.Collectiverightsarethoseindividualrightsthatbelongtotheindividualasamemberofacommunity.Theindividualhastheenjoymentoftheserightsasprotectedbylaw–butonlyasamemberofthecommunity.Itisthecommunityasawholethatembodiestheserightsandexercisesthemthroughtheagencyofeachindividualmember.Thecollective
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enjoymentoftheserightsislinkedtothenotionofuse,andinparticulartotheconceptofcivicuseasopposedtomerelyfreeuseorpublicuse.Itistheconceptof“civicuse”thatismostamenabletotheregulationofcommongoodsas“thingsinstrumentaltotherealizationofthedevelopmentoftheperson”,acentralconceptofBuen Vivir.Morespecifically,commongoodsrefertothosethingsthatmaybeusedbyanyonebelongingtothecommunitythathasuserightsoveracommons.
Enclosureandcommodificationofthecommonsunderminethematerialbasisforcollectiveformsoflivingandofthesocialrelationshipsthatinturn,reproducethoseforms.Theyareanirreplaceableresourceforre-generatingasociety’sstoreofsocialcapital,forvalidatingandmanifestingtheideaofsocialsolidarity,andforanchoringboththevaluesandtheoperationsofcivilsociety.Assuch,theprotectionandexpansionofthecommonsmustbeabasicaimbothofcivilsocietyandofanygovernmentthatwishestopromotethesocialaimsenvisagedintheideaofBuen Vivir.
CommonversusPublic
Thecommonshowever,shouldbedistinguishedfrompublicgoodsorpublicproperty.29Whilebothcontaintheideasofnon-exclusionandsocialvalue,publicgoodsarenotcontrolledormanagedbytheirusers–publicgoodsandpublicinstitutionsarecontrolledbythestate.Forthisreasontheymayalsobeprivatizedbythestate,commodified,andsoldforprofit.Today,theenclosureandcommodificationofpublicgoodsbygovernmentsandcapitalconstitutethegreatestencroachmentsagainstsocialwealthintheworld.
Theevolutionoftherelationshipbetweenstatesandcapital,betweenpublicandprivateproperty,hasledtoaconditioninwhichprivatizationandstatismnowendangertheverysurvivalofthecommonsasanindispensibleresourceforthesatisfactionofbasichumanneeds.Inthisweincludesuchessentiallifesupportsasaccesstowater,thesharingofseedsforagriculturalproduction,andcleanair.Butitisnowclearthatconventionalmodelsofdemocraticgovernance,conceivedasgovernmentactingon behalfofcitizens,arenolongercapableofprotectingandpreservingthepublicinterest
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andwhatremainsofthecommonsalongwithit.Whatisrequiredisawhollynewrelationshipinwhichformalpoliticalauthoritylegitimizesitsoperationsinagiventerritorythroughthedirectinvolvementoflocalcommunitiesingovernance.
Theprotectionofthecommonsrequiresaframeworkwhichformalizesthecivilandcommunitarianattributesofcommonsandwhichtietheminalienablytotheirusersandtotheterritoryasasharedcollectiveresource.Thismeanstheenactmentoflegalprotectionsfortheirpreservationandthepursuitofpublicpoliciesfortheirexpansion.Aboveall,itmeanstherecognitionbythestateofadistinctandinalienablespaceofcommons wealththatcanneitherbeappropriatednorpurchased.Itisauniquelycivilspacethatisprotectedbylegislationwhichrecognizesthisdistinctivecivil–asopposedtopolitical–qualityofthecommons.Oneofitsprimaryfeaturesistherecognitionofusers’controlrightsoveritsmanagement.
Acurrentexampleofthiskindoflegislation–focusedonurbancommons–istobefoundinthecityofBologna,whichhasbecomethefirstCommonsCityinEurope.
LegislationfortheCommons
ThesalientcharacteristicofthisnewrelationshipbetweentheCityanditscitizensiscollaborativegovernanceontheprincipleofhorizontalsubsidiarity.Horizontalsubsidiarityrequiresalllevelsofgovernmentstofindwaystosharetheirpowersandco-operatewithsingleorassociatedcitizenswillingtoexercisetheirconstitutionalrighttocarryoutactivitiesofgeneralinterest.And,asopposedtoconventionalsubsidiarity,whichisverticalandhierarchical,horizontalsubsidiaritystresseschoicesthataremadecollaborativelybysocialactorsandgovernmentatthelevelatwhichanactionistobecarriedout.Themanagementofcommonsiscentralinthisrespect.Inthismodel,publicadministrationsshallnolongergovernonlyon behalfofcitizens,butalsotogetherwithcitizens,acknowledgingthatcitizensrepresenta“powerfulandreliableallycapableofunleashingagreatsourceofenergy,talents,resources,capabilitiesandideasthatmaybemobilizedtoimprovethequalityoflifeofacommunityorhelpcontributetoitssurvival.”30
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TheCitiesasCommonsprojectstartedinJune2012inBolognathankstothesupportofFondazionedelMontediBolognaandRavennaandthetechnicalsupportprovidedbytheLaboratoryforSubsidiarity–Labsus–inRome.31Overthelasttenyears,Labsushascollectedandanalyzedcasesofcollaborativegovernancewiththeaimofdemonstratinghowanewmodelofgovernmentcouldbeusedtorealizetheseaims.Theprojectappliedanempiricalapproachand,afteratrainingprogramwithCityofficialsandlocalcivicleaders,facilitatedthebirthofpartnershipsbetweentheCityandlocalresidentswithregardstothemanagementofthreeurbancommons–apublicsquare,asectionofthecity’sfamous“portici”,andapublicbuilding.
ThedraftoftheregulationthatwasadoptedwasthensubjectedtopublicconsultationandreviewedbysomeofthemostprominentItalianscholarsofadministrativelaw.ASpanishtranslationoftheregulationisincludedinAppendix3.
KeyFeaturesoftheRegulation
TheRegulationonCo-operationBetweenCitizensandGovernmentontheCareandRegenerationofUrbanCommonsisaframeworkforthejointcareandmanagementofurbancommons.AsstatedintheDocument,
“This Regulation, in harmony with the provisions of the Constitution andthe Statute of the municipal governing the forms of co-operation betweencitizens and the administration for the treatment and regeneration of urbanpublic goods, in particular giving effect to art. 118, 114, and paragraphs 2, 6and 117 of the Constitution.
Theunderlyingprinciplesoftheregulationincludethefollowing:
1. Recognitionofcommonsasessentialtothegenerationofindividualandcollectivewell-being;
2. MutualTrustbetweenthemunicipalityandthecivilgroupsengagedincommonswork;
3. Autonomyofcitizenstoengageandorganizeinthepursuitofcommonsaims;
4. Flexibilityandinformalityofarrangementsandagreementsfor
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theco-managementofcommons;5. Identificationandallocationofpublicassetsasresourcesfor
collectivelifeandenjoyment;6. Openness,Accountability,andTransparencyintheco-
managementofcommons;7. Promotionofsocialeconomyorganizationsasapriorityforthe
productionandpreservationofcommonsgoodsandservices.
Theregulationreferstothecareandstewardshipofabroadrangeofpublicassetsandservicesthatfallunderitsjurisdiction.Thesearedescribedasincluding,
Assetsofurbanmunicipalitiesandtangible,intangibleanddigitalpropertythatthecitizensandtheAdministrationrecognizeasinstrumentalforrealizingindividualandcollectivewellbeingand…tosharewiththeadministrationtheresponsibilityoftheircareorregenerationinordertoimprovethecollectiveenjoyment.”32
Theregulationalsopromotesthecreationofarangeofsocialeconomyorganizationsforimplementingthiswork.
The municipality pursues the objectives referred to in this articleencouraging the creation of co-operatives, social enterprises, start-ups insocial vocation and the development of economic, cultural and socialactivities and projects.33
Akeyprovisionofthisregulationistherequirementforlocalauthoritiestodesignatemunicipally-ownedassetsasresourcestobeusedfortherealizationoftheseaims.
Spaces and buildings referred to in this regulation constitute a resourcefunctional to the achievement of the purposes referred to in this article. TheCity reserves a portion of these assets to projects that foster social innovationor the production of collaborative services.34
Allcitizens,whetheractingasindividualsorasmembersofassociations,havetherighttoparticipateandcontributetothisworkofcaringforthecommons.35Theregulationdescribestheproceduresandstandardsrequiredfortheimplementationofajoint
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citizen/governmentinitiative.Theseareintendedtobeenablingasopposedtoprescriptive.Importantly,theregulationpromotesinformalityinthearrangementsbetweenparticipatingstakeholdersandrequiresformal,legalagreementsonlywhenrequiredbylaw.
“…theAdministrationrequiresthattherelationshipwithcitizensissubjecttospecificformalitiesonlywhenthatprovidedbythelaw.Intheremainingcasesensuresflexibilityandsimplicityinthereport,aslongasitispossibletoensurecompliancewithpublicethics,aswellasdeclinedthecodeofconductforcivilservantsandtheprinciplesoffairness,goodperformance,transparencyandcertainty.”36
Oneadditionalpointmaybenotedwithrespecttotheregulation.Thenotionofthecommonsisextendedtothemanagementofimmaterialcommongoodsandthepromotionofdigitalinnovationasacomponentofcommonsco-management.
Thisisanimportantfeaturethatlinkstheco-managementofthecommonstotheconceptsofopentechnology,thepromotionofopengovernment,andtothebroaderaimsofasocialknowledgeeconomy.
The Municipality encourages innovation through digital interventionsparticipation in the conception, design and implementation of services andapplications for the civic network by the community, with particularattention to the use of open data and infrastructures, in perspective ofdigital commons.37
Inaidofthisobjective,theCityofBolognahasalsoprovidedmaterialsupportforthecreationofIperbole–aCivicNetworkthatpromotestelemediaasan“instrumentofelectronicdemocracyandsocio-economicdevelopmentoftheterritory”38andthemobilizationandengagementofcitizensforthecare,restoration,andexpansionofthecommons.
To this end, the City agrees with the parties that participate in civic life andthe evolution of the network and provide the collaborative environment andcivic skills for the co-design and realization of innovative services, data,spaces, infrastructure and digital platforms, such as the medium of the Civic
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Network.39
Finally,theimplementationofthesecollaborativeprojectsentailstheenactmentofaco-operativecovenantorpactbetweengovernmentandcitizens.Theco-operativepactdescribestheworktobedone,theprocedurestobefollowed,themonitoringandevaluationoftheresults,andtheresources,guarantees,andresponsibilitiesinvolved.Anditisinterestingtonotethatboththeideaoftheco-operativepactanditsformhavebeenstronglyinfluencedbythecivicagreementssignedbylocalauthoritieswithsocialco-opsfortheprovisionofhealth,education,andsocialservicescommissionedbythemunicipalities.
TheregulationadoptedbyBolognaprovidesaconcreteandcomprehensiveframeworkforimplementingaprojectfortheco-managementofpublicandcommongoodsbyamunicipalityanditscitizens.ItsaimsandprinciplesreflectmanyoftheelementsthatarecharacteristicofhowaPartnerStatemightapproachtheprotectionandco-managementofthecommonsinanurbancontext.ButwhereastheBolognainitiativehasbrokennewgroundwithrespecttotheregenerationandcareofurbancommons,theprinciplesinvolvedmaybeadaptedtotherequirementsofotherformsofcommonsandatlargerscales.
Combinedwiththeideaofhorizontalsubsidiarityandoftheconstitutionalrightsofnatureandofindigenouscommunities,aregulatoryframeworkcouldbedevelopedfortheidentificationofsuchcommonsaswaterways,forests,andnaturalresourcesforjointmanagementwiththepeoplesoftheterritorieswherethesecommonsexist.APartnerStateapproachthroughaformofco-operativepactwiththecommunitiesoftheseterritorieswouldgiveconcreteeffecttothedecentralizationofdecision-makingmandatedbytheConstitutionandtheNationalPlan.Thisapproachwouldalsosecurethematerialbasisfortheexpressionofthosesocialvaluesofreciprocity,mutualityandthecommongoodthatarethebasisforcollectivelifeintheseterritories.
ButwhiletheBolognainitiativehasdevelopedtheregulatoryframeworkfortheco-managementofurbancommons,thesemunicipalassetsarestillownedbythestateandassucharepublic…
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notentirelycommoninthesensewehavedescribed.Forthistobethecase,themanagementofthecommonresourceneedstobepairedwithlegalprotectionsthatsecureitsuseasacommonsinperpetuity.Suchacommons,whilelegallyprotectedandconstitutedforthisuse,maynotbeappropriatedbythestateasgovernmentorpublicproperty,norbesold.Forthistohaveeffect,aformofcollectiveandcivilownershipmustbedevised.
Examplesoftheseformsofcommonsownershipandgovernance,aswellastherulesfortheiroperation,havebeenwelldocumentedbyElinorOstrom.40Successfulexamplesoftheiruserangefromtheco-operativemanagementofJapan’sfishery–theworld’slargest–totheco-operativemanagementofwaterwaysandirrigationsystemsbytheindigenousfarmersofBali.41
Initsconstitutionandnationalaims,Ecuadorhasalreadytravelledagreatdistanceinthedirectionofempoweringitscitizenstotakeanactiveroleinthedevelopmentoftheterritoriesinwhichtheylive.Ithasenshrinedtheprinciplesofdecentralizationandlocaldecision-making;ithasmandatedalllevelsofgovernmenttopromotethedevelopmentofgoodsandservicesthroughprocurementpoliciesthatgiveprioritytogroupsinthesocial/solidarityeconomy;andithasadvocatedthepursuitofsocialknowledgeandthecommonsasafoundationforthetransformationofthecountry’sproductivematrix.Clearly,allthesemeasureshavedirectrelevanceasmodelsfortheadvancementofcitizenengagementandthepromotionofthesocialeconomyfarbeyondEcuador’sborders.
However,thedevelopmentofatruePartnerStatewouldrequiretheformulationofalegislativeandregulatorynationalframeworkthatwouldentrenchthecommons,inalltheirforms,asatruenationalpatrimonybeyondthereachofthoseintereststhatwouldseektoenclosethemforprivateorpoliticalgain.
Tothisend,weproposethefollowingpolicyrecommendations:
1. Thatacomprehensivemappingofexistingnaturalresourcecommonsbecarriedout;
2. Thatcomprehensivelegislationbeintroducedtosecureandprotectthecommonsasanationalpatrimonyandtiedtothe
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territorieswherecommonsareutilized;3. Thatspecificpolicyframeworksbeestablishedfortheco-
managementofurbancommonsbylocalmunicipalitiesandthecitizenry;
4. ThatsocialeconomyorganizationsberecognizedasthemostappropriateformforcitizenmanagementofcommonsandthattheOrganicLawforthePopularandSolidarityEconomy(LOEPS)berevisedtoallowforthecreationofbothcommunityserviceco-operatives(social/solidarityco-ops)andmulti-stakeholderco-operativesassocialinstrumentsforthemanagementofcommons.42
Theinclusionofnaturalresourcesasnationalcommonstobegraduallyco-managedbythestateandlocalcommunitiesconstitutesanentirelynewapproachtoresourcedevelopmentandwouldpowerfullytransformthecountry’sproductivematrixinthedirectionofBuen Vivir.Thecommonificationofresources,likethedemocratizationofpublicservicesandthebroadereconomy,arepowerfulcatalystsfortheevolutionofacivicculturethathasthecollectivevalues,thesocialcapital,andtheenablinginstitutionsthatwouldallowcivilsocietytoplaytheroleenvisagedforitbytheframersofthecountry’sConstitutionandtheCitizen’sRevolutionthatwasitssourceandinspiration.
CulturalFactors
Itisimportanttonotethatatransitiontothistypeofdevelopmentiscontingentonexistingpatternsofproductionandtheculturalattitudesthatdriveeconomicbehaviour.Themostimportantoftheseisthepresenceorabsenceofhighlevelsofsocialcapitalandapredispositionamongpeopletoworktogethertorealizemutualaims.Wherethesesocialvaluesandattitudesarestrong,andwhereco-operativeinstitutionsalreadyexist,thecollaborativeapproachtoeconomicdevelopmenthasafarhigherchanceofchangingtheproductivematrixthroughtheuseofsocialknowledgeasaresourceforeconomicandsocialdevelopment.Wheresocialcapitalisweak,akeystrategyforpromotingsuchadevelopmentmodelisthecreationofproductionsystemsthatfosterhabitsofeconomiccollaborationandthatareorientedtowardcommonbenefit.
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Unlikeconventionalcapitalistmodels,whichservetoundermineanddepletesocialcapital,co-operativeandpeer-to-peermodelsdependuponsocialcapitalasanecessaryconditionoftheiroperations.Co-operationreinforcesandcultivatesfurtherco-operation.Co-operativesystemsreplenishsocialcapitalandtheattitudesandskillsthatpromotesharing.Asuccessfulsocialknowledgeeconomyisthusverymuchaco-operativeeconomy.
Thispointneedstobeemphasizedasitiscentraltocreatingthesocialandculturalconditionsthatcansustainaneconomicmodelbasedonsharingandcommons-basedvaluesthatarethefoundationofasocialknowledgeeconomy.Thesequestionsofculturalattitudesandthemeansoftransformingthemareinsufficientlytreatedinproposalsforeconomicdevelopment,yettheyarecentraltotheprocessofsocialandeconomictransformation.
Itisforthisreasonthattheadoptionandpromotionofparticularmodesofproduction,ofownership,ofrelationshipsamongeconomicagents,andofinstitutionallinksbetweengovernmentandthestakeholdersofboththeprivateandsocialeconomiesaresoimportant.
Theotherissuethatneedstobehighlightedisthequestionofhowpopularexpectationsandperceptionsofthestatehelporhindercitizenparticipation.ThisissueiswellarticulatedinEcuador’sNationalPlanandisoftremendousrelevancetotheimplementationofrealisticpoliciesaimedattransitiontoaPartnerStatemodel.
Enormous progress has been made in citizen participation. However, thechallenge lies in changing the attitudes of citizens, which are stillpersistently passive. This culture of a citizenry passively dependent on Stateguardianship must be limited.
This qualitative leap forward, from citizens wishing for rights to citizensexercising their rights, is a break away from the power of the market, aswell as the domination and accumulation incrusted into social structures.Constructing an active, committed, and thoughtful citizenry demands amore profound institutional reform of the State, so citizen participation caninfluence public governance. It also requires creating the conditions andcapacities necessary to promote, sustain and assure citizen-led processes to
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promote Good Living, and to institutionalize a constructive dialogue thatgenerates egalitarian, solidary, free, dignified, and responsible actions, inharmony with Nature and respectful of the world-views that comprise ourpluri-national State.43
ThekindsoforganizationalformsthatarecultivatedbygovernmentsareimportantindetermininghowcitizenscometoacquiretheskillsandattitudesthatenablethemtoplaytherolesdemandedofthembythePartnerState.Thismeansaveryparticularoutlookonthepartofpoliticalleadersanddecisionmakersingovernment.AsinthecaseofEmiliaRomagna,theconsciouschoiceoftheregionalgovernmenttofacilitatetheemergenceofco-operativesystems,whetherinthecommercialorthesocialeconomy,addedrealimpetustotheexpansionofthesevaluesandtotheskills,knowledge,andcapacitiesofthecitizenrytoexercisethem.Thesocialco-operativesinItaly,whichtransformedthesocialwelfaresystem,wereinitiatedfromwithinthesocialeconomy.Buttheirgrowthandsuccesswouldnothavebeenpossiblewithouttheroleplayedbythestate.Thesameistrueofthesolidarityco-opsandagreatnumberofsocialenterprisesinQuebec.
Theformofanorganizationwilldeterminebothitsmannerofoperationandthebehaviouralhabits,attitudes,andexpectationsofthosewhoworkinit.Justasprivateformsofcapitalistenterprisewillreinforcethehabitsandvaluesofself-interestandcapitalaccumulationforprivateends,sodoco-operativeandpeer-to-peerformsofenterprisepromotecollectivevaluesandtheabilitytovieweconomicsasameanstoadvanceindividualintereststhroughco-operationwithothers–whethertheyareindividualsorotherenterprises.Theconsciouspromotionofallformsofco-operationamongcitizensandbusinesses–whethertheyareprivatelyorco-operativelyowned–isthuscentraltotheoperationsofaPartnerState.
Onemeansofpromotingthistypeofco-operationamonggroupsisbyensuringthatfundsfordevelopmentareavailableonlytogroupsofenterprisesthatareworkingtogether,asopposedtoindividualfirms.Thisistruealsoforthepromotionofco-operationwithinthesocial/solidarityeconomyandamongsocialeconomyorganizations.
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Alsoindispensibleforthetransformationofculturalattitudesinthisdirection,bothinsidegovernmentandinthebroadersocial/solidarityeconomy,isthedevelopmentofthehumanandorganizationalcapacitiesamongcitizensthatareessentialforthedevelopmentandoperationofthesetypesoforganizations.
InstitutionalObstacles
Chiefamongthepotentialobstaclestothesuccessfulimplementationofthesepoliciesaretheexistingbureaucraticstructuresofthestate.
ThetransformationofthesestructuresintopartneringandenablinginstitutionswithmeaningfulinclusionofcivilgroupsisanessentialundertakingfortransitiontoaPartnerStatemodel.Thisentailsacomprehensivetrainingandhumandevelopmentstrategythatprovidesdecisionmakersandcivilserviceworkerswiththeconcepts,skills,experiences,andattitudesthatarefundamentalforimplementinganentirelynewconceptionofinclusivegovernanceandsocio-economicdevelopment.
Onapracticallevel,asthesocialeconomyhasexpandedoverthepastthirtyyearsandthelimitationsofstatestructuresoperatinginisolationhavebecomeevident,therehavebeenarangeofexperimentstocreateamoreharmoniousinterfacebetweenstateandsocialeconomy.Theyinclude:
1. In-outteams,workinginthestateandcomprisingthosefromthesocial/solidarityeconomyandthestate;
2. Placementsacrosstheboundaries,ofcivileconomyactivistswithinthestate,andstateofficialsinthesocialeconomy;
3. Socialinnovationlabs,eitherwithinthestate,orincollaborationwithpeoplefrombotheconomies;
4. Commonformation(forexamplethroughsocialinnovationcourses/degrees);
5. Generativeratherthantransactionalcontractsbetweenthestateandsocialeconomyorganizationsforcivileconomicventuresundertakingpublicservices;
6. Distributedprocurementpracticeslinkedtocivilconsortia,andthedevelopmentofaprocurementculturecenteredaround
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socialinnovationandthedevelopmentofqualityservicesbythecivilventures(Cleveland’sEvergreenprogramisanoutstandingexample);44
7. Thedevelopmentofservicemetricsforthepublic/civilventures,thatcanalsobeusedasdataforpublicaccountability;
8. Openbooksforcivilventuresundertakingpublicservices;9. Thejointmobilizationofknowledgefromwithinthestateand
thecivilventuresaroundparticularprojects;10. Actionstoco-operatizethestateitself,withashifttomore
lateral,team-basedorganization,andtheinvolvementoffrontlineworkers(alongwithcivilconsumers)intheco-designandco-productionofpublicservices(thecaseofITinnovationinNewcastle(UK)isastrikingcaseinpointwhichdevelopedasanalternativetoprivatization).
11. Actionstodemocratizethewidereconomythroughthedevelopmentandpromotionofcollectiveandco-operativeownershipmodelsofproduction.
Theseactionsreflectparticularwaysinwhichthetwoculturesmightfindcommoncausebycombiningtheuniquestrengthsofeachinre-framingtheproductionofpublicgoodsinawaythatrecognizesandreinforcesthecentralroleofcitizensandtheircommunitiesastheprimaryactorsinmakingrealtheaimsandaspirationsofBuen Vivir.
Thesecondissuethatcriticallyneedstobeaddressedforthetransitionprocessdescribedaboveistheformationofthosevalues,attitudes,andskillsthatcantranslateidealsintoeffectiveandtransformativepracticeintherealworld.
TheCo-operativeUniversity
OneofourprimaryrecommendationsfortransitioningtoaPartnerStateisthecreationofaCo-operativeUniversitytoserveasthenation’sprimaryresearch,education,andtrainingfacilityforgeneratingtheattitudes,knowledge,andprofessionalskillsneededforimplementingthepoliciesandrealizingtheaimsofaPartnerState.
Asavitalresearchandtraininginstitution,theuniversitywould
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serveasthenation’spremiertraininggroundforadvancingthecapacitiesofthecitizenry–whetheringovernment,thesocial/solidarityeconomy,ortheprivatesector–tounderstandtheprinciplesandpracticesofopengovernment;ofsocialentrepreneurship;ofdistributedandco-operativeeconomicandsocialdevelopment;oftheprotection,expansion,andmanagementofthecommons;andofde-centralizedco-operativedemocracyasatemplatefortheco-creationandco-managementofgovernmentpolicy.
Theorganizationalandoperationalstructureoftheuniversitywouldembodytheprinciplesofco-operativegovernanceoutlinedinthispaperandwouldserveasamodelforthetransmissionoftheco-operativeandcommonsconceptsandskillsarticulateabove.
Therehasrecentlyemergedabodyofresearchassociatedwiththerelationofco-operativevaluesandstructurestothemanycriticalchallengesfacingtheroleandfunctioningofcontemporaryuniversitiesinthecontextofadvancedneo-liberalism.Rangingfromtheriseofover700co-operativeschoolsintheUK,tostudiesontheperformanceofexistingco-operativeuniversitiessuchastheMondragonUniversityinSpain,45arangeofcommentatorshaveexploredthepotentialoftheco-operativemodeltoradicallyreformpedagogicalpractice,bothatprimaryschoollevelsandinhighereducation.46
Aconstantthemethroughoutthesestudiesishowtoconstructanorganizationalmodelandlearningculturethatre-orientstheuniversityfromtheproductionofskillsandknowledgeforprivate–thatistosaycorporate–ends,toonewhichregardstheuniversityasaformofsocialcommonsinwhichknowledgeisproducedprimarilyfortheadvancementofsocialaims.
Justasthemodernuniversityistheprimarymatrixwithinwhichthevalues,skills,andattitudesthatareessentialfortheoperationofcontemporarycapitalismareinculcatedandreplicated,sotoo,doesaneconomybasedontheideasandprinciplesofthesocial/solidarityeconomyandthePartnerStaterequireananalogousacademycapableofdevelopingtheattitudesandskillsthatareessentialforgeneratingacultureofco-operationandthecommonsthatboth
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reflectsandadvancesthesocialandeconomicprinciplesthatsustainsuchaneconomy.
ConcludingRemarks
TheideaandthepracticeofthePartnerStateisbothchallengingand,inouropinion,utterlynecessary.Formany,thecurrentimpasseinpoliticalgovernanceisthreateningthematerialbasisofhumancivilization.Itisequallyclearthattheformsofrepresentativedemocracypracticedtodayaremanifestlyincapableofdefendingthebroadpublicinterestwithwhichgovernmentshavebeenentrusted.
Thereasonsforthisarealsoclear:thecaptureofnationalgovernmentsbycapitalinterests;thecontinuingprotectionoftheseinterestsintheformulationofeconomicandsocialpolicy;theimpositionofpoliciesthatweakenexistinglabourandsocialprotections;thegradualcriminalizationofdissent;andthegrowingdisaffectionanddistrustofgovernmentandtheprevailingeconomicparadigmthatisadirectconsequenceofthisimpasse.AndwhereastheachievementsoftheWelfareStatemodelinthepostwareracontributedtotheameliorationofsocialandeconomicinequities,thedismantlingofthismodelundertheaegisofneo-liberalpolicieshasnowreturnedvastnumbersoftheworld’spopulationtotheprecariousnessofpreviouseras.
Unlesstheeconomiesofnationsarere-orientedtowardthepursuitofthecommongoodandtowardamoreequitable,humane,andsustainableformofeconomics,theforwardmovementofourpresentconditionwillonlydeepenthecurrentcrisis.Thiscarrieswithitthecertainprospectofacceleratingsocialandeconomicupheavalaspopulationsbecomemorealienatedfromtheirgovernmentsandfromthedysfunctionalcapital-dominatedeconomiestheysustain.Forthistochange,thereneedstobeafundamentalshiftinhowgovernmentsoperateandhowtheyrelatetotheircitizenry.
Thefundamentalpremiseofdemocracyisthatgovernmentsareaccountabletotheircitizensandthatgovernmentpoliciesserveandprotectthecommoninterest.Anirreplaceableaspectofthis
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commoninterestarethecommonsthemselvesthatunderlietheoperations,attitudes,andskillsthatmakepossiblethecollectiveformsoflivingandactingthatdefinethesocialandsolidarycharacterofahealthycivilsociety.Itfollowsthatunlessthecollectivevaluesofcivilsocietyandthecommongoodcandeterminehoweconomiesoperate,thepresentmodelofpoliticaleconomywilldonomorethantinkerwithasystemthatisindireneedofradicalreform.ThePartnerStateisonewayofusheringinthisreform.
Intheanalysisadvancedinthispaper,theproposalsforimplementingaPartnerStateapproachinEcuadorareanextensionofthepreceptsandaimsofthenationalconstitutionandtheNationalPlanforGoodLiving.Inthesedocumentsinherethoseprinciplesofrespectfornature,oftheopportunityforpeopletopursuetheirindividualandcollectivewellbeing,ofthepromotionofsocialandeconomicactivitiesthatpromotethepublicwelfare,andoftheconstitutionalrightofcommunities,whetherterritorialorcultural,toparticipatemeaningfullyintheaffairsofstatethataffectthem.
ButbeyondthespecificcontextofEcuador,thesearealsotheethicalfoundationsforanewformofgovernancethatplacesthecivilpowerinarelationshipofequalitywithgovernmentfortheexerciseofeconomicandsocialpoliciesthatwilloperateatnational,regional,andlocallevels.InthePartnerState,governmentbecomesapartnerandenablerofcivicsolutionstocollectiveproblems.Andwhiletheoperationsofthecapitalistmarketcontinue,asdothoseofthepublicsector,thesearecounterbalancedbythecollectiveandcivicaimsofthestate,co-constructedwiththeinstitutionsofcivilsociety.WeproposethattherealizationoftheconceptofBuen Vivirisnotachievablewithoutasystemicshiftofthestateinthisdirection.
TheconceptofthePartnerStateisanopportunitytosalvagewhatisgoodandnecessaryintheapparatusofgovernmentwhileopeningittothosecivicvaluesthatalonecanrestorelegitimacytoit.InitsaspirationstowardBuen Vivir,Ecuadorhasopenedadoortopioneersuchamodel.Ifitdoessoitwillofferanexampleofhowgovernmentcanindeedchangecoursetowardamorehumaneandsustainablefuturethroughtheengagementandempowermentofits
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citizenryintheaffairsofstate.
ButregardlessofwhetherEcuadorpursuessuchapath,anadmittedlydifficultoneeveninthebestofcircumstances,theprinciplesandaimsenvisagedinitsconstitutionandembodiedinitsNationalPlanofferedauniqueopportunitytoreflectonhowsuchidealsmightbemadereal.TheFLOKprojectwasavitalcatalystinthistask.TheideasthatweregeneratedinEcuadormightnowfindreceptivesoilfortheirfruitioninplacesfarbeyondthebordersofthissmall,complex,andrapidlyevolvingcountry.
1)
Isay,“proclaimed”becauseofthemanycontradictions,bothinpolicyandpracticethattheCorreagovernmenthasexhibitedinrecentyears.ThisisnottobelittletheworthyaimsofeithertheNationalPlanortheconceptofBuen Viviraspresentedinofficialrhetoric,orindeed,inthecountry’sinstitutions.Itisimportanthowever,tonotethediscrepancybetweenrhetoricandreality.↵
2)
Foranintroductionthisconcept,seeRestakis,“SocialandEconomicImplicationsofaSocialKnowledgeEconomy”,2014↵
3)
↵
4)
↵
5)
KennedyandLietaer,2004↵
6)
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MayumiHayashi,Japan’sFureaiKippuTimeBankinginElderlyCare:Origins,Development,ChallengesandImpact,InternationalJournalofCommunityCurrencyResearch,V.16,2012↵
7)
Inthecaseofschemessuchassocialimpactbonds,whicharenowalltherage,thereisnowadistressingbodyofevidencetoshowhoweasilyprivatecapitalcanexploitsocialinvestmentmodelstogenerateprofitsattheexpenseoftheservicestheyaremeanttosupport(seeMargieMendell,2012).↵
8)
Indivisiblereserveshavealonghistoryinco-operativesandremainakeymeansbywhichco-opscapitalizetheiroperations.Thereserveisaccumulatedovertimefromtheco-op’ssurplusesandmaynotbedistributedtomembers–itisacollectiveassetforuseasasocialbenefitandisthereforenottaxed.
↵
9)
MayumiHayashi,Japan’sFureaiKippuTimeBankinginElderlyCare:Origins,Development,ChallengesandImpact,InternationalJournalofCommunityCurrencyResearch,V.16,2012↵
10)
MargieMendell,privatecommunicationtoJ.Restakis,June19,2014↵
11)
Itisalsoimportanttonotethatthesmallfirmeconomyincludesthosesocialeconomyorganizationssuchasco-operativesandothersocialenterprisesthattradeinthemarket.↵
12)
NationalPlanforGoodLiving,2013-2017,3.3ActiveCitizenry,pg.
158
28↵
13)
A.Margalit,TheDecentSociety,HarvardUniversityPress,1996↵
14)
ThenotionofthePartnerStatewasfirstelaboratedbyCosmaOrsiinhispaper,ThePoliticalEconomyofReciprocityandthePartnerState.↵
15)
ThissectionandthestructuralschematicthatitcontainsarederivedfromRobinMurray’sveryvaluablecriticalremarksonthispaper.↵
16)
WearedescribingheretheformalstructureoftheStateapparatusandweofcourserecognizethatthereareotherinformalcircuitsofpowerandinfluencethatlieoutsidethestructure,asforexamplebetweenvariousinterestgroupsandgovernmentministersandofficials.NotbeingmediatedthroughthesystemofrepresentativeaccountabilitythatlegitimizestheactionsoftheState,thesepowerrelations–althoughveryrealandinmanycasesdecisive–remainoutsidethescopeoftheformalinstitutionalrelationsbetweenStateandcivilpowerweareexploringhere.↵
17)
Personalnotestotheauthor,June2014↵
18)
SeealsoRestakis,HumanizingtheEconomy–Co-operativesintheAgeofCapital,NewSocietyPublishers,2010.↵
19)
TheservinggovernmenthasinstitutedapolicyofneighborhoodcouncilsthroughoutEcuador.However,insofarasthesecouncilsare
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directlyassociatedwiththepoliticalmovementoftheCorreaadministration,andnotthebroadercivilsociety,anewapparatuswithdirectaccountabilitytothebroaderpublicwouldberequired.↵
20)
J.Restakis,HumanizingtheEconomy–Co-operativesintheAgeofCapital,Ch.6,2010↵
21)
SeeJ.WalkerandA.Espinoza,TheViableSystemsModel,LaurelBankAssociates,2011;AComplexityApproachtoSustainability:TheoryandApplication,ImperialCollegePress,2011↵
22)
Thissakeyissue.ShouldtheCorreaadministrationsigntheproposedEuropeanFreeTradeAgreement(EFTA),governmentprocurementpolicieswhichareacentralpolicytoolfortransitiontoaPartnerStatemodel,wouldbeimpossibletoimplement.↵
23)
RyanNehring,SocialProtectioninEcuador:ANewVisionforInclusiveGrowth,ResearchBrief,August2012,No.28,InternationalPolicyCentreforInclusiveGrowth↵
24)
ibid↵
25)
EtsrategiaparaelCambiodelaMatrizProductiva,SENPLADES,2013↵
26)
AgendasparalaTransformaciónProductivaTerritorial:ProvinciadeBolívar,2013↵
160
27)
J.Restakis,ChapterFour,HumanizingtheEconomy–Co-operativesintheAgeofCapital,2010↵
28)
A.BardiandS.Bertini,DinamicheterritorialienuovaindustriaDaidistrettiallefiliere,2005↵
29)
Afurtherdistinctionbetweencommonsandpublicgoodsisthatwhilebothentailusesthatarenon-excludable,commongoodsarerivalwhilepublicgoodsarenon-rival.Inthefirstcase,theuseofthecommonsbyoneindividualhasaneffectontheuseofthatcommonsbyothers,asinthecaseofacommonfishery.Inthecaseofpublic,non-rivalgoodssuchasapublicpark,theenjoymentoftheparkbyonepersondoesnotimpedeequalenjoymentoftheparkbyanother.↵
30)
http://www.labsus.org↵
31)
http://www.labsus.org↵
32)
RegulationonCo-operationbetweenCitizensandAdministrationfortheCareandRegenerationofUrbanCommons,Art.2,(a)↵
33)
ibid,Art.6,(3)↵
34)
ibid,Art.6,(4)↵
35)
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Note:therearealsoprovisionsconcerningtheexclusionofindividualsthatactincontraventiontothecommongoodortothepublicorprivateownershipofanasset,Art.12(3)↵
36)
ibid,Art.2,(h)↵
37)
ibid.Art.9,(1)↵
38)
http://www.eurosur.org/epitelio/cuenca/encuentros/leda.htm↵
39)
ibid,Art.9,(2)↵
40)
E.Ostrom,GoverningtheCommons,TheEvolutionofInstitutionsforCollectiveAction,1990↵
41)
B.Arifin,IndigenousKnowledgeandSustainableCommons:ThecaseofanIndonesianSubak,2005↵
42)
SeeAppendix1↵
43)
NationalPlanforGoodLiving,p.29↵
44)
www.evergreencooperatives.com↵
45)
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ReportonaFieldVisittoMondragon(Wrightet al2011)↵
46)
Cook,Dan(2013)RealisingtheCo-operativeUniversity.AconsultancyreportforTheCo-operativeCollege.Retrievedon13thJune2014fromhttp://dbms.ilrt.bris.ac.uk/media/user/162789/Realising_the_co-operative_university_FOR_DISEMMINATION.pdf↵
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Buildingasocialknowledgeeconomythroughtheopendesigncommonsanddistributedmanufacturing1
GeorgeDafermos
non-countryspecificversion:8Dec2014
Thisproposalisbasedonthepolicydocumentpreparedbytheauthor(Dafermos2014)onbehalfoftheFLOKSocietyresearchproject,withtheaimofdevelopingasetofpublicpolicyproposalsforthetransformationoftheproductivematrixinEcuadortowardsasocialknowledgeeconomy.However,whiletheofficialFLOKversionfocusesonaspecificcountry,theaimofthepresentversionistoaddresstheneed–whichisurgentlyfeltinmanycountriesaroundtheworld–todeveloparadicalalternativetothedominationofcognitivecapitalism.Assuch,thischaptercouldbeconsidereda‘non-countryspecific’versionoftheoriginalFLOKdocument.
DocumentStructure
Thispolicydocumentexaminestheapplicationofsocialknowledgeeconomyprinciplestothesecondarysectoroftheeconomy,withanemphasisonmanufacturing.TheIntroductiondissectstheconceptoftheknowledgeeconomy,highlightingtheroleofaccesstoknowledgeasthefundamentalcriterionfordeterminingitscharacter:incontrasttocapitalistknowledgeeconomieswhichblockaccesstoknowledgethroughtheuseofpatentsandrestrictiveIPrights,socialknowledgeeconomiesuseinclusiveIPrightstoprovidefreeaccesstoknowledge.Inthenextsection,A Critique of CognitiveCapitalism,welookathowtheuseofrestrictiveIPrightshasbeentheoreticallyjustified:inshort,IPrightsaresupposedtopromoteinnovationandproductivity.However,theavailableempiricalevidenceontheeffectofIPrightsoninnovationandproductivity
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furnishesnosuchproof.Onthecontrary,lookingatthewayinwhichcapitalistfirmsactuallyuseIPrightsreinforcestheconclusionthattheydonotpromoteinnovationbutareinfacthinderingit.
Thenextsection,Alternatives to Capitalist Models,introducestheFLOK(Free,LibreandOpenKnowledge)model,whichhasemergedinthecourseofthelasttwodecadesasapowerfulalternativetocognitivecapitalismanddescribesbrieflyitsmainfeatures:(a)thepracticeoffreesharingofknowledgeundergirdingit,(b)thepervasiveinvolvementofthesurroundingcommunityand(c)theuseoftheInternetasaplatformfordistributedcollaboration.
Inthefollow-upsection,Knowledge commons in the secondary sectorofthe economy,weillustratetheFLOKmodelanditsfeaturesthroughtwocasestudiesbasedontheRepRap3DprinterandtheWikispeedcarprojectrespectively,whichareparadigmaticofhowthesecondarysectorcouldbetransformedinthedirectionofapost-fossilfueleconomythroughthedevelopmentofdistributedmanufacturingstructuresenabledbytheopendesigncommons.
Inthenextsection,General principles for policy making,wesumuptheconclusionsdrawnfromthecasestudiesintheformofgeneralpolicyprinciples,which,asthefollow-upsectiondemonstrates,arealignedwiththeinternationalpolicyframework,asreflectedintheuniversallyendorsedpolicyobjectiveofdevelopingaknowledge-basedeconomy.Theconcludingsectiondevelopsthesepolicyprinciplesintoasetofpolicyrecommendationsforthedevelopmentofacollaborativeknowledgeeconomyfoundedontheknowledgecommonsofscienceandtechnology.
Introduction:theconceptandformsoftheknowledgeeconomy
Thispolicypaperexaminestheapplicationofprinciplesofsocialknowledgeeconomytothesecondary(manufacturing)sectoroftheeconomy.Butbeforeweproceedtoanin-depthexplorationofthoseprinciples,weneedtoclarifytheconceptoftheknowledgeeconomy,drawingadistinctionbetweensocialknowledge
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economiesandcapitalistknowledgeeconomies.
Incontrasttotraditionalconceptionsoftheeconomywhichcentreonland,labourandcapitalasthethreefactorsofproduction,theconceptofthe‘knowledgeeconomy’emphasisestheroleofknowledgeasthekeydriverofeconomicactivity(Bell1974;Drucker1969;foracriticalanalysisoftheconcept,seeWebster2006).Thisimplies,ofcourse,thatthedecisivemeansofproductioninaknowledgeeconomyisaccess to knowledge.Fromthisstandpoint,itispreciselythequestionofhowaccesstoknowledgeisbeingmanagedthatdeterminesthecharacterofaneconomicsystem.Capitalistknowledgeeconomiesusetheinstitutionofintellectualpropertytocreateconditionsofscarcityinknowledge:inthiswayknowledgeisprivatisedandlockedupinpropertystructureswhichlimititsdiffusionacrossthesocialfield.Asocialknowledgeeconomy,bycontrast,ischaracterisedbyopenaccessto knowledge(Ramirez2014)andsoreconfigurestheapplicationofintellectualpropertyrightstopreventthemonopolizationandprivateexpropriationofknowledge:‘knowledgemustnotbeseenasameansofunlimitedindividualaccumulation,noratreasurygeneratingdifferentiationandsocialexclusion’butas‘acollectiveheritage[which]is…acatalystofeconomicandproductivetransformation’and‘amechanismforemancipationandcreativity’(NationalSecretariatofPlanningandDevelopment2013,Englishversion,pp.61,41).Inanutshell,asocialknowledgeeconomyisaneconomywhichthrivesonthe‘opencommonsofknowledge’(NationalSecretariatofPlanningandDevelopment2013,Spanishversion,p.67);based,thatis,onknowledgeasaproductiveresourceaccessibletoallmembersofsociety.2
Acritiqueofcognitivecapitalism
Intellectualpropertyrightsandtheirsupposedroleincognitivecapitalism
Capitalistknowledgeeconomiesuseintellectualproperty(IP)rightsasmeansofenclosingknowledgeandasmechanismsbywhichtorealisetheextractionofmonopolyrentsfromknowledgethathas
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beenthusprivatised.Thatisideologicallyjustifiedasfollows:exclusiveIPrightsprovideincentivesforindividualsandcompaniestoengageinresearchanddevelopnewproductsandservices.Thatis,theypromoteinnovation:theexpectationofprofitableexploitationoftheexclusiverightsupposedlyencourageseconomicagentstoturntheiractivitiestoinnovativeprojects,whichsocietywilllaterbenefitfrom(e.g.Arrow1962).ButisthatactuallyanaccuratedescriptionofthefunctionofIPrightsincapitalistknowledgeeconomies?Dotheyreallyspurinnovation?
Asynopsisofempiricalevidenceontheeffectofrestrictiveintellectualpropertyregimesoninnovationandproductivity
Toanswerthisquestion,itisinstructivetolookattheavailableempiricaldataontheeffectofrestrictiveIPrightsontechnologicalinnovationandproductivity.ThecaseoftheUnitedStatesisindicativeofacapitalistknowledgeeconomyinwhichtheflowofpatentshasquadrupledoverthelastthirtyyears:in1983theUSPatentOfficegranted59.715patents,whichincreasedto189.597in2003and244.341in2010(USPatentOffice2013).Lookingatthesenumbersbegsthequestion:howhasthedramaticincreaseinthenumberofpatentsissuedbytheUSPatentOfficeovertimeimpactedtechnologicalinnovationandproductivityintheUS?Well,accordingtotheUSBureauofLaborStatistics,theannualgrowthintotalfactorproductivityinthedecade1970-1979wasabout1,2%,whileinthenexttwodecadesitfellbelow1%.Inthesameperiod,R&Dexpenditurehoveredaround2,5%ofGDP.Inshort,weseethatthedramaticincreaseinpatentshasnotbeenparalleledbyanincreaseinproductivityortechnologicalinnovation.Nomatterwhichindicatorofproductivityorinnovationweuseintheanalysis,weareinvariablyledtotheconclusionthat‘thereisnoempiricalevidencethatthey[patents]servetoincreaseinnovationandproductivity,unlessproductivity[orinnovation]isidentifiedwiththenumberofpatentsawarded’(BoldrinandLevine2013,p.3;also,seeDosietal.2006).
AnotherargumentoftenvoicedbyproponentsofexclusiveIPrightsindefenseofpatentsisthattheypromotethecommunicationofideasandthat,inturn,spursinnovation.Theyclaimthatifpatents
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didnotexist,inventorswouldtrytokeeptheirinventionssecretsothatcompetitorswouldnotcopythem(e.g.Belfanti2004).Fromthisstandpoint,thesolutiontotheproblemisatradebetweentheinventorandsociety:theinventorrevealshisinnovationandsocietygiveshimtherighttoexploititexclusivelyforthenexttwentyorsoyears.Presumablythen,totheextentthattheyreplacesociallyharmfultradesecrets,patentspromotethediffusionofideasandinnovations(Moser2013,pp.31-33).Inrealitythough,patentshaveexactlytheoppositeeffect,encouragingignoranceandobstructingthediffusionofideas.Inwhathasbecomeastandardpractice,‘companiestypicallyinstructtheirengineersdevelopingproductstoavoidstudyingexistingpatentssoastobesparedsubsequentclaimsofwillfulinfringement,whichraisesthepossibilityofhavingtopaytripledamages’(Boldrin&Levine2013,p.9;Brec2008).Evenifthatwerenotalwaysthecase,thewayinwhichpatentdocumentsarewrittenactuallyrendersthemincomprehensibletoanyoneexceptlawyers(Brec2008;Mann&Plummer1991,pp.52-53;Moser2013,p.39).
Therealfunctionofintellectualpropertyrightsincognitivecapitalism:howdocapitalistfirmsactuallyusethem?
What,however,morethananythingelsedisprovestheclaimedpositiveeffectofpatentsontechnologicalinnovationandcreativityisthewayinwhichpatentsareactuallyusedbycapitalistfirms.Inacapitalistknowledgeeconomy,patentsareusedprimarilyas(a)meanstosignalthevalueofthecompanytopotentialinvestors,(b)asmeanstopreventmarket-entrybyothercompanies(sotheyhavestrategicvalueindependentlyofwhethertheyareincorporatedinprofitableproducts)and(c)asweaponsinan‘arms-race’,meaningtheyareuseddefensivelytopreventorbluntlegalattacksfromothercompanies(Boldrin&Levine2013;Cohenetal.2000;Hall&Ziedonis2007;Levinetal.1987;Pearce2012).Itwouldtakeaheroicleapoflogicforanyoftheseapplicationsofpatentstobeseenasproductive.Ontheotherhand,thereisaplethoraofcasesinwhichtheeffectofpatentsoninnovationandproductivityhasbeenundoubtedlydetrimental.Indicatively,considerhowMicrosoftiscurrentlyusingapatent(no. 6370566)relatedtotheschedulingof
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meetingsinordertoimposealicensingfeeonAndroidmobilephones(Boldrin&Levine2013;Brodkin2011;Mueller2012a,2012b;Protalinski2010;Wingfield2010).Inthiscase,patentsbecomeamechanismforsharingtheprofitswithoutanyparticipationintheactualprocessofinnovation.Assuch,theydiscourageinnovationandconstituteapurewasteforsociety.Interestingly,notthatlongago,BillGates(1991),Microsoftfounder,arguedthat‘ifpeoplehadunderstoodhowpatentswouldbegrantedwhenmostoftoday’sideaswereinvented,andhadtakenoutpatents,theindustrywouldbeatacompletestandstilltoday…Afuturestartupwithnopatentsofitsownwillbeforcedtopaywhateverpricethegiantschoosetoimpose’.Itisironic,ofcourse,thatMicrosoft,notbeingabletopenetratethemobiletelephonymarket,isnowusingthethreatofpatentlitigationstoraiseaclaimoverpartofGoogle’sprofits.
Inconclusion,themannerinwhichpatentsareusedincapitalistknowledgeeconomiesmakesitblatantlyobviousthat‘inthelongrun…patentsreducetheincentivesforcurrentinnovationbecausecurrentinnovatorsaresubjecttoconstantlegalactionandlicensingdemandsfromearlierpatentholders’(Boldrin&Levine2013,p.7).Thisbecomesreadilyunderstood,consideringthattechnologicalinnovationisessentiallyacumulativeprocess(Gilfillan1935,1970;Scotchmer1991):Cumulativetechnologiesarethoseinwhicheveryinnovationbuildsonprecedingones:forexample,thesteamengine(Boldrinetal.2008;Nuvolari2004),butalsopersonalcomputers(Levy1984),theworldwideweb(Berners-Lee1999),hybridcars,YouTubeandFacebook.
Butifpatentshaveatbestnoimpactandatworstanegativeimpactontechnologicalinnovationandproductivity(Dosietal.2006),thenhowisitpossibletoexplain–especiallyfromthelegislator’sside–thehistoricalincreaseinpatentsandtheevermorerestrictiveIPregimesthatdevelopedinthelastthirtyyears?Manyanalystshaveponderedthisquestion.Theconclusiontowhichtheyhavebeenledisratherunsettling:theactualreasonbehindtheproliferationofpatentsandtheexpansionofIPlawsconsistsinthepolitical influenceof large, cash-rich companieswhichareunabletokeepupwithnewandcreativecompetitorsandusepatentstoentrenchtheirmonopolypower(Boldrin&Levine2013;Drahos&Braithwaiter2002).
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Alternativestocapitalistmodels
Therealenablersofinnovation
Since,aswehaveseen,restrictiveIPrightsdonotpromoteinnovation,thenwhatdoes?Inourcapacityasauthorsofthispolicydocument,wearesidingwithamultitudeofresearchersandpractitionersfromaroundtheworldinwhoseviewwhatpromotesinnovationisexactlytheoppositeofrestrictiveIPrights(e.g.Bessen&Meurer2008;Boldrinetal.2008;Drahos&Braithwaiter2002;Ghosh2005;VonHippel2005;Moser2013;Pearce2012a;Weber2005).Toelucidatethispoint,wewilldiscusstwocase-studiesinthefollowingsectionwhichdemonstratethatinnovationthrivesonopennessandfreesharingofknowledgeaswellasthatIPrightscanbeusedinawaythatisdiametricallyopposedtotheirapplicationincapitalistknowledgeeconomiessoastoinclude–ratherthanexclude–thebroadercommunityintheinnovationprocess.Inotherwords,thecase-studiescanbeseenasworkingexamplesofanalternativemodelofeconomicandtechnologicaldevelopmentenabledby(inclusiveIPregimesfoundedon)theopenknowledgecommons.Butbeforeweproceedtothecase-studies,letusbrieflyexaminethegeneraloutlinesandorganisingprinciplesofthismodel.
TheFLOKmodel
TheFLOKmodelisanalternativetomodelsofeconomicandtechnologicaldevelopmentarticulatedonthebasisofthelogicofcognitivecapitalism.Ithasthreemainfeatures:(a)itischaracterisedbythepracticeoffreesharingofknowledge,whichissustainedandreinforcedbyaninnovativeand,arguably,subversiveuseofIPrights;(b)itiscommunity-drivenand(c)itleveragestheInternetfordistributedcollaboration.
KnowledgeCommons
ThecornerstoneoftheFLOKmodelisthepracticeoffreesharingofknowledgeunderlyingit.Itsfoundingcredoisthattechnologyismostefficientlydevelopedinconditionsofopennessandcollaboration,ratherthansecrecyandknowledgehoarding.Toset
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upsuchopenandcollaborativestructuresforthedevelopmentoftechnology,theFLOKmodelhasevolvedlegalmechanisms(knownasopensourcelicenses[Wikipedia2014b]orsimplyasopenlicenses)whichensurethatanyoneisfreetouse,modifyandredistributetechnologiesproducedthroughtheFLOKmodel.Bydemocratisingaccesstotechnologyandknowledgethroughopenlicensing,theFLOKmodeleffectivelyempowerstheglobalcommunitytoparticipateintheproductiveprocess.Thereisonlyonelimitation:improvementsandmodificationsshouldbemadeavailableunderthesameconditions.Thus,technologiesandknowledgereleasedunderopenlicensesformanopen,yetprotected,knowledgecommonsthatanyonecanusebutnonecanexpropriate.Inthisway,openlicensingservesasaprotectionagainstthedangerofprivateexpropriationandcommercialco-optation(Kloppenburg2010;Moglen2004;O’Mahony2003).
Community-drivendevelopment
TheFLOKmodelchallengesthedominantviewthattheinstitutionalenvironmentmostconducivetothedevelopmentofknowledgeandinnovationisthatprovidedbylarge,hierarchically-organisedcorporations.Insteaditsuggeststhatopen,communitymodelstrumpcorporateonesinaccommodatingcreativityanddeliveringinnovation.Inpracticalterms,thismeansthatanyonecanparticipateinthedevelopmentprocessofaFLOKprojectbutnonecanexerciseheavy-handedcontrolovertheprojectortheotherparticipants(Benkler2006,p.105;vonKrogh&vonHippel2006).Tasksareself-selectedbyparticipants,whiledecision-makingiscollectiveandconsensus-oriented.Consequently,thedirectionofdevelopmentofFLOKprojectsderivesfromthecumulativesynthesisofindividualcommunitycontributions,ratherthanfromacentralplanner(Dafermos2012;WendendeJoode2005).
Internet-enabledcollaboration
TheFLOKmodelleveragestheInternetformassivelydistributedcollaboration.Forexample,asweshallseebelow,thedevelopmentoftheRepRap3Dprinterisdistributedacrosshundredsofhardwarehackersandhobbyistsfromallovertheworld,whoshareimprovementsandcoordinatechangesovertheInternet.Samegoes
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fortheenergy-efficientcardevelopedbytheWikispeedproject,whichwewillalsodiscussinthenextsection.
Knowledgecommonsinthesecondarysectoroftheeconomy
Case-study1:RepRap
RepRap3isanopensource4printerwhichcanbeusedtomanufacturethree-dimensionalobjects.Theprojectwhichspearheadeditsdevelopmentwaslaunchedin2005byDr.AdrianBowyeratBathUniversityintheUK,withtheaimofdevelopinganopensource3Dprinterthatcanreplicateitselfbyre-producingitsowncomponents,ultimatelycreatingasmall-sized,affordable,‘homebrewed’manufacturingdevicethatcanbeusedtoproducemostoftheobjectspeopleuseindailylife.
Openlicensinganddistributeddevelopment
Fromtheverybeginning,theprojectleveragedtheInternetfordistributedcollaboration:itopen-sourcedthedesignandalltechnicalspecificationsoftheRepRaptechnologysothatotherscouldexperimentwithitandimproveit.Basedoutofvarioushackerspacesandmakerlabsaroundtheworld,aloosely-couplednetworkofhardwarehackersandhobbyistssharingideasandmodificationssoonformed,resultinginrapidandsignificantimprovements.ThefirstversionofRepRap,codenamed‘Darwin’,wasreleasedinMay2007;version2(called‘Mendel’)followedin2009andversion3(‘Huxley’)ayearlater(seeFig.1below).By2010,theprojecthadevolvedinaglobalcommunityofabout5000membersandcommunitysizeisdoublingeverysixmonths(deBruijn2010).
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Fig.1:RepRapv.3(‘Huxley’),May2007
(Source:http://reprap.org/wiki/Huxley)
EffectofIPrightsondevelopmentof3Dprinting
Whataccountsforthisremarkablecommunitygrowth?Firstofall,toputthedevelopmentofRepRapintoperspective,onemustlookattheeffectofIPrightsonthehistoricaldevelopmentof3Dprintingtechnology.3Dprintinghasbeenusedinthemanufacturingindustryforaboutfortyyearsbutthefactthatitwasapatentedtechnologyeffectivelyexcludedthebroadercommunityfromparticipatinginitsdevelopment.Theninthemid-2000stheexpirationofasetofpatentson3Dprintinggalvanisedtheemergenceoftheopensource3Dprintingmovement,whichcoalescedaroundtheRepRapproject.Hackerspacesplayedacrucialroleinthisprocessofcommunityinvolvementbyprovidinghardwarehackersandhobbyistsaroundtheworldwithaccesstoasortofcommunalworkshoporshareabletoolshed,whichtheycoulduseforcommunityprojects.Thus,byhelpinghackersmoreeffectivelyorganisethemselves,suchuser-managedspacesformedakeycomponentofthedistributedtechnologicalinfrastructureunderlyingthedevelopmentofRepRap.5Asaresultofthisinfluxofcontributorsfromtheopenhardwarecommunity,theprojectsoonmanagedtoimproveRepRap’sdesignandperformanceandslashtheproductioncostof3Dprintersdowntoabout$500(Banwatt2013a,2013b,2013c).Inparallel,severalstart-upssprungoutofthebosomoftheRepRapcommunityandbegantomakelow-cost3DprintersbasedontheRepRapdesignfortheconsumermarket.
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Fig.2:Stratasysisa3Dprintingcompanyco-foundedbyScottCrump,whowasgrantedin1992akeypatentfor3Dprinting.Thepatentexpiredin2009.MakerBotIndustrieswasfoundedinthesameyear(Source:vonHippel2011,p.59)
Implications
Theinvolvementoftheopensource3DprintingcommunityinthedevelopmentofRepRapisnotconfinedtoexperimentationwithitsdesignparametersbutalsoextendsintotherangeofobjectsthatRepRapprinterscanmanufacture.Todate,RepRap3Dprintershavebeenusedtomakeclothes(Materialise2013),windturbines(Kostakisetal.2013),prostheticbodyparts(Molitch-Hou2013),wearabletechnologies(e.g.wearablemobilephones[Cera2012])andevenguns(Greenberg2013).Infact,thespectrumofobjectsthat3Dprinterscouldmanufactureispotentiallyinfinite:forexample,agroupofarchitectscalled‘KamerMaker’iscurrentlyusinga3DprintertobuildacanalhouseinAmsterdam,theNetherlands(KamerMaker;Holloway2013),whiletheEuropeanSpaceAgencyisplanningtobuildlunarspacestationsusing3D-printedbricksmadefrommoondust(Carter2013;EuropeanSpaceAgency2013a,2013b).AsUSPresident,BarackObama,says,‘3Dprintinghasthepotentialtorevolutionizethewaywemakealmosteverything’(quotedinGross2013).
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Theimplicationsofsuchaparadigmshiftinmanufacturingforenvironmentalsustainabilityareenormous.‘Becausetheyonlyusetheexactmaterialrequired,3Dprinterscouldeliminatewastefromtraditionalmanufacturing–inwhichupto90%ofrawmaterialisdiscarded’(Webster2013).Inadditiontorealisingeconomiesintheuseofrawmaterials,thetypeofdistributedmanufacturingundergirdedbyRepRap-like3Dprintingimpliesamassivereductioninglobaltransportationcostsattendantuponthelocalisationofproduction(Rifkin2011).Clearly,large-scaleindustrialinfrastructuresandthemassproductionmodelitselfarenolongerneededifpeopleareabletomicro-manufacturewhatevertheyneedinthecomfortoftheirhomes.Andthatisgoodfortheenvironment:unlikelarge-scaleindustrialmanufacturing,whichisbasedonthecheapavailabilityoffossilfuels,‘home3Dprinting’isillustrativeofanon-demandmanufacturingmodelwhichemphasisesapplicationthatissmall-scale,decentralised,energy-efficientandlocallycontrolled.Thus,thediffusionofsmall-sized,affordable3Dprinterspromotesamodelofenvironmentallysustainabletechnologicalandeconomicdevelopment.
Tosumup,theRepRap3Dprinterisparadigmaticofacaseinwhichtheopendesigncommonsenabledaglobalcommunitytoengageindistributed,participativedevelopmentwhich,inturn,resultedinsignificanttechnicalimprovementsandproductioncostreductions,pavingthewayfortheriseofanewmarketinlow-cost3Dprinters.Inparallel,theRepRapprojectillustratestheworkingsofadistributedmanufacturingmodelthatisgermanetoapost-fossilfueleconomy.
Case-study2:Wikispeed
Wikispeedisaprojectfocusedonthedevelopmentofanenergy-efficientcar(seeFig.3below).6WhatisespeciallyinterestingabouttheWikispeedcaristhatitisdevelopedbyaglobalnetworkofvolunteers,who,byusingmethodsdrawnfromtherealmofopensourcesoftwaredevelopment,havemanagedtoreducedevelopmenttimeandcostdowntoafractionofthatwhichconventionalcarmanufacturingrequires.
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Fig.3:TheWikispeedcar(Source:WikispeedProject2013)
ThebirthofWikispeedcanbetracedbacktothe2008ProgressiveInsuranceAutomotiveX-Prizecompetitionforthedevelopmentofenergy-efficientcars,whichcapturedtheattentionofJoeJustice,aSeattle-basedsoftwareconsultant.WhatsetJusticeapartfromtheotherparticipantsinthecompetitionwashisstrategyandhisresolvetoapplyopensourcesoftwaredevelopmentmethodstocarmanufacturing.Inthebeginning,hewasalone.ButasheannouncedhisplanontheInternet,volunteerscametohelpandinthreemonthshehadateamofforty-fourvolunteersandafunctioningprototype(Denning2012;Halverson2011).Nowtheprojectisjointlydevelopedbymorethan150volunteersdistributedaroundtheworld,whoaimtodeliverWikispeedasacompletecarfor$17,995USDandasakitfor$10,000USD(Wikispeed2012).
Tospeedupthedevelopmentprocessandreduceitscost,theWikispeedteam,inspiredbythelean manufacturingandopen sourcephilosophy,evolvedanapproachthatconstrastssharplywithconventionalmanufacturing.First,theentiremanufacturingprocessisdesignedwithaviewtominimisingtheexpenditureofresourcesthatdonotaddanyvaluetotheend-productfromanend-user’spointofview.Forexample,whileanaveragemanufactureruses‘a$100MCNCmillingmachine…WikiSpeedusesa$2.000machinefoundintheaverageFabLab…Whilemoderncarsembedvariouscostly,non-interoperable,proprietarycomputerstomanagevariousfeaturesrangingfromairbags,togaslevels,toairconditioning,WikiSpeedusesasingle$20Arduinocircuitboard’(Tincq2012).
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Second,modularityisthecoredesignprinciple:Wikispeedismadeupofeightcomponentsthatcaneasilyberemovedandre-assembled(seeFig.4below).Suchaproductarchitecturemakesiteasytomodifyandcustomisethecar,forindividualcomponentscanbemodifiedwithoutnecessitatingchangesintherestofthecar.Asaresult,‘thewholecarcantransformfromaracecar,toacommutercar,toapickuptruck,bychangingonlythenecessaryparts’(Tincq2012).
Fig.4:TheWikispeedmodulardesign(Source:Tincq2012)
Third,scaleisnotimportanttoWikispeed:‘carsareproducedon-demand,whenaclientofferstopayforit.ThisimpliesalmostnocapitalinvestmentupfronttoproduceaWikispeedcar’(Tincq2012).Throughtheuseofon-demandmanufacturingandleanproductionmethods,Wikispeedhasachievedsignificantdevelopmentcostreductions.ButtheproductionofWikispeedisnotonly‘lean’and‘on-demand’,itisalsodistributed:Wikispeedisbeingdevelopedbyadistributednetworkoflargelyself-managingteams–eachworkingatitsowngarage–whocoordinatetheirworkthroughtheInternet.Thiskindofcomputer-mediatedcollaborationisenabledbythemodularstructureoftheWikispeedcar,asproductcomponentscanbedevelopedautonomouslyandindependentlyofeachotherbydifferentindividualsorteamswithlittle,ifany,needofcentralcoordination(Dafermos2012).Theresultingdistributed
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organisationalstructure,accordingtotheWikispeedteam,iskeytorealisingsignificanteconomies of scopeandflexibility:so,toreinforcedistributedmanufacturing,‘WikiSpeedmembersarecurrentlypracticingtobuildcarswithinarectangularspacemarkedontheground.Byachievingthis,microfactoriescouldbeencapsulatedwithincontainers,andshippedtowherethereisdemandforlocalproduction.Oncetheworkisdone,amicrofactorycouldbemovedtoasurroundingareatomeetnewdemand’(Tincq2012).Thesustainabilityimplicationsofsuchaparadigmshiftinmanufacturingareobvious:justlikeRepRap-like3Dprinting,Wikispeedisproposingamodelofdistributedmanufacturingwhichleveragestheglobalopendesigncommonsforlocalproduction.Unlikelarge-scaleindustrialmanufacturing,whichdependsonthecheapavailabilityoffossilfuels,Wikispeed’son-demandmanufacturingmodelemphasisesapplicationthatissmall-scale,decentralised,energy-efficientandlocallycontrolled.Inthatsense,itpromotesamodelofsustainabledevelopmentthatrecognisesthelimitstogrowthposedbyfiniteresourcesandsoorganisesmaterialactivitiesaccordingly(Bauwens2012b).
Fourth,thedevelopmentoftheWikispeedcarisbuiltaroundthedefininghallmarkofopensourcesoftwareproduction:alltechnicalspecifications are shared freelywiththecommunitysothatanyonecancontributetoitsdevelopment.Inthisway,byopeninguptheproductdevelopmentprocess,theWikispeedprojectcantapintothecontributionsofaglobalcommunityofvolunteers.ButfortheWikispeedteam,freelysharingdesigninformationisnotonlyameansofengagingtheglobalcommunityinthecollectivedevelopmentoftheWikispeedcar,butalsothebasisofamodelofdistributed entrepreneurshipwhichallowshobbyistsandenthusiastsfromallovertheworldtodownloadtheblueprintsofWikispeedandusethemasaspringboardfordevelopingtheirowncarsattheirgarage.7
Todate,theWikispeedprojecthasfinanceditsoperationmainlythroughcrowdfundingcampaignsandsmalldonationsfromsympathisers(theso-called‘micro-investors’).Foritslong-termsustainability,however,itaimstosellthecarsitmakes.ThepriceforaWikispeedprototypeis25,000USDandtheprojectiscurrentlyworkingonthedevelopmentofacommutercarwhichwillbe
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launchedasacompletecarfor$17,995USDandasakitfor$10,000USD.Inrecognitionofitscommunitycharacter,theWikispeedprojecthasannouncedthattheproceedsfromsaleswillberedistributedbacktothecommunityofcontributors.8
Tosumup,thecaseofWikispeed,likethatofRepRap,demonstrateshowatechnologyprojectcanleveragetheopendesigncommonsandtheInternettoengagetheglobalcommunityinitsdevelopment.Mostimportant,Wikispeedproposesamodelofdistributedmanufacturingthatiswell-suitedtoapost-fossilfueleconomy:amodelwhichissmall-scale(‘on-demand’),decentralised,energy-efficientandlocallycontrolled.
GeneralPrinciplesforPolicyMaking
Throughtheabovecase-studies,wehavecometoidentifyasetofenablingconditions,fromwhichwecandrawseveralgeneralprinciplestoguidepolicymakingeffortsaimedatreinforcingthedevelopmentofasocialknowledgeeconomy.
The Commons as a key enabler.Itisobviousthattheemergenceofthecommunity-drivendevelopmentmodelcharacteristicofbothWikispeedandRepRapwouldhavebeenimpossibleintheabsenceoftheopendesigncommons.Takingthisintoconsideration,itisobviousthatpolicymakingshouldbegearedtowardssupportingandenrichingthecommonsasashareableinfrastructureforthesocialknowledgeeconomy.
The importance of distributed technological infrastructures.ThedevelopmentoftheFLOKmodelisunthinkablewithoutadistributedtechnologicalinfrastructure(Bauwens2005;Benkler2006).Atthemostbasiclevel,thescalingupoftheFLOKmodelrequiresdistributed access(a)totheInternet,whichmembersofFLOKprojectsusetoexhangeinformationandcoordinatetheiractivities,and(b)tofixed capital,bywhichwemeanaspectrumofhardwaretechnologiessuchaspersonalcomputersand3Dprinters,whichconstitutetheessentialmeansofproductioninthissetting.Therroleofsuchadistributedtechnologicalinfrastructureisoftenperformedbyhackespaces(aswellashackerlabs,makerspacesandsoon),whicharecommonlyusedbyindividualsandgroupswith
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limitedfinancialresourcesasalocal,physicalplatformforthemutualisationofresourcesandtheprovisionofsharedaccesstothosemeansofproductionthatarenotyetasdistributedandgenerallyavailableaspersonalcomputersandInternetconnectivity.Assuch,theyformaterritorialinfrastructureforthedevelopmentofcommons-oriented,openhardwareprojectssuchasRepRapandWikispeed.
The need for investment in knowledge.Thedevelopmentofsuchdistributedtechnologicalinfrastructuresbyitselfisunlikelytogeneratepositiveresults,unlesspeople,too,knowhowtousethem.Thetask,therefore,ofbuildingtheseinfrastructuresshouldbecomplementedwithandreinforcedbyappropriateprocessesandstructuresoflearningdesignedtoharnessthediffusionof‘massintellectuality’(Bauwens2005;Virno2001;alsoseeRushkoff2004)thatisrequiredfortheexpansionoftheFLOKmodel.
The importance of access to credit and investment resources and the roleof public policy.Aswesaw,inordertoraisemoneytofinanceitsoperations,theWikispeedprojecthasturnedtoitsbaseofsupporters,onwhosecontributionsitrelies,andtocrowdfundingcampaignsasavehicletoreachouttotheInternetcommunity.Thischoicetomobilisethecommunitywaslargelydictatedbythefactthattheprojecthasbeensofarunabletoattractinvestmentcapitalfromtheprivatesector.Thatisnotaccidental.Onthecontrary,itisthegeneralcasewithtechnologieslikeWikispeedwhicharenot‘protected’byrestrictiveIPrights,giventheprivatesector’saversiontoinvestintechnologiesandprojectsthatdonothavethepotentialtogeneratepatentableresults.Forexample,thatiswhycapitalistinvestmentsinagriculturalscienceandtechnologyhavelongfavouredthedevelopmentofproductssuchasseedsthatcannotbereproducedinthefarmingprocess,ratherthanagroecologicalmethodswhicharerenderedpracticallyun-patentablebyvirtueoftheirinherentlycollectiveandcommunalcharacter(Vanloqueren&Baret2009,p.977).Fromaninvestmentstandpoint,the‘problem’withartefactsandmethodsthatarenotpatentedliesinthefactthattheyarenotlockedupinpropertyrightswhichcanbeleveragedtocapturerents.Thereisnothingstrange,therefore,abouttheabsenceofcapitalistinvestmentincommons-oriented,opensourcetechnologyprojectslikeWikispeedorRepRap,whichwouldnothave
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survivedwithoutthesupportofcivilsociety.Thefact,however,thatthebusinesssectorcannotbereliedupontodeveloptheproductsandtechnologiesthatfuelasocialknowledgeeconomysuggeststheimportanceofsettingupappropriatepublicpoliciestoreinforcethedevelopmentofthecommonsofscienceandtechnology.
Beforeweproceedtodeveloptheseprinciplesintopolicyrecommendationsforthecreationofasocialknowledgeeconomy,itisimportanttotakeintoconsiderationtheinternationalinstitutionalandpolicycontextinwhichtheyhavetobegrounded.
ThePolicySetting
Thereishardlyacountryanywherearoundtheworldwhichdoesnotendorsethepolicyobjectiveofdevelopinga‘knowledgeeconomy’asavehicleofmodernisingandstrengtheningtheeconomy.Indicatively,thepolicyoftheEuropeanCommissionfortheeconomyoftheEuropeanUnionhasbeenfocusedonthedevelopmentofaknowledge-basedeconomyasitsprimarytarget.Theso-calledLisbonStrategy(alsoknownasLisbonAgendaorLisbonProcess),whichwasdevisedatameetingoftheEuropeanCouncilinLisbonin2000,articulatedaten-yeardevelopmentplanfortheEUeconomyinwhichtheconceptoftheknowledgeeconomyfiguresprominently.Morespecifically,accordingtothatplan,the‘strategicgoal’oftheEUis‘tobecomethemostcompetitiveanddynamicknowledge-basedeconomyintheworld’(EuropeanUnionParliament2000).In2010,theEuropeanCommission(2010)formulatedanupdatedstrategyforthenexttenyears,knownasEurope 2020,which,intheessentialfeaturesofitseconomicpolicy,reinforcestheimportanceconferredbytheLisbonStrategyuponthedevelopmentofathrivingknowledgeeconomyintheEU.Thus,thegoalofdevelopinganeconomydrivenbytheproductiveforcesofknowledgeandinnovationisrightatthetopofthelistwiththe‘threemutuallyreinforcingpriorities’oftheUnion’scurrenteconomicagenda.9
Cruciallyenough,insomecountriestheexistingframeworkforpublicpolicymakingevincesastrongorientationtowardsthecommons,layingemphasisupontheneedtoinvestthegoalof
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buildingaknowledgeeconomywithasocialcharacter.Forexample,thenationaldevelopmentplanofEcuador,knownasNationalPlanforGoodLiving(NationalSecretariatofPlanningandDevelopment2013),isparadigmaticofsuchapolicyframework:giventhat‘individualandsocietalfreedomrequireemancipationofourthought’(p.61)andthat‘knowledge,morethanameansofknowing,isaninstrumentforindividualfreedom[and]forsocialemancipation’(p.67),theNationalPlanforGoodLivingwarnsthat‘knowledgemustnotbeseenasameansofunlimitedindividualaccumulation,noratreasurygeneratingdifferentiationandsocialexclusion’(p.61).Onthecontrary,inthecontextofdevelopingaknowledgeeconomywithasocialcharacter,knowledgeshouldbeapproachedas‘acollectiveheritage[which]is,inaddition,acatalystofeconomicandproductivetransformation’(p.61).Asidefromfurnishingacharacteristicexampleofapolicycontextinwhichthegoalofbuildingaknowledgeeconomyisembeddedinabroadersocialistprogramofeconomicandproductivetransformation,thecaseofEcuadorisimportantbecauseoftheroleattributedtotheknowledgecommonsasanagentofthattransformation.
ThenextsectionsituatestheprinciplesthatenabletheemergenceoftheFLOKmodeofproductionintheaforementionedpolicycontextandputsforwardseveralpolicyrecommendationsthataredesignedtosupportandreinforcethegoalofbuildingasocialknowledgeeconomy.
PolicyRecommendations
WehaveseenhowpatentsinspecificandrestrictiveIPrightsingeneralruncountertotheaimsandneedsofasocialknowledgeeconomy.Incontradistinction,asourcase-studiesdemonstrate,thepooloftheopen,yetprotected,knowledgecommonsestablishedbyfree/openlicensesisindispensabletothedevelopmentandoperationofasocialknowledgeeconomy.Consequently,tosupportthedevelopmentoftheknowledgecommonsofscienceandtechnologyandprotectitagainstthedangerofprivateenclosure,wepropose:
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Theadoptionoffree/openlicenses,suchastheGNUGPL,10forthelicensingofscientificandtechnologicalartefacts.Thede factoabolitionofthepatentsystem.Thiscanbedonethroughtheuseofroyalty-freeandcopyleft-stylepatentlicenses,thatis,bymeansof‘licensingpatentsforroyalty-freeuse,ontheconditionthatadopterslicenserelatedimprovementstheydevelopunderthesameterms’(Wikipedia2014d).
Moreover,tosupportthedevelopmentofcommons-orientedprojectsandorganisations,wepropose:
Theprovisionofspecialeconomicincentivesforcommons-orientedprojectsandorganisations.Thiscanbeimplementedinavarietyofways:forexample,throughtaxbenefitsand(state-supported)micro-creditsystems.Thedevelopmentofalegalframeworkthatprovidesco-opsandcollectivistorganisationsoperatinginthesecondarysectorwiththeorganisationalautonomyaswellasinstitutionalsupportwhichisrequiredfortheiroperation.11
Weremarkedhowtheuseofhackerspaces,makerspaces,fablabsandco-workingspacesforthemutualisationofresourcesandtheprovisionofsharedservicestomembersconstitutesacrucialinfrastructureforbothco-locatedanddistributedcognitivework.Thus,tosupportthedevelopmentofshareable,territorialinfrastructuresforcognitivework,wepropose:
Thatsupportivepoliciesbedevelopedforthesettingupofhackerspaces,hackerlabs,makerspacesandco-workingspacesasaterritorialinfrastructureforcognitivework,skillsharingandtechnologytransfer.
Concomitantly,todemocratiseaccesstocreditandinvestmentresources,wepropose:
Thecreationofacommunity-managedCommunity InvestmentFundforcommons-orientedprojectsandorganisations,suchasthatoperatedbyco-opfederationsinNorthernItaly(i.e.theso-called3%Fund)12andproposedbyKleiner(2010,pp.23-25)for
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thesupportofworker-ownedorganisations.
Consideringthatpublicprocurementcanbeusedasaveryeffectiveinstrumenttopromoteopenandfreetechnologies,weproposethattheuseoffreeandopentechnologiesbeencouragedinpublicprocurementprograms.Forthatpurpose,weproposethatpublicprocurementlegislationbeamendedtoprioritisetheuseoffreetechnologies.
Equallyimportant,ouranalysishashighlightedthe importance of thediffusion of knowledgeinempoweringpeopletoparticipateinprojectsofatechnicalcharacter.Thatiswhyitisimperativetopopularisefreeknowledgeandmakeitanintegralpartoftheeducationsystem.Withthisaiminmind,wepropose:
Theintroductionoftrainingintheuseanddevelopmentoffreetechnologiesintothebasicschoolcurriculumandacrossuniversityprograms.There-orientationofscienceandtechnologytowardsmodelsofopen science(Wikipedia2014c)withtheaimofmakingthefruitsofscientificandtechnologicalresearchaccessibletoallthemembersofsociety.Toachievethis,weproposethatpubliclyfundedresearchanddevelopmentinscienceandtechnologybereleasedunderfree/openlicenses(e.g.GNUGPL).13
Thesettingupofspacesforinformaltraining(continuouseducation)asanenablinginfrastructureforthedevelopmentofafreeculture.
Last,itgoeswithoutsayingthatpoliciesaimedatthetransformationoftheproductivematrixinthedirectionofdistributedproductionstructuresbasedontheopendesigncommonsshouldberesponsivetotheexigenciesofthelocalcontext.Tothisend,wepropose:
ThataNationalObservatoryforFreeTechnologiesbesetupwiththeobjectivetoassesstheeconomicviabilityandfitnessoffreetechnologiestomeetexistingneedsandtoprovideexpertsupportforthetaskofdesign,implementation,monitoringandevaluationoftheabovepublicpolicies.
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*****
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1)
Thischapterisbasedonthepolicydocumentpreparedbytheauthor(Dafermos2014)onbehalfoftheFLOKSocietyresearchproject,withtheaimofdevelopingasetofpublicpolicyproposalsforthetransformationoftheproductivematrixinEcuadortowardsasocialknowledgeeconomy.However,whiletheofficialFLOKversionfocusesonaspecificcountry,theaimofthepresentversionistoaddresstheneed–whichisurgentlyfeltinmanycountriesaroundtheworld–todeveloparadicalalternativetothedominationofcognitivecapitalism.Assuch,thischaptercouldbeconsidereda‘non-countryspecific’versionoftheoriginalFLOKdocument.↵
2)
Itisnoteworthythattheconceptofthesocial knowledge economyhasbeenremarkablyunder-theorisedintheexistingliterature(availableinbothenglishandspanish).Infact,inthefewcaseswhereitappears,theconceptisusedtorefertotheroleoftheso-called‘socialeconomy’–seenasthatsectoroftheeconomywhich
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isseparatefromthepublicandprivatesector–inthebroader(knowledge)economyofwhichitisbutacomponentpart(e.g.,seeMacLeodetal.1997).TheonlyexceptionthatweareawareofisRamirez(2014)andtheFLOKSocietyProjectpolicypapers,whichemploytheconceptinaradicallydifferentsense,definingitasaneconomycharacterisedbyfreedomofaccesstoknowledge.↵
3)
URL:<http://reprap.org>↵
4)
TheRepRapdesigninformationislicensedundertheGNUGPL.↵
5)
ItisnocoincidencethatthemajorityofRepRap3Dprintershavebeenprototyped,testedandoperatedatsuchuser-managedspaces.Indicatively,thefirstRepRap3DprinterinthecityofHeraklion,Greece(whichistheauthor’shometown)wasdevelopedatthetolabakihackerspace(http://tolabaki.gr).↵
6)
URL:<http://wikispeed.org>↵
7)
Wikispeedconsidersitselftobesuchadistributive enterprise:‘atransparententerprisethatpromotes—atthecoreofitsoperationalstrategy—thecapacityforotherstoreplicatetheenterprisewithoutrestrictions…[akindof]anopenfranchisesystemthatfocusesonbeingreplicatedbyothers’(OpenSourceEcology2012;Thomson&Jakubowski2012:62).↵
8)
Wikispeedhasdevisedaninterestingmethodofremuneratingcommunitycontributionstotheproject.Accordingtotheprojectwebsite:‘IfIgivemoney,time,cookies,orsuppliestoWIKISPEEDandWIKISPEEDisprofitable,WIKISPEEDwillpaymebackthevalue
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ofwhatIputinplusinterestcommensuratewiththeirlevelofsuccess’(<http://wikispeed.org/join-the-team/our-ethics/>).↵
9)
TheothertwoprioritiesoftheEurope2020strategyconsistinthepromotion‘ofamoreresourceefficient,greenerandmorecompetitiveeconomy’andof‘ahigh-employmenteconomydeliveringsocialandterrotorialcohesion’(EuropeanCommission2010).↵
10)
URL:<http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/gpl.html>↵
11)
Foranelaboratediscussionofwhatthattaskentailsandhowitcanbeachieved,seetheFLOKpolicydocumentsbyRestakis(2014a,2014b).↵
12)
The3%Fundisoperatedbyco-opfederationsinItalywherebymemberco-opscontribute3%oftheirannualprofitstoacollectiveFundthatisusedforinvestmentpurposes(Logue2006;Mancino&Thomas2005).↵
13)
ForadiscussionoftheproposaltoreleasepubliclyfundedR&DundertheGNUGPL,seeBoldrinandLevine’s(2013,p.19)aswellasPearson’s(2012a)recentcontributionintheJournal of EconomicPerspectivesandNaturerespectively.↵
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FromBuenVivirtoCommonsTransition:AnInterviewwithJaniceFigueiredo
Tofinishthebook,wepresentthisexclusiveinterviewwithJaniceFigueiredo,researchcoordinatorfortheCommons’InfrastructureforCollectiveLifeinvestigationintheFLOKSocietyproject.JanicespoketousaboutherownexperiencecollaboratingwithandlearningfromtheindigenouspeopleinEcuador.
TheinterviewcentersonsomeofthemorepracticalaspectsoftheFLOKproject,herinteractionasaresearcherwithlocalcivicgroups,andthefutureofCommonsTransition.
Whatisyourbackground,andhowdidyougetinvolvedintheprojectinEcuador?
IamaBraziliancitizenwhohaslivedabroadforabout20years,bothintheUnitedStatesandinEurope(Paris,France).IworkedattheInter-AmericanDevelopmentBank(IADB)asITprojectmanageruntil2009,whenIdecidedtoradicallychangemylifeandstartedplacingmyactions,workandstudiesinareasthat,inmyunderstanding,havethepotentialtogenuinelytransformtheworld
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intoamoreinclusiveandfairerplace.Idirectedmyintereststoresearchingthefieldsofcollectiveintelligence,collaborativemovements,P2Pdynamics,thecommons,theopenandsharingsociety,socialbusiness,complementarycurrencies,sustainabledevelopmentandpovertyreduction,havingaparticularinterestinexploringalternativemodelstotheconventionaleconomicparadigmsbasedincentralizationandscarcity.
Ispentmostof2012inBrazil,andgotactivelyinvolvedwithseveralP2P-relatedprojectsinRiodeJaneiro,whereIcurrentlylive.IjoinedacademicresearchgroupsontheCollaborativeEconomyandPeerProductioninBrazil,carriedoutcollaborativeprojectsinRio’sfavelas,tookpartincivilsocietyandsocialmovementinitiativesthatproposedcommons-orientedalternativesfortheplanet(suchasthePeople’sSummit),andgotinvolvedwithdifferentprojectsrelatedtothesharingeconomyinBrazil.
IhaveaB.Sc.inComputerScience,aM.Sc.inStrategyandMarketing,andhavecompletedpost-graduatecoursesintheareaofSustainableDevelopment.
InSeptember2013,MichelBauwens-whoIfirstmetinBrazilinJuly2012,ontheoccasionoftheRio+20UNmeeting-invitedmetobepartoftheresearchteamthatwouldbeproducingpublicpolicyrecommendationsforatransitiontoaSocialKnowledgeEconomyinEcuador.Iimmediatelyacceptedtheinvitation!
YouvisitedalotofurbancommonscommunitiesinQuito.Whatisyoursummaryoftheirexperiencesandconcerns?
Myresearcharea,“Openinfra-structuresforcollectivelife”,exploredhowcitizensandcommunitiescouldbenefitfromaswellastakeanactivepartinthebuildingofaSocialKnowledgeEconomy.Ontheonehand,weinvestigatedhowcommunitiescould,inanautonomousway,createandmaintainmutualizedinfrastructuresneededfortheirlives,suchashousingandfoodsystems.Ontheotherhand,weexploredhowknowledgesystemscouldbecreatedandgovernedbycommunities.
Theprinciplesofsolidarityandcooperationaredeeplyrootedinthe
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Ecuadorianculture.Severalcommunityneedsareachievedthroughautonomouspracticeswhoseoriginscomefromthetraditionsoftheindigenousquechuas.Themostwell-knownoftheseinitiativesaremingas.Thesearecommunityworkstowardscommongoalsthathavebeenextensivelyusedinbothurbanandruralareastosupplytheneedsofthecommunities,suchasimprovementofroadsorcommunalareas,andenergyprovision,andalsoasameanstocooperateamongfamilies,suchasinthecaseofthebuildingofahouse.La minga de la quiteñidad,ayearlycommunity-ledeventheldinsomeQuitoneighbourhoods,chosetopromoterecyclinginonearea(December2014).ThroughmingasthemainvaluesoftheAndeanindigenouscultureareexpressed:unionandsolidarityamongcommunities.Mingasareseenasahugecelebrationswherework,food,collaborationandaccomplishmentsareshared.Ranti-rantiisanothersolidaritypracticeintrinsictotheEcuadorianculture.Itrepresentstheconceptofreciprocityandabundance:“IgivetoyoubecauseNaturehasgiventome”.Truequeisapracticeofexchangeusedatopenfoodmarkets,wheresellersexchangewhathasn’tbeensoldamongthemselves.Randimpaareopenspacesself-organizedbycommunities,wherediscussionsanddecisionsaboutthecommunitytakeplace.
Wevisitedseveralinitiativesthatfollowtheprinciplesofself-governancethatdevelopandnurturecooperationwithintheircommunities.Iwillmentiontwoofthem:thefirst,“Comuna TolaChica”representsagroupof400peoplethatliveandworkinacommunalmanner.Thecommunitytriestopreserveitsculturalrootsthroughthedevelopmentoflocalprojects,suchastheSchoolofTraditionalKnowledge,andtostimulateecologicalandsustainablelocalprojectslikethebuildingofalocalcommunalhousemadewithsuper-adobeconstruction.AlldecisionsconcerningtheComunaaretakeninacollective,participatoryway,throughassembliesopentoallresidents.Landownershipiscommunalandallcomuñeroshavethesamerightsoverthelands.
Asecondprojectthatillustratescooperationis“Alianza Solidaria”.Thisprojectwaslaunchedtotacklethelackofaccesstoqualityandaffordablehousing,andwasexpandedtothebuildingofanautonomous,cooperativecommunitycapableofsolvingtheirownproblemsinacooperativeway.
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OneofthemainconcernsI’venoticedamongcommunitiesisthattheseprinciplesofsolidarityandcooperationarebeinglost;therearefarfewermingasnowthaninthe1970’s.
Severalindividualssuggestedthatpeoplehavebecomemoreindividualisticandcompetitiveasaresultofbeinginfluencedbythevaluespromotedbycapitalism;peopleengagelessandlesswithtraditionalsolidaritypractices.Anotherconcernobservedisthatnewerindigenousgenerationsnolongerwanttolearnquechua,dressusingtheirtraditionalcustomsorpreservetheirculture,asthemediapropagatestheideathatwhatcomesfromtheWesternworld(EuropeandtheUnitedStates)isbetterandrepresentsthevaluesofamoredevelopedpeople.
Youalsoworkedwithindigenouscommunitiesandcoordinatedapolicypaperthatwaswrittenbyindigenousactivistscholarsthemselves.Whatweretheresults,andhowwasthepaperreceived?
AtFLOKmeetingsconductedduringtheprocess,thesubjectof“AncestralKnowledge”wastheonethatraisedthegreatestinterestandthemostquestionsfromthecommunitiesandacademia.
Amongthe17policypapers,the“Ancestral,TraditionalandPopularKnowledge”paperwastheonlyonewrittenbyagroupcomposedexclusivelyoflocal,Ecuadorianpeople.Thatpaperdiscussesandproposespoliciesonhowtopreserve,manageandimplementtraditionalandancestralknowledgeandpractices,respectingthediversityofculturesandnationalitiesofEcuador.
Ecuadorhasatotalof14nationalitiesand18pueblos,anditwasquiteachallengetoembracesuchadiversityofvisionsandtraditionsinasinglepaper.Initially,weengaged5indigenousscholarsandactivistsfromdifferentethnicities,eachonedeeplyinvolvedwiththesubjectwithintheircommunities,tocollectivelywriteafirstversionofthepaper.Lateron,werealizedthepapershouldalsocontemplatenon-indigenousvisions,suchasthoseoftheAfro-Ecuadoriancommunity.
Thecurrentversionofthepaperistheproductofacollectivework
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developedbyindigenous,Afro-Ecuadorian,mestizoandwhiteEcuadorianscholarsandactivists.Thiscompositionofmultiplevisions,allfromlocalactors,givesauniquestrengthtothepaperanditspolicyrecommendations.
Thepolicypaperpresentsproposalsforthemanagementofancestral,traditionalandpopularknowledgeinfivemaindomains:1)ancestral,traditionalandpopularknowledgemustbedeclaredheritageofthecommunitiesandpeoples;2)intercultural,bilingualeducationmustbepromotedandstrengthened;3)promotionofpropermanagementofknowledgeaboutbiodiversityandtraditionalandancestralagriculturalpractices;4)strengtheningoftherelationshipbetweentheterritoriesandknowledgeand5)strengtheningoftraditionalandancestralpracticesofgovernance.
WhatisyouroverallviewoftheFLOKprocessandwhatareyourexpectationsforthefuture?
FLOKisapioneerproject,asthisisthefirsttimeinhistorythataseriesofpolicydocumentswasproducedinacollaborativewaytopropose,atanationallevel,atransitiontoaneweconomicandsocietalmodelbasedonopenandsharedknowledge,onthecommons,ontraditionalandancestralpracticesandonpeer-to-peerproduction.Producingthesedocumentsinsuchashorttime(8months)wasabigchallenge.Theworkrepresentsanintegratedview,framedwithintheEcuadorianlegalsystem,andresultedfromanintensecollaborativeprocessthatinvolvedmeetingswithEcuadorianexpertsfromcivilsociety,academia,governmentandconstantexchangewithinternationalexpertsineacharea.
IseethisfirstFLOKexperiencebothasaseedthathasbeenplanted,aswellasathresholdthathasbeencrossed:afirstattempttoprovideanalternativemodeltothecapitalistsystemhasbeenproposed,andthiswork-notonlythedocument,buttheentireprocessthatallowedtheproductionofthedocuments-canbeasourceofinspirationtoanyperson,city,civilsocietycollective,region,andcanbereplicated,modifiedandadaptedaccordingtodifferentcontextsandneeds.Athresholdhasbeencrossedinthesensethatanintegralpropositionhasbeendoneforanentiresociety.
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Needlesstosay,itwasaveryrewardingexperiencetobepartoftheproject.
Forthefuture,Iexpectthecommons-transitionmovementtogrowandtostrengthen.Andthatdifferentinitiatives,withdifferentflavors,willstarttosprout.Inthepastyear,manypeopleshowedalotofinterestintheFLOKprocess-notonlyduringthetimewewereinEcuador,butafterwardsaswell.Theworldneedsprofoundchanges;thisisnolongeranoption,butanecessity.Thehumanbeingisintrinsicallygenerousandsolidary-everyculturehassolidaritypracticesthatbecamemoreandmorelostwiththeindividualisticandcompetitivebehaviormodeledbycapitalism.Acommons-transitionmovementisarealpossibilitytorescuehumancooperationandsolidarityandapathtoreachharmonywithNature.
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Index
CommonsTransition:PolicyProposalsforanOpenKnowledgeCommonsSociety
2
PrefacetotheFirstEdition 5IntroductiontotheCommonsTransitionPlan 7ACommonsTransitionPlan 13BackgroundtotheCommonsTransitionProject 14TheFramingoftheProposal 17TheThreeValueModelsandthetransitiontoaSocialKnowledgeEconomy
17
FourTechnologyRegimes 26Cognitive/NetarchicalCapitalismvs.anOpen-CommonsbasedKnowledgeSociety
30
Thepotentialroleofcommons-basedreciprocitylicensestoprotecttraditionalknowledge
48
IntroducingthenewconfigurationbetweenState,CivilSocietyandtheMarket
51
AdescriptionofthenewtriarchyofthePartnerState,theEthicalEconomyandaCommons-basedCivilSociety
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Beyondthemarket,beyondplanning? 69Thehistoricalandpresentimportanceofmutualizationintimesofincreasingresourcescarcity
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Ahistoricalopportunity:TheConvergenceofMaterial/TechnicalP2PInfrastructures,Digital/ImmaterialCommons,andCommons-OrientedGovernanceandOwnershipModels
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ElementsofIdealizedandIntegrativeFullTransitionPlantoamatureSocialKnowledgeEconomy
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Politicalreconstructionofsocialmovementsinaconjunctureofpost-industrialtransformation
89
References 92Remarks 94Acknowledgements 96
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PublicPolicyforaSocialEconomy 97TheCaseofEcuador 98TowardaNewParadigm–BeyondtheWelfareState 101TheSocialEconomyandtheSocialMarket 103ANewApproach 105Taxation,CapitalFormation,andSocialBenefit 106CaseStudy–FureaiKippu,Japan 108TheSocialMarketExchange 112PublicPolicyforaPartnerState 118ThePartnerState14 119SocialEconomyandtheState 1211.DemocratizationandCo-constructionofPublicGoodsandServices
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2.GuaranteeofMinimumEconomicIndependence 1293.DemocratizationoftheEconomyandRestructuringtheProductiveMatrix
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4.SecuringtheCommons 140ConcludingRemarks 155
Buildingasocialknowledgeeconomythroughtheopendesigncommonsanddistributedmanufacturing1
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Introduction:theconceptandformsoftheknowledgeeconomy
165
Acritiqueofcognitivecapitalism 166Alternativestocapitalistmodels 170Knowledgecommonsinthesecondarysectoroftheeconomy 172GeneralPrinciplesforPolicyMaking 179ThePolicySetting 181PolicyRecommendations 182References 185
FromBuenVivirtoCommonsTransition:AnInterviewwithJaniceFigueiredo
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