Common Core State StandardS - SD Department of...

Common Core State StandardS for

mathematics

Common Core State StandardS for matHematICS

table of ContentsIntroduction 3

Standards for mathematical Practice 6

Standards for mathematical Content

Kindergarten 9Grade1 13Grade2 17Grade3 21Grade4 27Grade5 33Grade6 39Grade7 46Grade8 52HighSchool—Introduction

HighSchool—NumberandQuantity 58HighSchool—Algebra 62HighSchool—Functions 67HighSchool—Modeling 72HighSchool—Geometry 74HighSchool—StatisticsandProbability 79

Glossary 85Sample of Works Consulted 91

Common Core State StandardS for matHematICSIn

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IntroductionToward greater focus and coherence

Mathematics experiences in early childhood settings should concentrate on (1) number (which includes whole number, operations, and relations) and (2) geometry, spatial relations, and measurement, with more mathematics learning time devoted to number than to other topics. Mathematical process goals should be integrated in these content areas.

—NationalResearchCouncil,2009

The composite standards [of Hong Kong, Korea and Singapore] have a number of features that can inform an international benchmarking process for the development of K–6 mathematics standards in the U.S. First, the composite standards concentrate the early learning of mathematics on the number, measurement, and geometry strands with less emphasis on data analysis and little exposure to algebra. The Hong Kong standards for grades 1–3 devote approximately half the targeted time to numbers and almost all the time remaining to geometry and measurement.

—Ginsburg,LeinwandandDecker,2009

Because the mathematics concepts in [U.S.] textbooks are often weak, the presentation becomes more mechanical than is ideal. We looked at both traditional and non-traditional textbooks used in the US and found this conceptual weakness in both.

—Ginsburgetal.,2005

There are many ways to organize curricula. The challenge, now rarely met, is to avoid those that distort mathematics and turn off students.

—Steen,2007

Foroveradecade,researchstudiesofmathematicseducationinhigh-performingcountrieshavepointedtotheconclusionthatthemathematicscurriculumintheUnitedStatesmustbecomesubstantiallymorefocusedandcoherentinordertoimprovemathematicsachievementinthiscountry.Todeliveronthepromiseofcommonstandards,thestandardsmustaddresstheproblemofacurriculumthatis“amilewideandaninchdeep.”TheseStandardsareasubstantialanswertothatchallenge.

Itisimportanttorecognizethat“fewerstandards”arenosubstituteforfocusedstandards.Achieving“fewerstandards”wouldbeeasytodobyresortingtobroad,generalstatements.Instead,theseStandardsaimforclarityandspecificity.

Assessingthecoherenceofasetofstandardsismoredifficultthanassessingtheirfocus.WilliamSchmidtandRichardHouang(2002)havesaidthatcontentstandardsandcurriculaarecoherentiftheyare:

articulated over time as a sequence of topics and performances that are logical and reflect, where appropriate, the sequential or hierarchical nature of the disciplinary content from which the subject matter derives. That is, what and how students are taught should reflect not only the topics that fall within a certain academic discipline, but also the key ideas that determine how knowledge is organized and generated within that discipline. This implies


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that to be coherent, a set of content standards must evolve from particulars (e.g., the meaning and operations of whole numbers, including simple math facts and routine computational procedures associated with whole numbers and fractions) to deeper structures inherent in the discipline. These deeper structures then serve as a means for connecting the particulars (such as an understanding of the rational number system and its properties). (emphasisadded)

TheseStandardsendeavortofollowsuchadesign,notonlybystressingconceptualunderstandingofkeyideas,butalsobycontinuallyreturningtoorganizingprinciplessuchasplacevalueorthepropertiesofoperationstostructurethoseideas.

Inaddition,the“sequenceoftopicsandperformances”thatisoutlinedinabodyofmathematicsstandardsmustalsorespectwhatisknownabouthowstudentslearn.AsConfrey(2007)pointsout,developing“sequencedobstaclesandchallengesforstudents…absenttheinsightsaboutmeaningthatderivefromcarefulstudyoflearning,wouldbeunfortunateandunwise.”Inrecognitionofthis,thedevelopmentoftheseStandardsbeganwithresearch-basedlearningprogressionsdetailingwhatisknowntodayabouthowstudents’mathematicalknowledge,skill,andunderstandingdevelopovertime.

Understanding mathematics

TheseStandardsdefinewhatstudentsshouldunderstandandbeabletodointheirstudyofmathematics.Askingastudenttounderstandsomethingmeansaskingateachertoassesswhetherthestudenthasunderstoodit.Butwhatdoesmathematicalunderstandinglooklike?Onehallmarkofmathematicalunderstandingistheabilitytojustify,inawayappropriatetothestudent’smathematicalmaturity,whyaparticularmathematicalstatementistrueorwhereamathematicalrulecomesfrom.Thereisaworldofdifferencebetweenastudentwhocansummonamnemonicdevicetoexpandaproductsuchas(a + b)(x + y)andastudentwhocanexplainwherethemnemoniccomesfrom.Thestudentwhocanexplaintheruleunderstandsthemathematics,andmayhaveabetterchancetosucceedatalessfamiliartasksuchasexpanding(a + b + c)(x + y).Mathematicalunderstandingandproceduralskillareequallyimportant,andbothareassessableusingmathematicaltasksofsufficientrichness.

TheStandardssetgrade-specificstandardsbutdonotdefinetheinterventionmethodsormaterialsnecessarytosupportstudentswhoarewellbeloworwellabovegrade-levelexpectations.ItisalsobeyondthescopeoftheStandardstodefinethefullrangeofsupportsappropriateforEnglishlanguagelearnersandforstudentswithspecialneeds.Atthesametime,allstudentsmusthavetheopportunitytolearnandmeetthesamehighstandardsiftheyaretoaccesstheknowledgeandskillsnecessaryintheirpost-schoollives.TheStandardsshouldbereadasallowingforthewidestpossiblerangeofstudentstoparticipatefullyfromtheoutset,alongwithappropriateaccommodationstoensuremaximumparticipatonofstudentswithspecialeducationneeds.Forexample,forstudentswithdisabilitiesreadingshouldallowforuseofBraille,screenreadertechnology,orotherassistivedevices,whilewritingshouldincludetheuseofascribe,computer,orspeech-to-texttechnology.Inasimilarvein,speakingandlisteningshouldbeinterpretedbroadlytoincludesignlanguage.Nosetofgrade-specificstandardscanfullyreflectthegreatvarietyinabilities,needs,learningrates,andachievementlevelsofstudentsinanygivenclassroom.However,theStandardsdoprovideclearsignpostsalongthewaytothegoalofcollegeandcareerreadinessforallstudents.

TheStandardsbeginonpage6witheightStandardsforMathematicalPractice.


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How to read the grade level standards

Standards definewhatstudentsshouldunderstandandbeabletodo.

Clusters aregroupsofrelatedstandards.Notethatstandardsfromdifferentclustersmaysometimesbecloselyrelated,becausemathematicsisaconnectedsubject.

domainsarelargergroupsofrelatedstandards.Standardsfromdifferentdomainsmaysometimesbecloselyrelated.

number and operations in Base ten 3.nBtUse place value understanding and properties of operations to perform multi-digit arithmetic.1. Useplacevalueunderstandingtoroundwholenumberstothenearest

10or100.

2. Fluentlyaddandsubtractwithin1000usingstrategiesandalgorithmsbasedonplacevalue,propertiesofoperations,and/ortherelationshipbetweenadditionandsubtraction.

3. Multiplyone-digitwholenumbersbymultiplesof10intherange10-90(e.g.,9×80,5×60)usingstrategiesbasedonplacevalueandpropertiesofoperations.

TheseStandardsdonotdictatecurriculumorteachingmethods.Forexample,justbecausetopicAappearsbeforetopicBinthestandardsforagivengrade,itdoesnotnecessarilymeanthattopicAmustbetaughtbeforetopicB.AteachermightprefertoteachtopicBbeforetopicA,ormightchoosetohighlightconnectionsbyteachingtopicAandtopicBatthesametime.Or,ateachermightprefertoteachatopicofhisorherownchoosingthatleads,asabyproduct,tostudentsreachingthestandardsfortopicsAandB.

Whatstudentscanlearnatanyparticulargradeleveldependsuponwhattheyhavelearnedbefore.Ideallythen,eachstandardinthisdocumentmighthavebeenphrasedintheform,“Studentswhoalreadyknow...shouldnextcometolearn....”Butatpresentthisapproachisunrealistic—notleastbecauseexistingeducationresearchcannotspecifyallsuchlearningpathways. Ofnecessitytherefore,gradeplacementsforspecifictopicshavebeenmadeonthebasisofstateandinternationalcomparisonsandthecollectiveexperienceandcollectiveprofessionaljudgmentofeducators,researchersandmathematicians.Onepromiseofcommonstatestandardsisthatovertimetheywillallowresearchonlearningprogressionstoinformandimprovethedesignofstandardstoamuchgreaterextentthanispossibletoday.Learningopportunitieswillcontinuetovaryacrossschoolsandschoolsystems,andeducatorsshouldmakeeveryefforttomeettheneedsofindividualstudentsbasedontheircurrentunderstanding.

TheseStandardsarenotintendedtobenewnamesforoldwaysofdoingbusiness.Theyareacalltotakethenextstep.Itistimeforstatestoworktogethertobuildonlessonslearnedfromtwodecadesofstandardsbasedreforms.Itistimetorecognizethatstandardsarenotjustpromisestoourchildren,butpromisesweintendtokeep.

domain

ClusterStandard

Common Core State StandardS for matHematICSS

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mathematics | Standards for mathematical PracticeTheStandardsforMathematicalPracticedescribevarietiesofexpertisethatmathematicseducatorsatalllevelsshouldseektodevelopintheirstudents.Thesepracticesrestonimportant“processesandproficiencies”withlongstandingimportanceinmathematicseducation.ThefirstofthesearetheNCTMprocessstandardsofproblemsolving,reasoningandproof,communication,representation,andconnections.ThesecondarethestrandsofmathematicalproficiencyspecifiedintheNationalResearchCouncil’sreportAdding It Up:adaptivereasoning,strategiccompetence,conceptualunderstanding(comprehensionofmathematicalconcepts,operationsandrelations),proceduralfluency(skillincarryingoutproceduresflexibly,accurately,efficientlyandappropriately),andproductivedisposition(habitualinclinationtoseemathematicsassensible,useful,andworthwhile,coupledwithabeliefindiligenceandone’sownefficacy).

1 Make sense of problems and persevere in solving them.Mathematicallyproficientstudentsstartbyexplainingtothemselvesthemeaningofaproblemandlookingforentrypointstoitssolution.Theyanalyzegivens,constraints,relationships,andgoals.Theymakeconjecturesabouttheformandmeaningofthesolutionandplanasolutionpathwayratherthansimplyjumpingintoasolutionattempt.Theyconsideranalogousproblems,andtryspecialcasesandsimplerformsoftheoriginalprobleminordertogaininsightintoitssolution.Theymonitorandevaluatetheirprogressandchangecourseifnecessary.Olderstudentsmight,dependingonthecontextoftheproblem,transformalgebraicexpressionsorchangetheviewingwindowontheirgraphingcalculatortogettheinformationtheyneed.Mathematicallyproficientstudentscanexplaincorrespondencesbetweenequations,verbaldescriptions,tables,andgraphsordrawdiagramsofimportantfeaturesandrelationships,graphdata,andsearchforregularityortrends.Youngerstudentsmightrelyonusingconcreteobjectsorpicturestohelpconceptualizeandsolveaproblem.Mathematicallyproficientstudentschecktheiranswerstoproblemsusingadifferentmethod,andtheycontinuallyaskthemselves,“Doesthismakesense?”Theycanunderstandtheapproachesofotherstosolvingcomplexproblemsandidentifycorrespondencesbetweendifferentapproaches.

2 Reason abstractly and quantitatively.Mathematicallyproficientstudentsmakesenseofquantitiesandtheirrelationshipsinproblemsituations.Theybringtwocomplementaryabilitiestobearonproblemsinvolvingquantitativerelationships:theabilitytodecontextualize—toabstractagivensituationandrepresentitsymbolicallyandmanipulatetherepresentingsymbolsasiftheyhavealifeoftheirown,withoutnecessarilyattendingtotheirreferents—andtheabilitytocontextualize,topauseasneededduringthemanipulationprocessinordertoprobeintothereferentsforthesymbolsinvolved.Quantitativereasoningentailshabitsofcreatingacoherentrepresentationoftheproblemathand;consideringtheunitsinvolved;attendingtothemeaningofquantities,notjusthowtocomputethem;andknowingandflexiblyusingdifferentpropertiesofoperationsandobjects.

3 Construct viable arguments and critique the reasoning of others.Mathematicallyproficientstudentsunderstandandusestatedassumptions,definitions,andpreviouslyestablishedresultsinconstructingarguments.Theymakeconjecturesandbuildalogicalprogressionofstatementstoexplorethetruthoftheirconjectures.Theyareabletoanalyzesituationsbybreakingthemintocases,andcanrecognizeandusecounterexamples.Theyjustifytheirconclusions,


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communicatethemtoothers,andrespondtotheargumentsofothers.Theyreasoninductivelyaboutdata,makingplausibleargumentsthattakeintoaccountthecontextfromwhichthedataarose.Mathematicallyproficientstudentsarealsoabletocomparetheeffectivenessoftwoplausiblearguments,distinguishcorrectlogicorreasoningfromthatwhichisflawed,and—ifthereisaflawinanargument—explainwhatitis.Elementarystudentscanconstructargumentsusingconcretereferentssuchasobjects,drawings,diagrams,andactions.Suchargumentscanmakesenseandbecorrect,eventhoughtheyarenotgeneralizedormadeformaluntillatergrades.Later,studentslearntodeterminedomainstowhichanargumentapplies.Studentsatallgradescanlistenorreadtheargumentsofothers,decidewhethertheymakesense,andaskusefulquestionstoclarifyorimprovethearguments.

4 Model with mathematics.Mathematicallyproficientstudentscanapplythemathematicstheyknowtosolveproblemsarisingineverydaylife,society,andtheworkplace.Inearlygrades,thismightbeassimpleaswritinganadditionequationtodescribeasituation.Inmiddlegrades,astudentmightapplyproportionalreasoningtoplanaschooleventoranalyzeaprobleminthecommunity.Byhighschool,astudentmightusegeometrytosolveadesignproblemoruseafunctiontodescribehowonequantityofinterestdependsonanother.Mathematicallyproficientstudentswhocanapplywhattheyknowarecomfortablemakingassumptionsandapproximationstosimplifyacomplicatedsituation,realizingthatthesemayneedrevisionlater.Theyareabletoidentifyimportantquantitiesinapracticalsituationandmaptheirrelationshipsusingsuchtoolsasdiagrams,two-waytables,graphs,flowchartsandformulas.Theycananalyzethoserelationshipsmathematicallytodrawconclusions.Theyroutinelyinterprettheirmathematicalresultsinthecontextofthesituationandreflectonwhethertheresultsmakesense,possiblyimprovingthemodelifithasnotserveditspurpose.

5 Use appropriate tools strategically.Mathematicallyproficientstudentsconsidertheavailabletoolswhensolvingamathematicalproblem.Thesetoolsmightincludepencilandpaper,concretemodels,aruler,aprotractor,acalculator,aspreadsheet,acomputeralgebrasystem,astatisticalpackage,ordynamicgeometrysoftware.Proficientstudentsaresufficientlyfamiliarwithtoolsappropriatefortheirgradeorcoursetomakesounddecisionsaboutwheneachofthesetoolsmightbehelpful,recognizingboththeinsighttobegainedandtheirlimitations.Forexample,mathematicallyproficienthighschoolstudentsanalyzegraphsoffunctionsandsolutionsgeneratedusingagraphingcalculator.Theydetectpossibleerrorsbystrategicallyusingestimationandothermathematicalknowledge.Whenmakingmathematicalmodels,theyknowthattechnologycanenablethemtovisualizetheresultsofvaryingassumptions,exploreconsequences,andcomparepredictionswithdata.Mathematicallyproficientstudentsatvariousgradelevelsareabletoidentifyrelevantexternalmathematicalresources,suchasdigitalcontentlocatedonawebsite,andusethemtoposeorsolveproblems.Theyareabletousetechnologicaltoolstoexploreanddeepentheirunderstandingofconcepts.

6 Attend to precision.Mathematicallyproficientstudentstrytocommunicatepreciselytoothers.Theytrytousecleardefinitionsindiscussionwithothersandintheirownreasoning.Theystatethemeaningofthesymbolstheychoose,includingusingtheequalsignconsistentlyandappropriately.Theyarecarefulaboutspecifyingunitsofmeasure,andlabelingaxestoclarifythecorrespondencewithquantitiesinaproblem.Theycalculateaccuratelyandefficiently,expressnumericalanswerswithadegreeofprecisionappropriatefortheproblemcontext.Intheelementarygrades,studentsgivecarefullyformulatedexplanationstoeachother.Bythetimetheyreachhighschooltheyhavelearnedtoexamineclaimsandmakeexplicituseofdefinitions.


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7 Look for and make use of structure.Mathematicallyproficientstudentslookcloselytodiscernapatternorstructure.Youngstudents,forexample,mightnoticethatthreeandsevenmoreisthesameamountassevenandthreemore,ortheymaysortacollectionofshapesaccordingtohowmanysidestheshapeshave.Later,studentswillsee7×8equalsthewellremembered7×5+7×3,inpreparationforlearningaboutthedistributiveproperty.Intheexpressionx2+9x+14,olderstudentscanseethe14as2×7andthe9as2+7.Theyrecognizethesignificanceofanexistinglineinageometricfigureandcanusethestrategyofdrawinganauxiliarylineforsolvingproblems.Theyalsocanstepbackforanoverviewandshiftperspective.Theycanseecomplicatedthings,suchassomealgebraicexpressions,assingleobjectsorasbeingcomposedofseveralobjects.Forexample,theycansee5–3(x–y)2as5minusapositivenumbertimesasquareandusethattorealizethatitsvaluecannotbemorethan5foranyrealnumbersxandy.

8 Look for and express regularity in repeated reasoning.Mathematicallyproficientstudentsnoticeifcalculationsarerepeated,andlookbothforgeneralmethodsandforshortcuts.Upperelementarystudentsmightnoticewhendividing25by11thattheyarerepeatingthesamecalculationsoverandoveragain,andconcludetheyhavearepeatingdecimal.Bypayingattentiontothecalculationofslopeastheyrepeatedlycheckwhetherpointsareonthelinethrough(1,2)withslope3,middleschoolstudentsmightabstracttheequation(y – 2)/(x – 1) = 3.Noticingtheregularityinthewaytermscancelwhenexpanding(x–1)(x+1),(x–1)(x2+x+1),and(x–1)(x3+x2+x+1)mightleadthemtothegeneralformulaforthesumofageometricseries.Astheyworktosolveaproblem,mathematicallyproficientstudentsmaintainoversightoftheprocess,whileattendingtothedetails.Theycontinuallyevaluatethereasonablenessoftheirintermediateresults.

Connecting the Standards for Mathematical Practice to the Standards for Mathematical ContentTheStandardsforMathematicalPracticedescribewaysinwhichdevelopingstudentpractitionersofthedisciplineofmathematicsincreasinglyoughttoengagewiththesubjectmatterastheygrowinmathematicalmaturityandexpertisethroughouttheelementary,middleandhighschoolyears.Designersofcurricula,assessments,andprofessionaldevelopmentshouldallattendtotheneedtoconnectthemathematicalpracticestomathematicalcontentinmathematicsinstruction.

TheStandardsforMathematicalContentareabalancedcombinationofprocedureandunderstanding.Expectationsthatbeginwiththeword“understand”areoftenespeciallygoodopportunitiestoconnectthepracticestothecontent.Studentswholackunderstandingofatopicmayrelyonprocedurestooheavily.Withoutaflexiblebasefromwhichtowork,theymaybelesslikelytoconsideranalogousproblems,representproblemscoherently,justifyconclusions,applythemathematicstopracticalsituations,usetechnologymindfullytoworkwiththemathematics,explainthemathematicsaccuratelytootherstudents,stepbackforanoverview,ordeviatefromaknownproceduretofindashortcut.Inshort,alackofunderstandingeffectivelypreventsastudentfromengaginginthemathematicalpractices.

Inthisrespect,thosecontentstandardswhichsetanexpectationofunderstandingarepotential“pointsofintersection”betweentheStandardsforMathematicalContentandtheStandardsforMathematicalPractice.Thesepointsofintersectionareintendedtobeweightedtowardcentralandgenerativeconceptsintheschoolmathematicscurriculumthatmostmeritthetime,resources,innovativeenergies,andfocusnecessarytoqualitativelyimprovethecurriculum,instruction,assessment,professionaldevelopment,andstudentachievementinmathematics.

Common Core State StandardS for matHematICSK

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mathematics | KindergartenInKindergarten,instructionaltimeshouldfocusontwocriticalareas:(1)

representingandcomparingwholenumbers,initiallywithsetsofobjects;

(2)describingshapesandspace.MorelearningtimeinKindergarten

shouldbedevotedtonumberthantoothertopics.

(1)Studentsusenumbers,includingwrittennumerals,torepresentquantitiesandtosolvequantitativeproblems,suchascountingobjectsinaset;countingoutagivennumberofobjects;comparingsetsornumerals;andmodelingsimplejoiningandseparatingsituationswithsetsofobjects,oreventuallywithequationssuchas5+2=7and7–2=5.(Kindergartenstudentsshouldseeadditionandsubtractionequations,andstudentwritingofequationsinkindergartenisencouraged,butitisnotrequired.)Studentschoose,combine,andapplyeffectivestrategiesforansweringquantitativequestions,includingquicklyrecognizingthecardinalitiesofsmallsetsofobjects,countingandproducingsetsofgivensizes,countingthenumberofobjectsincombinedsets,orcountingthenumberofobjectsthatremaininasetaftersomearetakenaway.

(2)Studentsdescribetheirphysicalworldusinggeometricideas(e.g.,shape,orientation,spatialrelations)andvocabulary.Theyidentify,name,anddescribebasictwo-dimensionalshapes,suchassquares,triangles,circles,rectangles,andhexagons,presentedinavarietyofways(e.g.,withdifferentsizesandorientations),aswellasthree-dimensionalshapessuchascubes,cones,cylinders,andspheres.Theyusebasicshapesandspatialreasoningtomodelobjectsintheirenvironmentandtoconstructmorecomplexshapes.


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Counting and Cardinality

• Know number names and the count sequence.

• Count to tell the number of objects.

• Compare numbers.

operations and algebraic thinking

• Understand addition as putting together and adding to, and understand subtraction as taking apart and taking from.

number and operations in Base ten

• Work with numbers 11–19 to gain foundations for place value.

measurement and data

• describe and compare measurable attributes.

• Classify objects and count the number of objects in categories.

Geometry

• Identify and describe shapes.

• analyze, compare, create, and compose shapes.

mathematical Practices

1. Makesenseofproblemsandpersevereinsolvingthem.

2. Reasonabstractlyandquantitatively.

3. Constructviableargumentsandcritiquethereasoningofothers.

4. Modelwithmathematics.

5. Useappropriatetoolsstrategically.

6. Attendtoprecision.

7. Lookforandmakeuseofstructure.

8. Lookforandexpressregularityinrepeatedreasoning.

Grade K overview


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Counting and Cardinality K.CC

Know number names and the count sequence.1. Countto100byonesandbytens.

2. Countforwardbeginningfromagivennumberwithintheknownsequence(insteadofhavingtobeginat1).

3. Writenumbersfrom0to20.Representanumberofobjectswithawrittennumeral0-20(with0representingacountofnoobjects).

Count to tell the number of objects. 4. Understandtherelationshipbetweennumbersandquantities;connect

countingtocardinality.

a. Whencountingobjects,saythenumbernamesinthestandardorder,pairingeachobjectwithoneandonlyonenumbernameandeachnumbernamewithoneandonlyoneobject.

b. Understandthatthelastnumbernamesaidtellsthenumberofobjectscounted.Thenumberofobjectsisthesameregardlessoftheirarrangementortheorderinwhichtheywerecounted.

c. Understandthateachsuccessivenumbernamereferstoaquantitythatisonelarger.

5. Counttoanswer“howmany?”questionsaboutasmanyas20thingsarrangedinaline,arectangulararray,oracircle,orasmanyas10thingsinascatteredconfiguration;givenanumberfrom1–20,countoutthatmanyobjects.

Compare numbers.6. Identifywhetherthenumberofobjectsinonegroupisgreaterthan,

lessthan,orequaltothenumberofobjectsinanothergroup,e.g.,byusingmatchingandcountingstrategies.1

7. Comparetwonumbersbetween1and10presentedaswrittennumerals.

operations and algebraic thinking K.oa

Understand addition as putting together and adding to, and under-stand subtraction as taking apart and taking from.

1. Representadditionandsubtractionwithobjects,fingers,mentalimages,drawings2,sounds(e.g.,claps),actingoutsituations,verbalexplanations,expressions,orequations.

2. Solveadditionandsubtractionwordproblems,andaddandsubtractwithin10,e.g.,byusingobjectsordrawingstorepresenttheproblem.

3. Decomposenumberslessthanorequalto10intopairsinmorethanoneway,e.g.,byusingobjectsordrawings,andrecordeachdecompositionbyadrawingorequation(e.g.,5=2+3and5=4+1).

4. Foranynumberfrom1to9,findthenumberthatmakes10whenaddedtothegivennumber,e.g.,byusingobjectsordrawings,andrecordtheanswerwithadrawingorequation.

5. Fluentlyaddandsubtractwithin5.

1Includegroupswithuptotenobjects.2Drawingsneednotshowdetails,butshouldshowthemathematicsintheproblem.(ThisapplieswhereverdrawingsarementionedintheStandards.)


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number and operations in Base ten K.nBt

Work with numbers 11–19 to gain foundations for place value. 1. Composeanddecomposenumbersfrom11to19intotenonesand

somefurtherones,e.g.,byusingobjectsordrawings,andrecordeachcompositionordecompositionbyadrawingorequation(e.g.,18=10+8);understandthatthesenumbersarecomposedoftenonesandone,two,three,four,five,six,seven,eight,ornineones.

measurement and data K.md

Describe and compare measurable attributes.1. Describemeasurableattributesofobjects,suchaslengthorweight.

Describeseveralmeasurableattributesofasingleobject.

2. Directlycomparetwoobjectswithameasurableattributeincommon,toseewhichobjecthas“moreof”/“lessof”theattribute,anddescribethedifference.For example, directly compare the heights of two children and describe one child as taller/shorter.

Classify objects and count the number of objects in each category.3. Classifyobjectsintogivencategories;countthenumbersofobjectsin

eachcategoryandsortthecategoriesbycount.3

Geometry K.G

Identify and describe shapes (squares, circles, triangles, rectangles, hexagons, cubes, cones, cylinders, and spheres).

1. Describeobjectsintheenvironmentusingnamesofshapes,anddescribetherelativepositionsoftheseobjectsusingtermssuchasabove,below,beside,in front of,behind,andnext to.

2. Correctlynameshapesregardlessoftheirorientationsoroverallsize.

3. Identifyshapesastwo-dimensional(lyinginaplane,“flat”)orthree-dimensional(“solid”).

Analyze, compare, create, and compose shapes.4. Analyzeandcomparetwo-andthree-dimensionalshapes,in

differentsizesandorientations,usinginformallanguagetodescribetheirsimilarities,differences,parts(e.g.,numberofsidesandvertices/“corners”)andotherattributes(e.g.,havingsidesofequallength).

5. Modelshapesintheworldbybuildingshapesfromcomponents(e.g.,sticksandclayballs)anddrawingshapes.

6. Composesimpleshapestoformlargershapes.For example, “Can you join these two triangles with full sides touching to make a rectangle?”

3Limitcategorycountstobelessthanorequalto10.

Common Core State StandardS for matHematICSG

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mathematics | Grade 1InGrade1,instructionaltimeshouldfocusonfourcriticalareas: (1)

developingunderstandingofaddition,subtraction,andstrategiesfor

additionandsubtractionwithin20;(2)developingunderstandingofwhole

numberrelationshipsandplacevalue,includinggroupingintensand

ones;(3)developingunderstandingoflinearmeasurementandmeasuring

lengthsasiteratinglengthunits;and(4)reasoningaboutattributesof,and

composinganddecomposinggeometricshapes.

(1)Studentsdevelopstrategiesforaddingandsubtractingwholenumbersbasedontheirpriorworkwithsmallnumbers.Theyuseavarietyofmodels,includingdiscreteobjectsandlength-basedmodels(e.g.,cubesconnectedtoformlengths),tomodeladd-to,take-from,put-together,take-apart,andcomparesituationstodevelopmeaningfortheoperationsofadditionandsubtraction,andtodevelopstrategiestosolvearithmeticproblemswiththeseoperations.Studentsunderstandconnectionsbetweencountingandadditionandsubtraction(e.g.,addingtwoisthesameascountingontwo).Theyusepropertiesofadditiontoaddwholenumbersandtocreateanduseincreasinglysophisticatedstrategiesbasedontheseproperties(e.g.,“makingtens”)tosolveadditionandsubtractionproblemswithin20.Bycomparingavarietyofsolutionstrategies,childrenbuildtheirunderstandingoftherelationshipbetweenadditionandsubtraction.

(2)Studentsdevelop,discuss,anduseefficient,accurate,andgeneralizablemethodstoaddwithin100andsubtractmultiplesof10.Theycomparewholenumbers(atleastto100)todevelopunderstandingofandsolveproblemsinvolvingtheirrelativesizes.Theythinkofwholenumbersbetween10and100intermsoftensandones(especiallyrecognizingthenumbers11to19ascomposedofatenandsomeones).Throughactivitiesthatbuildnumbersense,theyunderstandtheorderofthecountingnumbersandtheirrelativemagnitudes.

(3)Studentsdevelopanunderstandingofthemeaningandprocessesofmeasurement,includingunderlyingconceptssuchasiterating(thementalactivityofbuildingupthelengthofanobjectwithequal-sizedunits)andthetransitivityprincipleforindirectmeasurement.1

(4)Studentscomposeanddecomposeplaneorsolidfigures(e.g.,puttwotrianglestogethertomakeaquadrilateral)andbuildunderstandingofpart-wholerelationshipsaswellasthepropertiesoftheoriginalandcompositeshapes.Astheycombineshapes,theyrecognizethemfromdifferentperspectivesandorientations,describetheirgeometricattributes,anddeterminehowtheyarealikeanddifferent,todevelopthebackgroundformeasurementandforinitialunderstandingsofpropertiessuchascongruenceandsymmetry.

1Studentsshouldapplytheprincipleoftransitivityofmeasurementtomakeindirectcomparisons,buttheyneednotusethistechnicalterm.


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Grade 1 overviewoperations and algebraic thinking

• represent and solve problems involving addition and subtraction.

• Understand and apply properties of operations and the relationship between addition and subtraction.

• add and subtract within 20.

• Work with addition and subtraction equations.


• extend the counting sequence.

• Understand place value.

• Use place value understanding and properties of operations to add and subtract.


• measure lengths indirectly and by iterating length units.

• tell and write time.

• represent and interpret data.

Geometry

• reason with shapes and their attributes.











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operations and algebraic thinking 1.oa

Represent and solve problems involving addition and subtraction.1. Useadditionandsubtractionwithin20tosolvewordproblemsinvolving

situationsofaddingto,takingfrom,puttingtogether,takingapart,andcomparing,withunknownsinallpositions,e.g.,byusingobjects,drawings,andequationswithasymbolfortheunknownnumbertorepresenttheproblem.2

2. Solvewordproblemsthatcallforadditionofthreewholenumberswhosesumislessthanorequalto20,e.g.,byusingobjects,drawings,andequationswithasymbolfortheunknownnumbertorepresenttheproblem.

Understand and apply properties of operations and the relationship between addition and subtraction.

3. Applypropertiesofoperationsasstrategiestoaddandsubtract.3Examples: If 8 + 3 = 11 is known, then 3 + 8 = 11 is also known. (Commutative property of addition.) To add 2 + 6 + 4, the second two numbers can be added to make a ten, so 2 + 6 + 4 = 2 + 10 = 12. (Associative property of addition.)

4. Understandsubtractionasanunknown-addendproblem.For example, subtract 10 – 8 by finding the number that makes 10 when added to 8.

Add and subtract within 20. 5. Relatecountingtoadditionandsubtraction(e.g.,bycountingon2to

add2).

6. Addandsubtractwithin20,demonstratingfluencyforadditionandsubtractionwithin10.Usestrategiessuchascountingon;makingten(e.g.,8+6=8+2+4=10+4=14);decomposinganumberleadingtoaten(e.g.,13–4=13–3–1=10–1=9);usingtherelationshipbetweenadditionandsubtraction(e.g.,knowingthat8+4=12,oneknows12–8=4);andcreatingequivalentbuteasierorknownsums(e.g.,adding6+7bycreatingtheknownequivalent6+6+1=12+1=13).

Work with addition and subtraction equations. 7. Understandthemeaningoftheequalsign,anddetermineifequations

involvingadditionandsubtractionaretrueorfalse.For example, which of the following equations are true and which are false? 6 = 6, 7 = 8 – 1, 5 + 2 = 2 + 5, 4 + 1 = 5 + 2.

8. Determinetheunknownwholenumberinanadditionorsubtractionequationrelatingtothreewholenumbers.For example, determine the unknown number that makes the equation true in each of the equations 8 + ? = 11, 5 = � – 3, 6 + 6 = �.

number and operations in Base ten 1.nBt

Extend the counting sequence.1. Countto120,startingatanynumberlessthan120.Inthisrange,read

andwritenumeralsandrepresentanumberofobjectswithawrittennumeral.

Understand place value.2. Understandthatthetwodigitsofatwo-digitnumberrepresentamounts

oftensandones.Understandthefollowingasspecialcases:

a. 10canbethoughtofasabundleoftenones—calleda“ten.”

b. Thenumbersfrom11to19arecomposedofatenandone,two,three,four,five,six,seven,eight,ornineones.

c. Thenumbers10,20,30,40,50,60,70,80,90refertoone,two,three,four,five,six,seven,eight,orninetens(and0ones).

2SeeGlossary,Table1.3Studentsneednotuseformaltermsfortheseproperties.


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3. Comparetwotwo-digitnumbersbasedonmeaningsofthetensandonesdigits,recordingtheresultsofcomparisonswiththesymbols>,=,and<.

Use place value understanding and properties of operations to add and subtract.

4. Addwithin100,includingaddingatwo-digitnumberandaone-digitnumber,andaddingatwo-digitnumberandamultipleof10,usingconcretemodelsordrawingsandstrategiesbasedonplacevalue,propertiesofoperations,and/ortherelationshipbetweenadditionandsubtraction;relatethestrategytoawrittenmethodandexplainthereasoningused.Understandthatinaddingtwo-digitnumbers,oneaddstensandtens,onesandones;andsometimesitisnecessarytocomposeaten.

5. Givenatwo-digitnumber,mentallyfind10moreor10lessthanthenumber,withouthavingtocount;explainthereasoningused.

6. Subtractmultiplesof10intherange10-90frommultiplesof10intherange10-90(positiveorzerodifferences),usingconcretemodelsordrawingsandstrategiesbasedonplacevalue,propertiesofoperations,and/ortherelationshipbetweenadditionandsubtraction;relatethestrategytoawrittenmethodandexplainthereasoningused.

measurement and data 1.md

Measure lengths indirectly and by iterating length units.1. Orderthreeobjectsbylength;comparethelengthsoftwoobjects

indirectlybyusingathirdobject.

2. Expressthelengthofanobjectasawholenumberoflengthunits,bylayingmultiplecopiesofashorterobject(thelengthunit)endtoend;understandthatthelengthmeasurementofanobjectisthenumberofsame-sizelengthunitsthatspanitwithnogapsoroverlaps.Limit to contexts where the object being measured is spanned by a whole number of length units with no gaps or overlaps.

Tell and write time.3. Tellandwritetimeinhoursandhalf-hoursusinganaloganddigital

clocks.

Represent and interpret data.4. Organize,represent,andinterpretdatawithuptothreecategories;ask

andanswerquestionsaboutthetotalnumberofdatapoints,howmanyineachcategory,andhowmanymoreorlessareinonecategorythaninanother.

Geometry 1.G

Reason with shapes and their attributes.1. Distinguishbetweendefiningattributes(e.g.,trianglesareclosedand

three-sided)versusnon-definingattributes(e.g.,color,orientation,overallsize);buildanddrawshapestopossessdefiningattributes.

2. Composetwo-dimensionalshapes(rectangles,squares,trapezoids,triangles,half-circles,andquarter-circles)orthree-dimensionalshapes(cubes,rightrectangularprisms,rightcircularcones,andrightcircularcylinders)tocreateacompositeshape,andcomposenewshapesfromthecompositeshape.4

3. Partitioncirclesandrectanglesintotwoandfourequalshares,describethesharesusingthewordshalves,fourths,andquarters,andusethephraseshalf of,fourth of,andquarter of.Describethewholeastwoof,orfouroftheshares.Understandfortheseexamplesthatdecomposingintomoreequalsharescreatessmallershares.

4Studentsdonotneedtolearnformalnamessuchas“rightrectangularprism.”


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mathematics | Grade 2InGrade2,instructionaltimeshouldfocusonfourcriticalareas:(1)

extendingunderstandingofbase-tennotation;(2)buildingfluencywith

additionandsubtraction;(3)usingstandardunitsofmeasure;and(4)

describingandanalyzingshapes.

(1)Studentsextendtheirunderstandingofthebase-tensystem.Thisincludesideasofcountinginfives,tens,andmultiplesofhundreds,tens,andones,aswellasnumberrelationshipsinvolvingtheseunits,includingcomparing.Studentsunderstandmulti-digitnumbers(upto1000)writteninbase-tennotation,recognizingthatthedigitsineachplacerepresentamountsofthousands,hundreds,tens,orones(e.g.,853is8hundreds+5tens+3ones).

(2)Studentsusetheirunderstandingofadditiontodevelopfluencywithadditionandsubtractionwithin100.Theysolveproblemswithin1000byapplyingtheirunderstandingofmodelsforadditionandsubtraction,andtheydevelop,discuss,anduseefficient,accurate,andgeneralizablemethodstocomputesumsanddifferencesofwholenumbersinbase-tennotation,usingtheirunderstandingofplacevalueandthepropertiesofoperations.Theyselectandaccuratelyapplymethodsthatareappropriateforthecontextandthenumbersinvolvedtomentallycalculatesumsanddifferencesfornumberswithonlytensoronlyhundreds.

(3)Studentsrecognizetheneedforstandardunitsofmeasure(centimeterandinch)andtheyuserulersandothermeasurementtoolswiththeunderstandingthatlinearmeasureinvolvesaniterationofunits.Theyrecognizethatthesmallertheunit,themoreiterationstheyneedtocoveragivenlength.

(4)Studentsdescribeandanalyzeshapesbyexaminingtheirsidesandangles.Studentsinvestigate,describe,andreasonaboutdecomposingandcombiningshapestomakeothershapes.Throughbuilding,drawing,andanalyzingtwo-andthree-dimensionalshapes,studentsdevelopafoundationforunderstandingarea,volume,congruence,similarity,andsymmetryinlatergrades.


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• represent and solve problems involving addition and subtraction.

• add and subtract within 20.

• Work with equal groups of objects to gain foundations for multiplication.


• Understand place value.

• Use place value understanding and properties of operations to add and subtract.


• measure and estimate lengths in standard units.

• relate addition and subtraction to length.

• Work with time and money.


Geometry











Grade 2 overview


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Represent and solve problems involving addition and subtraction.1. Useadditionandsubtractionwithin100tosolveone-andtwo-step

wordproblemsinvolvingsituationsofaddingto,takingfrom,puttingtogether,takingapart,andcomparing,withunknownsinallpositions, e.g.,byusingdrawingsandequationswithasymbolfortheunknownnumbertorepresenttheproblem.1

Add and subtract within 20.2. Fluentlyaddandsubtractwithin20usingmentalstrategies.2Byendof

Grade2,knowfrommemoryallsumsoftwoone-digitnumbers.

Work with equal groups of objects to gain foundations for multiplication.

3. Determinewhetheragroupofobjects(upto20)hasanoddorevennumberofmembers,e.g.,bypairingobjectsorcountingthemby2s;writeanequationtoexpressanevennumberasasumoftwoequaladdends.

4. Useadditiontofindthetotalnumberofobjectsarrangedinrectangulararrayswithupto5rowsandupto5columns;writeanequationtoexpressthetotalasasumofequaladdends.


Understand place value. 1. Understandthatthethreedigitsofathree-digitnumberrepresent

amountsofhundreds,tens,andones;e.g.,706equals7hundreds,0tens,and6ones.Understandthefollowingasspecialcases:

a. 100canbethoughtofasabundleoftentens—calleda“hundred.”

b. Thenumbers100,200,300,400,500,600,700,800,900refertoone,two,three,four,five,six,seven,eight,orninehundreds(and0tensand0ones).

2. Countwithin1000;skip-countby5s,10s,and100s.

3. Readandwritenumbersto1000usingbase-tennumerals,numbernames,andexpandedform.

4. Comparetwothree-digitnumbersbasedonmeaningsofthehundreds,tens,andonesdigits,using>,=,and<symbolstorecordtheresultsofcomparisons.

Use place value understanding and properties of operations to add and subtract.

5. Fluentlyaddandsubtractwithin100usingstrategiesbasedonplacevalue,propertiesofoperations,and/ortherelationshipbetweenadditionandsubtraction.

6. Adduptofourtwo-digitnumbersusingstrategiesbasedonplacevalueandpropertiesofoperations.

7. Addandsubtractwithin1000,usingconcretemodelsordrawingsandstrategiesbasedonplacevalue,propertiesofoperations,and/ortherelationshipbetweenadditionandsubtraction;relatethestrategytoawrittenmethod.Understandthatinaddingorsubtractingthree-digitnumbers,oneaddsorsubtractshundredsandhundreds,tensandtens,onesandones;andsometimesitisnecessarytocomposeordecomposetensorhundreds.

8. Mentallyadd10or100toagivennumber100–900,andmentallysubtract10or100fromagivennumber100–900.

9. Explainwhyadditionandsubtractionstrategieswork,usingplacevalueandthepropertiesofoperations.3

1SeeGlossary,Table1.2Seestandard1.OA.6foralistofmentalstrategies.3Explanationsmaybesupportedbydrawingsorobjects.


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Measure and estimate lengths in standard units.1. Measurethelengthofanobjectbyselectingandusingappropriate

toolssuchasrulers,yardsticks,metersticks,andmeasuringtapes.

2. Measurethelengthofanobjecttwice,usinglengthunitsofdifferentlengthsforthetwomeasurements;describehowthetwomeasurementsrelatetothesizeoftheunitchosen.

3. Estimatelengthsusingunitsofinches,feet,centimeters,andmeters.

4. Measuretodeterminehowmuchlongeroneobjectisthananother,expressingthelengthdifferenceintermsofastandardlengthunit.

Relate addition and subtraction to length.5. Useadditionandsubtractionwithin100tosolvewordproblems

involvinglengthsthataregiveninthesameunits,e.g.,byusingdrawings(suchasdrawingsofrulers)andequationswithasymbolfortheunknownnumbertorepresenttheproblem.

6. Representwholenumbersaslengthsfrom0onanumberlinediagramwithequallyspacedpointscorrespondingtothenumbers0,1,2,...,andrepresentwhole-numbersumsanddifferenceswithin100onanumberlinediagram.

Work with time and money.7. Tellandwritetimefromanaloganddigitalclockstothenearestfive

minutes,usinga.m.andp.m.

8. Solvewordproblemsinvolvingdollarbills,quarters,dimes,nickels,andpennies,using$and¢symbolsappropriately.Example: If you have 2 dimes and 3 pennies, how many cents do you have?

Represent and interpret data.9. Generatemeasurementdatabymeasuringlengthsofseveralobjects

tothenearestwholeunit,orbymakingrepeatedmeasurementsofthesameobject.Showthemeasurementsbymakingalineplot,wherethehorizontalscaleismarkedoffinwhole-numberunits.

10. Drawapicturegraphandabargraph(withsingle-unitscale)torepresentadatasetwithuptofourcategories.Solvesimpleput-together,take-apart,andcompareproblems4usinginformationpresentedinabargraph.

Geometry 2.G

Reason with shapes and their attributes.1. Recognizeanddrawshapeshavingspecifiedattributes,suchasagiven

numberofanglesoragivennumberofequalfaces.5Identifytriangles,quadrilaterals,pentagons,hexagons,andcubes.

2. Partitionarectangleintorowsandcolumnsofsame-sizesquaresandcounttofindthetotalnumberofthem.

3. Partitioncirclesandrectanglesintotwo,three,orfourequalshares,describethesharesusingthewordshalves,thirds,half of,a third of,etc.,anddescribethewholeastwohalves,threethirds,fourfourths.Recognizethatequalsharesofidenticalwholesneednothavethesameshape.

4SeeGlossary,Table1.5Sizesarecompareddirectlyorvisually,notcomparedbymeasuring.


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Mathematics|Grade3InGrade3,instructionaltimeshouldfocusonfourcriticalareas: (1)

developingunderstandingofmultiplicationanddivisionandstrategies

formultiplicationanddivisionwithin100;(2)developingunderstanding

offractions,especiallyunitfractions(fractionswithnumerator1);(3)

developingunderstandingofthestructureofrectangulararraysandof

area;and(4)describingandanalyzingtwo-dimensionalshapes.

(1)Studentsdevelopanunderstandingofthemeaningsofmultiplicationanddivisionofwholenumbersthroughactivitiesandproblemsinvolvingequal-sizedgroups,arrays,andareamodels;multiplicationisfindinganunknownproduct,anddivisionisfindinganunknownfactorinthesesituations.Forequal-sizedgroupsituations,divisioncanrequirefindingtheunknownnumberofgroupsortheunknowngroupsize.Studentsusepropertiesofoperationstocalculateproductsofwholenumbers,usingincreasinglysophisticatedstrategiesbasedonthesepropertiestosolvemultiplicationanddivisionproblemsinvolvingsingle-digitfactors.Bycomparingavarietyofsolutionstrategies,studentslearntherelationshipbetweenmultiplicationanddivision.

(2)Studentsdevelopanunderstandingoffractions,beginningwithunitfractions.Studentsviewfractionsingeneralasbeingbuiltoutofunitfractions,andtheyusefractionsalongwithvisualfractionmodelstorepresentpartsofawhole.Studentsunderstandthatthesizeofafractionalpartisrelativetothesizeofthewhole.Forexample,1/2ofthepaintinasmallbucketcouldbelesspaintthan1/3ofthepaintinalargerbucket,but1/3ofaribbonislongerthan1/5ofthesameribbonbecausewhentheribbonisdividedinto3equalparts,thepartsarelongerthanwhentheribbonisdividedinto5equalparts.Studentsareabletousefractionstorepresentnumbersequalto,lessthan,andgreaterthanone.Theysolveproblemsthatinvolvecomparingfractionsbyusingvisualfractionmodelsandstrategiesbasedonnoticingequalnumeratorsordenominators.

(3)Studentsrecognizeareaasanattributeoftwo-dimensionalregions.Theymeasuretheareaofashapebyfindingthetotalnumberofsame-sizeunitsofarearequiredtocovertheshapewithoutgapsoroverlaps,asquarewithsidesofunitlengthbeingthestandardunitformeasuringarea.Studentsunderstandthatrectangulararrayscanbedecomposedintoidenticalrowsorintoidenticalcolumns.Bydecomposingrectanglesintorectangulararraysofsquares,studentsconnectareatomultiplication,andjustifyusingmultiplicationtodeterminetheareaofarectangle.

(4)Studentsdescribe,analyze,andcomparepropertiesoftwo-dimensionalshapes.Theycompareandclassifyshapesbytheirsidesandangles,andconnectthesewithdefinitionsofshapes.Studentsalsorelatetheirfractionworktogeometrybyexpressingtheareaofpartofashapeasaunitfractionofthewhole.


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• represent and solve problems involving multiplication and division.

• Understand properties of multiplication and the relationship between multiplication and division.

• multiply and divide within 100.

• Solve problems involving the four operations, and identify and explain patterns in arithmetic.


• Use place value understanding and properties of operations to perform multi-digit arithmetic.

number and operations—fractions

• develop understanding of fractions as numbers.


• Solve problems involving measurement and estimation of intervals of time, liquid volumes, and masses of objects.


• Geometric measurement: understand concepts of area and relate area to multiplication and to addition.

• Geometric measurement: recognize perimeter as an attribute of plane figures and distinguish between linear and area measures.

Geometry











Grade 3 overviewmathematical Practices










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Represent and solve problems involving multiplication and division.1. Interpretproductsofwholenumbers,e.g.,interpret5×7asthetotal

numberofobjectsin5groupsof7objectseach.For example, describe a context in which a total number of objects can be expressed as 5 × 7.

2. Interpretwhole-numberquotientsofwholenumbers,e.g.,interpret56÷8asthenumberofobjectsineachsharewhen56objectsarepartitionedequallyinto8shares,orasanumberofshareswhen56objectsarepartitionedintoequalsharesof8objectseach.For example, describe a context in which a number of shares or a number of groups can be expressed as 56 ÷ 8.

3. Usemultiplicationanddivisionwithin100tosolvewordproblemsinsituationsinvolvingequalgroups,arrays,andmeasurementquantities,e.g.,byusingdrawingsandequationswithasymbolfortheunknownnumbertorepresenttheproblem.1

4. Determinetheunknownwholenumberinamultiplicationordivisionequationrelatingthreewholenumbers.For example, determine the unknown number that makes the equation true in each of the equations 8 × ? = 48, 5 = � ÷ 3, 6 × 6 = ?.

Understand properties of multiplication and the relationship between multiplication and division.

5. Applypropertiesofoperationsasstrategiestomultiplyanddivide.2Examples: If 6 × 4 = 24 is known, then 4 × 6 = 24 is also known. (Commutative property of multiplication.) 3 × 5 × 2 can be found by 3 × 5 = 15, then 15 × 2 = 30, or by 5 × 2 = 10, then 3 × 10 = 30. (Associative property of multiplication.) Knowing that 8 × 5 = 40 and 8 × 2 = 16, one can find 8 × 7 as 8 × (5 + 2) = (8 × 5) + (8 × 2) = 40 + 16 = 56. (Distributive property.)

6. Understanddivisionasanunknown-factorproblem.For example, find 32 ÷ 8 by finding the number that makes 32 when multiplied by 8.

Multiply and divide within 100.7. Fluentlymultiplyanddividewithin100,usingstrategiessuchasthe

relationshipbetweenmultiplicationanddivision(e.g.,knowingthat8×5=40,oneknows40÷5=8)orpropertiesofoperations.BytheendofGrade3,knowfrommemoryallproductsoftwoone-digitnumbers.

Solve problems involving the four operations, and identify and explain patterns in arithmetic.

8. Solvetwo-stepwordproblemsusingthefouroperations.Representtheseproblemsusingequationswithaletterstandingfortheunknownquantity.Assessthereasonablenessofanswersusingmentalcomputationandestimationstrategiesincludingrounding.3

9. Identifyarithmeticpatterns(includingpatternsintheadditiontableormultiplicationtable),andexplainthemusingpropertiesofoperations.For example, observe that 4 times a number is always even, and explain why 4 times a number can be decomposed into two equal addends.

1SeeGlossary,Table2.2Studentsneednotuseformaltermsfortheseproperties.3Thisstandardislimitedtoproblemsposedwithwholenumbersandhavingwhole-numberanswers;studentsshouldknowhowtoperformoperationsintheconven-tionalorderwhentherearenoparenthesestospecifyaparticularorder(OrderofOperations).


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Use place value understanding and properties of operations to perform multi-digit arithmetic.4

1. Useplacevalueunderstandingtoroundwholenumberstothenearest10or100.

2. Fluentlyaddandsubtractwithin1000usingstrategiesandalgorithmsbasedonplacevalue,propertiesofoperations,and/ortherelationshipbetweenadditionandsubtraction.

3. Multiplyone-digitwholenumbersbymultiplesof10intherange10–90(e.g.,9×80,5×60)usingstrategiesbasedonplacevalueandpropertiesofoperations.

number and operations—fractions5 3.nf

Develop understanding of fractions as numbers.1. Understandafraction1/basthequantityformedby1partwhena

wholeispartitionedintob equalparts;understandafractiona/basthequantityformedbyapartsofsize1/b.

2. Understandafractionasanumberonthenumberline;representfractionsonanumberlinediagram.

a. Representafraction1/bonanumberlinediagrambydefiningtheintervalfrom0to1asthewholeandpartitioningitintobequalparts.Recognizethateachparthassize1/bandthattheendpointofthepartbasedat0locatesthenumber1/bonthenumberline.

b. Representafractiona/bonanumberlinediagrambymarkingoffalengths1/bfrom0.Recognizethattheresultingintervalhassizea/bandthatitsendpointlocatesthenumbera/bonthenumberline.

3. Explainequivalenceoffractionsinspecialcases,andcomparefractionsbyreasoningabouttheirsize.

a. Understandtwofractionsasequivalent(equal)iftheyarethesamesize,orthesamepointonanumberline.

b. Recognizeandgeneratesimpleequivalentfractions,e.g.,1/2=2/4,4/6=2/3).Explainwhythefractionsareequivalent,e.g.,byusingavisualfractionmodel.

c. Expresswholenumbersasfractions,andrecognizefractionsthatareequivalenttowholenumbers.Examples: Express 3 in the form 3 = 3/1; recognize that 6/1 = 6; locate 4/4 and 1 at the same point of a number line diagram.

d. Comparetwofractionswiththesamenumeratororthesamedenominatorbyreasoningabouttheirsize.Recognizethatcomparisonsarevalidonlywhenthetwofractionsrefertothesamewhole.Recordtheresultsofcomparisonswiththesymbols>,=,or<,andjustifytheconclusions,e.g.,byusingavisualfractionmodel.


Solve problems involving measurement and estimation of intervals of time, liquid volumes, and masses of objects.

1. Tellandwritetimetothenearestminuteandmeasuretimeintervalsinminutes.Solvewordproblemsinvolvingadditionandsubtractionoftimeintervalsinminutes,e.g.,byrepresentingtheproblemonanumberlinediagram.

4Arangeofalgorithmsmaybeused.5Grade3expectationsinthisdomainarelimitedtofractionswithdenominators2,3,4,6,and8.


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2. Measureandestimateliquidvolumesandmassesofobjectsusingstandardunitsofgrams(g),kilograms(kg),andliters(l).6Add,subtract,multiply,ordividetosolveone-stepwordproblemsinvolvingmassesorvolumesthataregiveninthesameunits,e.g.,byusingdrawings(suchasabeakerwithameasurementscale)torepresenttheproblem.7

Represent and interpret data.3. Drawascaledpicturegraphandascaledbargraphtorepresenta

datasetwithseveralcategories.Solveone-andtwo-step“howmanymore”and“howmanyless”problemsusinginformationpresentedinscaledbargraphs.For example, draw a bar graph in which each square in the bar graph might represent 5 pets.

4. Generatemeasurementdatabymeasuringlengthsusingrulersmarkedwithhalvesandfourthsofaninch.Showthedatabymakingalineplot,wherethehorizontalscaleismarkedoffinappropriateunits—wholenumbers,halves,orquarters.

Geometric measurement: understand concepts of area and relate area to multiplication and to addition.

5. Recognizeareaasanattributeofplanefiguresandunderstandconceptsofareameasurement.

a. Asquarewithsidelength1unit,called“aunitsquare,”issaidtohave“onesquareunit”ofarea,andcanbeusedtomeasurearea.

b. Aplanefigurewhichcanbecoveredwithoutgapsoroverlapsbynunitsquaresissaidtohaveanareaofnsquareunits.

6. Measureareasbycountingunitsquares(squarecm,squarem,squarein,squareft,andimprovisedunits).

7. Relateareatotheoperationsofmultiplicationandaddition.

a. Findtheareaofarectanglewithwhole-numbersidelengthsbytilingit,andshowthattheareaisthesameaswouldbefoundbymultiplyingthesidelengths.

b. Multiplysidelengthstofindareasofrectangleswithwhole-numbersidelengthsinthecontextofsolvingrealworldandmathematicalproblems,andrepresentwhole-numberproductsasrectangularareasinmathematicalreasoning.

c. Usetilingtoshowinaconcretecasethattheareaofarectanglewithwhole-numbersidelengthsaandb + cisthesumofa × b and a × c.Useareamodelstorepresentthedistributivepropertyinmathematicalreasoning.

d. Recognizeareaasadditive.Findareasofrectilinearfiguresbydecomposingthemintonon-overlappingrectanglesandaddingtheareasofthenon-overlappingparts,applyingthistechniquetosolverealworldproblems.

Geometric measurement: recognize perimeter as an attribute of plane figures and distinguish between linear and area measures.

8. Solverealworldandmathematicalproblemsinvolvingperimetersofpolygons,includingfindingtheperimetergiventhesidelengths,findinganunknownsidelength,andexhibitingrectangleswiththesameperimeteranddifferentareasorwiththesameareaanddifferentperimeters.

6Excludescompoundunitssuchascm3andfindingthegeometricvolumeofacontainer.7Excludesmultiplicativecomparisonproblems(problemsinvolvingnotionsof“timesasmuch”;seeGlossary,Table2).


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Geometry 3.G

Reason with shapes and their attributes.1. Understandthatshapesindifferentcategories(e.g.,rhombuses,

rectangles,andothers)mayshareattributes(e.g.,havingfoursides),andthatthesharedattributescandefinealargercategory(e.g.,quadrilaterals).Recognizerhombuses,rectangles,andsquaresasexamplesofquadrilaterals,anddrawexamplesofquadrilateralsthatdonotbelongtoanyofthesesubcategories.

2. Partitionshapesintopartswithequalareas.Expresstheareaofeachpartasaunitfractionofthewhole.For example, partition a shape into 4 parts with equal area, and describe the area of each part as 1/4 of the area of the shape.


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mathematics | Grade 4InGrade4,instructionaltimeshouldfocusonthreecriticalareas:(1)

developingunderstandingandfluencywithmulti-digitmultiplication,

anddevelopingunderstandingofdividingtofindquotientsinvolving

multi-digitdividends;(2)developinganunderstandingoffraction

equivalence,additionandsubtractionoffractionswithlikedenominators,

andmultiplicationoffractionsbywholenumbers;(3)understanding

thatgeometricfigurescanbeanalyzedandclassifiedbasedontheir

properties,suchashavingparallelsides,perpendicularsides,particular

anglemeasures,andsymmetry.

(1)Studentsgeneralizetheirunderstandingofplacevalueto1,000,000,understandingtherelativesizesofnumbersineachplace.Theyapplytheirunderstandingofmodelsformultiplication(equal-sizedgroups,arrays,areamodels),placevalue,andpropertiesofoperations,inparticularthedistributiveproperty,astheydevelop,discuss,anduseefficient,accurate,andgeneralizablemethodstocomputeproductsofmulti-digitwholenumbers.Dependingonthenumbersandthecontext,theyselectandaccuratelyapplyappropriatemethodstoestimateormentallycalculateproducts.Theydevelopfluencywithefficientproceduresformultiplyingwholenumbers;understandandexplainwhytheproceduresworkbasedonplacevalueandpropertiesofoperations;andusethemtosolveproblems.Studentsapplytheirunderstandingofmodelsfordivision,placevalue,propertiesofoperations,andtherelationshipofdivisiontomultiplicationastheydevelop,discuss,anduseefficient,accurate,andgeneralizableprocedurestofindquotientsinvolvingmulti-digitdividends.Theyselectandaccuratelyapplyappropriatemethodstoestimateandmentallycalculatequotients,andinterpretremaindersbaseduponthecontext.

(2)Studentsdevelopunderstandingoffractionequivalenceandoperationswithfractions.Theyrecognizethattwodifferentfractionscanbeequal(e.g.,15/9=5/3),andtheydevelopmethodsforgeneratingandrecognizingequivalentfractions.Studentsextendpreviousunderstandingsabouthowfractionsarebuiltfromunitfractions,composingfractionsfromunitfractions,decomposingfractionsintounitfractions,andusingthemeaningoffractionsandthemeaningofmultiplicationtomultiplyafractionbyawholenumber.

(3)Studentsdescribe,analyze,compare,andclassifytwo-dimensionalshapes.Throughbuilding,drawing,andanalyzingtwo-dimensionalshapes,studentsdeepentheirunderstandingofpropertiesoftwo-dimensionalobjectsandtheuseofthemtosolveproblemsinvolvingsymmetry.


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Grade 4 overviewoperations and algebraic thinking

• Use the four operations with whole numbers to solve problems.

• Gain familiarity with factors and multiples.

• Generate and analyze patterns.


• Generalize place value understanding for multi-digit whole numbers.

• Use place value understanding and properties of operations to perform multi-digit arithmetic.


• extend understanding of fraction equivalence and ordering.

• Build fractions from unit fractions by applying and extending previous understandings of operations on whole numbers.

• Understand decimal notation for fractions, and compare decimal fractions.


• Solve problems involving measurement and conversion of measurements from a larger unit to a smaller unit.


• Geometric measurement: understand concepts of angle and measure angles.

Geometry

• draw and identify lines and angles, and classify shapes by properties of their lines and angles.











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Use the four operations with whole numbers to solve problems.1. Interpretamultiplicationequationasacomparison,e.g.,interpret35

=5×7asastatementthat35is5timesasmanyas7and7timesasmanyas5.Representverbalstatementsofmultiplicativecomparisonsasmultiplicationequations.

2. Multiplyordividetosolvewordproblemsinvolvingmultiplicativecomparison,e.g.,byusingdrawingsandequationswithasymbolfortheunknownnumbertorepresenttheproblem,distinguishingmultiplicativecomparisonfromadditivecomparison.1

3. Solvemultistepwordproblemsposedwithwholenumbersandhavingwhole-numberanswersusingthefouroperations,includingproblemsinwhichremaindersmustbeinterpreted.Representtheseproblemsusingequationswithaletterstandingfortheunknownquantity.Assessthereasonablenessofanswersusingmentalcomputationandestimationstrategiesincludingrounding.

Gain familiarity with factors and multiples.4. Findallfactorpairsforawholenumberintherange1–100.Recognize

thatawholenumberisamultipleofeachofitsfactors.Determinewhetheragivenwholenumberintherange1–100isamultipleofagivenone-digitnumber.Determinewhetheragivenwholenumberintherange1–100isprimeorcomposite.

Generate and analyze patterns.5. Generateanumberorshapepatternthatfollowsagivenrule.Identify

apparentfeaturesofthepatternthatwerenotexplicitintheruleitself.For example, given the rule “Add 3” and the starting number 1, generate terms in the resulting sequence and observe that the terms appear to alternate between odd and even numbers. Explain informally why the numbers will continue to alternate in this way.

number and operations in Base ten2 4.nBt

Generalize place value understanding for multi-digit whole numbers.1. Recognizethatinamulti-digitwholenumber,adigitinoneplace

representstentimeswhatitrepresentsintheplacetoitsright.For example, recognize that 700 ÷ 70 = 10 by applying concepts of place value and division.

2. Readandwritemulti-digitwholenumbersusingbase-tennumerals,numbernames,andexpandedform.Comparetwomulti-digitnumbersbasedonmeaningsofthedigitsineachplace,using>,=,and<symbolstorecordtheresultsofcomparisons.

3. Useplacevalueunderstandingtoroundmulti-digitwholenumberstoanyplace.

Use place value understanding and properties of operations to perform multi-digit arithmetic.

4. Fluentlyaddandsubtractmulti-digitwholenumbersusingthestandardalgorithm.

5. Multiplyawholenumberofuptofourdigitsbyaone-digitwholenumber,andmultiplytwotwo-digitnumbers,usingstrategiesbasedonplacevalueandthepropertiesofoperations.Illustrateandexplainthecalculationbyusingequations,rectangulararrays,and/orareamodels.

1SeeGlossary,Table2.2Grade4expectationsinthisdomainarelimitedtowholenumberslessthanorequalto1,000,000.


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6. Findwhole-numberquotientsandremainderswithuptofour-digitdividendsandone-digitdivisors,usingstrategiesbasedonplacevalue,thepropertiesofoperations,and/ortherelationshipbetweenmultiplicationanddivision.Illustrateandexplainthecalculationbyusingequations,rectangulararrays,and/orareamodels.

number and operations—fractions3 4.nf

Extend understanding of fraction equivalence and ordering.1. Explainwhyafractiona/bisequivalenttoafraction(n × a)/(n × b)

byusingvisualfractionmodels,withattentiontohowthenumberandsizeofthepartsdiffereventhoughthetwofractionsthemselvesarethesamesize.Usethisprincipletorecognizeandgenerateequivalentfractions.

2. Comparetwofractionswithdifferentnumeratorsanddifferentdenominators,e.g.,bycreatingcommondenominatorsornumerators,orbycomparingtoabenchmarkfractionsuchas1/2.Recognizethatcomparisonsarevalidonlywhenthetwofractionsrefertothesamewhole.Recordtheresultsofcomparisonswithsymbols>,=,or<,andjustifytheconclusions,e.g.,byusingavisualfractionmodel.

Build fractions from unit fractions by applying and extending previous understandings of operations on whole numbers.

3. Understandafractiona/bwitha>1asasumoffractions1/b.

a. Understandadditionandsubtractionoffractionsasjoiningandseparatingpartsreferringtothesamewhole.

b. Decomposeafractionintoasumoffractionswiththesamedenominatorinmorethanoneway,recordingeachdecompositionbyanequation.Justifydecompositions,e.g.,byusingavisualfractionmodel.Examples: 3/8 = 1/8 + 1/8 + 1/8 ; 3/8 = 1/8 + 2/8 ; 2 1/8 = 1 + 1 + 1/8 = 8/8 + 8/8 + 1/8.

c. Addandsubtractmixednumberswithlikedenominators,e.g.,byreplacingeachmixednumberwithanequivalentfraction,and/orbyusingpropertiesofoperationsandtherelationshipbetweenadditionandsubtraction.

d. Solvewordproblemsinvolvingadditionandsubtractionoffractionsreferringtothesamewholeandhavinglikedenominators,e.g.,byusingvisualfractionmodelsandequationstorepresenttheproblem.

4. Applyandextendpreviousunderstandingsofmultiplicationtomultiplyafractionbyawholenumber.

a. Understandafractiona/basamultipleof1/b.For example, use a visual fraction model to represent 5/4 as the product 5 × (1/4), recording the conclusion by the equation 5/4 = 5 × (1/4).

b. Understandamultipleofa/basamultipleof1/b,andusethisunderstandingtomultiplyafractionbyawholenumber.For example, use a visual fraction model to express 3 × (2/5) as 6 × (1/5), recognizing this product as 6/5. (In general, n × (a/b) = (n × a)/b.)

c. Solvewordproblemsinvolvingmultiplicationofafractionbyawholenumber,e.g.,byusingvisualfractionmodelsandequationstorepresenttheproblem.For example, if each person at a party will eat 3/8 of a pound of roast beef, and there will be 5 people at the party, how many pounds of roast beef will be needed? Between what two whole numbers does your answer lie?

3Grade4expectationsinthisdomainarelimitedtofractionswithdenominators2,3,4,5,6,8,10,12,and100.


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Understand decimal notation for fractions, and compare decimal fractions.

5. Expressafractionwithdenominator10asanequivalentfractionwithdenominator100,andusethistechniquetoaddtwofractionswithrespectivedenominators10and100.4For example, express 3/10 as 30/100, and add 3/10 + 4/100 = 34/100.

6. Usedecimalnotationforfractionswithdenominators10or100.For example, rewrite 0.62 as 62/100; describe a length as 0.62 meters; locate 0.62 on a number line diagram.

7. Comparetwodecimalstohundredthsbyreasoningabouttheirsize.Recognizethatcomparisonsarevalidonlywhenthetwodecimalsrefertothesamewhole.Recordtheresultsofcomparisonswiththesymbols>,=,or<,andjustifytheconclusions,e.g.,byusingavisualmodel.


Solve problems involving measurement and conversion of measurements from a larger unit to a smaller unit.

1. Knowrelativesizesofmeasurementunitswithinonesystemofunitsincludingkm,m,cm;kg,g;lb,oz.;l,ml;hr,min,sec.Withinasinglesystemofmeasurement,expressmeasurementsinalargerunitintermsofasmallerunit.Recordmeasurementequivalentsinatwo-columntable.For example, know that 1 ft is 12 times as long as 1 in. Express the length of a 4 ft snake as 48 in. Generate a conversion table for feet and inches listing the number pairs (1, 12), (2, 24), (3, 36), ...

2. Usethefouroperationstosolvewordproblemsinvolvingdistances,intervalsoftime,liquidvolumes,massesofobjects,andmoney,includingproblemsinvolvingsimplefractionsordecimals,andproblemsthatrequireexpressingmeasurementsgiveninalargerunitintermsofasmallerunit.Representmeasurementquantitiesusingdiagramssuchasnumberlinediagramsthatfeatureameasurementscale.

3. Applytheareaandperimeterformulasforrectanglesinrealworldandmathematicalproblems.For example, find the width of a rectangular room given the area of the flooring and the length, by viewing the area formula as a multiplication equation with an unknown factor.

Represent and interpret data.4. Makealineplottodisplayadatasetofmeasurementsinfractionsof

aunit(1/2,1/4,1/8).Solveproblemsinvolvingadditionandsubtractionoffractionsbyusinginformationpresentedinlineplots.For example, from a line plot find and interpret the difference in length between the longest and shortest specimens in an insect collection.

Geometric measurement: understand concepts of angle and measure angles.

5. Recognizeanglesasgeometricshapesthatareformedwherevertworaysshareacommonendpoint,andunderstandconceptsofanglemeasurement:

a. Anangleismeasuredwithreferencetoacirclewithitscenteratthecommonendpointoftherays,byconsideringthefractionofthecirculararcbetweenthepointswherethetworaysintersectthecircle.Ananglethatturnsthrough1/360ofacircleiscalleda“one-degreeangle,”andcanbeusedtomeasureangles.

b. Ananglethatturnsthroughnone-degreeanglesissaidtohaveananglemeasureofndegrees.

4Studentswhocangenerateequivalentfractionscandevelopstrategiesforaddingfractionswithunlikedenominatorsingeneral.Butadditionandsubtractionwithun-likedenominatorsingeneralisnotarequirementatthisgrade.


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6. Measureanglesinwhole-numberdegreesusingaprotractor.Sketchanglesofspecifiedmeasure.

7. Recognizeanglemeasureasadditive.Whenanangleisdecomposedintonon-overlappingparts,theanglemeasureofthewholeisthesumoftheanglemeasuresoftheparts.Solveadditionandsubtractionproblemstofindunknownanglesonadiagraminrealworldandmathematicalproblems,e.g.,byusinganequationwithasymbolfortheunknownanglemeasure.

Geometry 4.G

Draw and identify lines and angles, and classify shapes by properties of their lines and angles.

1. Drawpoints,lines,linesegments,rays,angles(right,acute,obtuse),andperpendicularandparallellines.Identifytheseintwo-dimensionalfigures.

2. Classifytwo-dimensionalfiguresbasedonthepresenceorabsenceofparallelorperpendicularlines,orthepresenceorabsenceofanglesofaspecifiedsize.Recognizerighttrianglesasacategory,andidentifyrighttriangles.

3. Recognizealineofsymmetryforatwo-dimensionalfigureasalineacrossthefiguresuchthatthefigurecanbefoldedalongthelineintomatchingparts.Identifyline-symmetricfiguresanddrawlinesofsymmetry.


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mathematics | Grade 5InGrade5,instructionaltimeshouldfocusonthreecriticalareas: (1)

developingfluencywithadditionandsubtractionoffractions,and

developingunderstandingofthemultiplicationoffractionsandofdivision

offractionsinlimitedcases(unitfractionsdividedbywholenumbersand

wholenumbersdividedbyunitfractions);(2)extendingdivisionto2-digit

divisors,integratingdecimalfractionsintotheplacevaluesystemand

developingunderstandingofoperationswithdecimalstohundredths,and

developingfluencywithwholenumberanddecimaloperations;and(3)

developingunderstandingofvolume.

(1)Studentsapplytheirunderstandingoffractionsandfractionmodelstorepresenttheadditionandsubtractionoffractionswithunlikedenominatorsasequivalentcalculationswithlikedenominators.Theydevelopfluencyincalculatingsumsanddifferencesoffractions,andmakereasonableestimatesofthem.Studentsalsousethemeaningoffractions,ofmultiplicationanddivision,andtherelationshipbetweenmultiplicationanddivisiontounderstandandexplainwhytheproceduresformultiplyinganddividingfractionsmakesense.(Note:thisislimitedtothecaseofdividingunitfractionsbywholenumbersandwholenumbersbyunitfractions.)

(2)Studentsdevelopunderstandingofwhydivisionproceduresworkbasedonthemeaningofbase-tennumeralsandpropertiesofoperations.Theyfinalizefluencywithmulti-digitaddition,subtraction,multiplication,anddivision.Theyapplytheirunderstandingsofmodelsfordecimals,decimalnotation,andpropertiesofoperationstoaddandsubtractdecimalstohundredths.Theydevelopfluencyinthesecomputations,andmakereasonableestimatesoftheirresults.Studentsusetherelationshipbetweendecimalsandfractions,aswellastherelationshipbetweenfinitedecimalsandwholenumbers(i.e.,afinitedecimalmultipliedbyanappropriatepowerof10isawholenumber),tounderstandandexplainwhytheproceduresformultiplyinganddividingfinitedecimalsmakesense.Theycomputeproductsandquotientsofdecimalstohundredthsefficientlyandaccurately.

(3)Studentsrecognizevolumeasanattributeofthree-dimensionalspace.Theyunderstandthatvolumecanbemeasuredbyfindingthetotalnumberofsame-sizeunitsofvolumerequiredtofillthespacewithoutgapsoroverlaps.Theyunderstandthata1-unitby1-unitby1-unitcubeisthestandardunitformeasuringvolume.Theyselectappropriateunits,strategies,andtoolsforsolvingproblemsthatinvolveestimatingandmeasuringvolume.Theydecomposethree-dimensionalshapesandfindvolumesofrightrectangularprismsbyviewingthemasdecomposedintolayersofarraysofcubes.Theymeasurenecessaryattributesofshapesinordertodeterminevolumestosolverealworldandmathematicalproblems.


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• Write and interpret numerical expressions.

• analyze patterns and relationships.


• Understand the place value system.

• Perform operations with multi-digit whole numbers and with decimals to hundredths.


• Use equivalent fractions as a strategy to add and subtract fractions.

• apply and extend previous understandings of multiplication and division to multiply and divide fractions.


• Convert like measurement units within a given measurement system.


• Geometric measurement: understand concepts of volume and relate volume to multiplication and to addition.

Geometry

• Graph points on the coordinate plane to solve real-world and mathematical problems.

• Classify two-dimensional figures into categories based on their properties.










Grade 5 overview


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Write and interpret numerical expressions.1. Useparentheses,brackets,orbracesinnumericalexpressions,and

evaluateexpressionswiththesesymbols.

2. Writesimpleexpressionsthatrecordcalculationswithnumbers,andinterpretnumericalexpressionswithoutevaluatingthem.For example, express the calculation “add 8 and 7, then multiply by 2” as 2 × (8 + 7). Recognize that 3 × (18932 + 921) is three times as large as 18932 + 921, without having to calculate the indicated sum or product.

Analyze patterns and relationships.3. Generatetwonumericalpatternsusingtwogivenrules.Identify

apparentrelationshipsbetweencorrespondingterms.Formorderedpairsconsistingofcorrespondingtermsfromthetwopatterns,andgraphtheorderedpairsonacoordinateplane.For example, given the rule “Add 3” and the starting number 0, and given the rule “Add 6” and the starting number 0, generate terms in the resulting sequences, and observe that the terms in one sequence are twice the corresponding terms in the other sequence. Explain informally why this is so.


Understand the place value system.1. Recognizethatinamulti-digitnumber,adigitinoneplacerepresents

10timesasmuchasitrepresentsintheplacetoitsrightand1/10ofwhatitrepresentsintheplacetoitsleft.

2. Explainpatternsinthenumberofzerosoftheproductwhenmultiplyinganumberbypowersof10,andexplainpatternsintheplacementofthedecimalpointwhenadecimalismultipliedordividedbyapowerof10.Usewhole-numberexponentstodenotepowersof10.

3. Read,write,andcomparedecimalstothousandths.

a. Readandwritedecimalstothousandthsusingbase-tennumerals,numbernames,andexpandedform,e.g.,347.392=3×100+4×10+7×1+3×(1/10)+9×(1/100)+2×(1/1000).

b. Comparetwodecimalstothousandthsbasedonmeaningsofthedigitsineachplace,using>,=,and<symbolstorecordtheresultsofcomparisons.

4. Useplacevalueunderstandingtorounddecimalstoanyplace.

Perform operations with multi-digit whole numbers and with decimals to hundredths.

5. Fluentlymultiplymulti-digitwholenumbersusingthestandardalgorithm.

6. Findwhole-numberquotientsofwholenumberswithuptofour-digitdividendsandtwo-digitdivisors,usingstrategiesbasedonplacevalue,thepropertiesofoperations,and/ortherelationshipbetweenmultiplicationanddivision.Illustrateandexplainthecalculationbyusingequations,rectangulararrays,and/orareamodels.

7. Add,subtract,multiply,anddividedecimalstohundredths,usingconcretemodelsordrawingsandstrategiesbasedonplacevalue,propertiesofoperations,and/ortherelationshipbetweenadditionandsubtraction;relatethestrategytoawrittenmethodandexplainthereasoningused.


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number and operations—fractions 5.nf

Use equivalent fractions as a strategy to add and subtract fractions.1. Addandsubtractfractionswithunlikedenominators(includingmixed

numbers)byreplacinggivenfractionswithequivalentfractionsinsuchawayastoproduceanequivalentsumordifferenceoffractionswithlikedenominators.For example, 2/3 + 5/4 = 8/12 + 15/12 = 23/12. (In general, a/b + c/d = (ad + bc)/bd.)

2. Solvewordproblemsinvolvingadditionandsubtractionoffractionsreferringtothesamewhole,includingcasesofunlikedenominators,e.g.,byusingvisualfractionmodelsorequationstorepresenttheproblem.Usebenchmarkfractionsandnumbersenseoffractionstoestimatementallyandassessthereasonablenessofanswers.For example, recognize an incorrect result 2/5 + 1/2 = 3/7, by observing that 3/7 < 1/2.

Apply and extend previous understandings of multiplication and division to multiply and divide fractions.

3. Interpretafractionasdivisionofthenumeratorbythedenominator(a/b=a÷b).Solvewordproblemsinvolvingdivisionofwholenumbersleadingtoanswersintheformoffractionsormixednumbers,e.g.,byusingvisualfractionmodelsorequationstorepresenttheproblem.For example, interpret 3/4 as the result of dividing 3 by 4, noting that 3/4 multiplied by 4 equals 3, and that when 3 wholes are shared equally among 4 people each person has a share of size 3/4. If 9 people want to share a 50-pound sack of rice equally by weight, how many pounds of rice should each person get? Between what two whole numbers does your answer lie?

4. Applyandextendpreviousunderstandingsofmultiplicationtomultiplyafractionorwholenumberbyafraction.

a. Interprettheproduct(a/b)×qasapartsofapartitionofqintobequalparts;equivalently,astheresultofasequenceofoperationsa×q÷b.For example, use a visual fraction model to show (2/3) × 4 = 8/3, and create a story context for this equation. Do the same with (2/3) × (4/5) = 8/15. (In general, (a/b) × (c/d) = ac/bd.)

b. Findtheareaofarectanglewithfractionalsidelengthsbytilingitwithunitsquaresoftheappropriateunitfractionsidelengths,andshowthattheareaisthesameaswouldbefoundbymultiplyingthesidelengths.Multiplyfractionalsidelengthstofindareasofrectangles,andrepresentfractionproductsasrectangularareas.

5. Interpretmultiplicationasscaling(resizing),by:

a. Comparingthesizeofaproducttothesizeofonefactoronthebasisofthesizeoftheotherfactor,withoutperformingtheindicatedmultiplication.

b. Explainingwhymultiplyingagivennumberbyafractiongreaterthan1resultsinaproductgreaterthanthegivennumber(recognizingmultiplicationbywholenumbersgreaterthan1asafamiliarcase);explainingwhymultiplyingagivennumberbyafractionlessthan1resultsinaproductsmallerthanthegivennumber;andrelatingtheprincipleoffractionequivalencea/b=(n×a)/(n×b)totheeffectofmultiplyinga/bby1.

6. Solverealworldproblemsinvolvingmultiplicationoffractionsandmixednumbers,e.g.,byusingvisualfractionmodelsorequationstorepresenttheproblem.

7. Applyandextendpreviousunderstandingsofdivisiontodivideunitfractionsbywholenumbersandwholenumbersbyunitfractions.1

a. Interpretdivisionofaunitfractionbyanon-zerowholenumber,

1Studentsabletomultiplyfractionsingeneralcandevelopstrategiestodividefrac-tionsingeneral,byreasoningabouttherelationshipbetweenmultiplicationanddivision.Butdivisionofafractionbyafractionisnotarequirementatthisgrade.


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andcomputesuchquotients.For example, create a story context for (1/3) ÷ 4, and use a visual fraction model to show the quotient. Use the relationship between multiplication and division to explain that (1/3) ÷ 4 = 1/12 because (1/12) × 4 = 1/3.

b. Interpretdivisionofawholenumberbyaunitfraction,andcomputesuchquotients.For example, create a story context for 4 ÷ (1/5), and use a visual fraction model to show the quotient. Use the relationship between multiplication and division to explain that 4 ÷ (1/5) = 20 because 20 × (1/5) = 4.

c. Solverealworldproblemsinvolvingdivisionofunitfractionsbynon-zerowholenumbersanddivisionofwholenumbersbyunitfractions,e.g.,byusingvisualfractionmodelsandequationstorepresenttheproblem.For example, how much chocolate will each person get if 3 people share 1/2 lb of chocolate equally? How many 1/3-cup servings are in 2 cups of raisins?


Convert like measurement units within a given measurement system.1. Convertamongdifferent-sizedstandardmeasurementunitswithina

givenmeasurementsystem(e.g.,convert5cmto0.05m),andusetheseconversionsinsolvingmulti-step,realworldproblems.

Represent and interpret data.2. Makealineplottodisplayadatasetofmeasurementsinfractionsof

aunit(1/2,1/4,1/8).Useoperationsonfractionsforthisgradetosolveproblemsinvolvinginformationpresentedinlineplots.For example, given different measurements of liquid in identical beakers, find the amount of liquid each beaker would contain if the total amount in all the beakers were redistributed equally.

Geometric measurement: understand concepts of volume and relate volume to multiplication and to addition.

3. Recognizevolumeasanattributeofsolidfiguresandunderstandconceptsofvolumemeasurement.

a. Acubewithsidelength1unit,calleda“unitcube,”issaidtohave“onecubicunit”ofvolume,andcanbeusedtomeasurevolume.

b. Asolidfigurewhichcanbepackedwithoutgapsoroverlapsusingnunitcubesissaidtohaveavolumeofncubicunits.

4. Measurevolumesbycountingunitcubes,usingcubiccm,cubicin,cubicft,andimprovisedunits.

5. Relatevolumetotheoperationsofmultiplicationandadditionandsolverealworldandmathematicalproblemsinvolvingvolume.

a. Findthevolumeofarightrectangularprismwithwhole-numbersidelengthsbypackingitwithunitcubes,andshowthatthevolumeisthesameaswouldbefoundbymultiplyingtheedgelengths,equivalentlybymultiplyingtheheightbytheareaofthebase.Representthreefoldwhole-numberproductsasvolumes,e.g.,torepresenttheassociativepropertyofmultiplication.

b. ApplytheformulasV=l×w×handV=b×hforrectangularprismstofindvolumesofrightrectangularprismswithwhole-numberedgelengthsinthecontextofsolvingrealworldandmathematicalproblems.

c. Recognizevolumeasadditive.Findvolumesofsolidfigurescomposedoftwonon-overlappingrightrectangularprismsbyaddingthevolumesofthenon-overlappingparts,applyingthistechniquetosolverealworldproblems.


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Geometry 5.G

Graph points on the coordinate plane to solve real-world and mathematical problems.

1. Useapairofperpendicularnumberlines,calledaxes,todefineacoordinatesystem,withtheintersectionofthelines(theorigin)arrangedtocoincidewiththe0oneachlineandagivenpointintheplanelocatedbyusinganorderedpairofnumbers,calleditscoordinates.Understandthatthefirstnumberindicateshowfartotravelfromtheorigininthedirectionofoneaxis,andthesecondnumberindicateshowfartotravelinthedirectionofthesecondaxis,withtheconventionthatthenamesofthetwoaxesandthecoordinatescorrespond(e.g.,x-axisandx-coordinate,y-axisandy-coordinate).

2. Representrealworldandmathematicalproblemsbygraphingpointsinthefirstquadrantofthecoordinateplane,andinterpretcoordinatevaluesofpointsinthecontextofthesituation.

Classify two-dimensional figures into categories based on their properties.

3. Understandthatattributesbelongingtoacategoryoftwo-dimensionalfiguresalsobelongtoallsubcategoriesofthatcategory.For example, all rectangles have four right angles and squares are rectangles, so all squares have four right angles.

4. Classifytwo-dimensionalfiguresinahierarchybasedonproperties.


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connectingratioandratetowholenumbermultiplicationanddivision

andusingconceptsofratioandratetosolveproblems;(2)completing

understandingofdivisionoffractionsandextendingthenotionofnumber

tothesystemofrationalnumbers,whichincludesnegativenumbers;

(3)writing,interpreting,andusingexpressionsandequations;and(4)

developingunderstandingofstatisticalthinking.

(1)Studentsusereasoningaboutmultiplicationanddivisiontosolveratioandrateproblemsaboutquantities.Byviewingequivalentratiosandratesasderivingfrom,andextending,pairsofrows(orcolumns)inthemultiplicationtable,andbyanalyzingsimpledrawingsthatindicatetherelativesizeofquantities,studentsconnecttheirunderstandingofmultiplicationanddivisionwithratiosandrates.Thusstudentsexpandthescopeofproblemsforwhichtheycanusemultiplicationanddivisiontosolveproblems,andtheyconnectratiosandfractions.Studentssolveawidevarietyofproblemsinvolvingratiosandrates.

(2)Studentsusethemeaningoffractions,themeaningsofmultiplicationanddivision,andtherelationshipbetweenmultiplicationanddivisiontounderstandandexplainwhytheproceduresfordividingfractionsmakesense.Studentsusetheseoperationstosolveproblems.Studentsextendtheirpreviousunderstandingsofnumberandtheorderingofnumberstothefullsystemofrationalnumbers,whichincludesnegativerationalnumbers,andinparticularnegativeintegers.Theyreasonabouttheorderandabsolutevalueofrationalnumbersandaboutthelocationofpointsinallfourquadrantsofthecoordinateplane.

(3)Studentsunderstandtheuseofvariablesinmathematicalexpressions.Theywriteexpressionsandequationsthatcorrespondtogivensituations,evaluateexpressions,anduseexpressionsandformulastosolveproblems.Studentsunderstandthatexpressionsindifferentformscanbeequivalent,andtheyusethepropertiesofoperationstorewriteexpressionsinequivalentforms.Studentsknowthatthesolutionsofanequationarethevaluesofthevariablesthatmaketheequationtrue.Studentsusepropertiesofoperationsandtheideaofmaintainingtheequalityofbothsidesofanequationtosolvesimpleone-stepequations.Studentsconstructandanalyzetables,suchastablesofquantitiesthatareinequivalentratios,andtheyuseequations(suchas3x=y)todescriberelationshipsbetweenquantities.

(4)Buildingonandreinforcingtheirunderstandingofnumber,studentsbegintodeveloptheirabilitytothinkstatistically.Studentsrecognizethatadatadistributionmaynothaveadefinitecenterandthatdifferentwaystomeasurecenteryielddifferentvalues.Themedianmeasurescenterinthesensethatitisroughlythemiddlevalue.Themeanmeasurescenterinthesensethatitisthevaluethateachdatapointwouldtakeonifthetotalofthedatavalueswereredistributedequally,andalsointhesensethatitisabalancepoint.Studentsrecognizethatameasureofvariability(interquartilerangeormeanabsolutedeviation)canalsobeusefulforsummarizingdatabecausetwoverydifferentsetsofdatacanhavethesamemeanand


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0

medianyetbedistinguishedbytheirvariability.Studentslearntodescribeandsummarizenumericaldatasets,identifyingclusters,peaks,gaps,andsymmetry,consideringthecontextinwhichthedatawerecollected.

StudentsinGrade6alsobuildontheirworkwithareainelementaryschoolbyreasoningaboutrelationshipsamongshapestodeterminearea,surfacearea,andvolume.Theyfindareasofrighttriangles,othertriangles,andspecialquadrilateralsbydecomposingtheseshapes,rearrangingorremovingpieces,andrelatingtheshapestorectangles.Usingthesemethods,studentsdiscuss,develop,andjustifyformulasforareasoftrianglesandparallelograms.Studentsfindareasofpolygonsandsurfaceareasofprismsandpyramidsbydecomposingthemintopieceswhoseareatheycandetermine.Theyreasonaboutrightrectangularprismswithfractionalsidelengthstoextendformulasforthevolumeofarightrectangularprismtofractionalsidelengths.TheyprepareforworkonscaledrawingsandconstructionsinGrade7bydrawingpolygonsinthecoordinateplane.

Common Core State StandardS for matHematICS

ratios and Proportional relationships

• Understand ratio concepts and use ratio reasoning to solve problems.

the number System

• apply and extend previous understandings of multiplication and division to divide fractions by fractions.

• Compute fluently with multi-digit numbers and find common factors and multiples.

• apply and extend previous understandings of numbers to the system of rational numbers.

expressions and equations

• apply and extend previous understandings of arithmetic to algebraic expressions.

• reason about and solve one-variable equations and inequalities.

• represent and analyze quantitative relationships between dependent and independent variables.

Geometry

• Solve real-world and mathematical problems involving area, surface area, and volume.

Statistics and Probability

• develop understanding of statistical variability.

• Summarize and describe distributions.










Grade 6 overview


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2

ratios and Proportional relationships 6.rP

Understand ratio concepts and use ratio reasoning to solve problems.

1. Understandtheconceptofaratioanduseratiolanguagetodescribearatiorelationshipbetweentwoquantities.For example, “The ratio of wings to beaks in the bird house at the zoo was 2:1, because for every 2 wings there was 1 beak.” “For every vote candidate A received, candidate C received nearly three votes.”

2. Understandtheconceptofaunitratea/bassociatedwitharatioa:bwithb≠0,anduseratelanguageinthecontextofaratiorelationship.For example, “This recipe has a ratio of 3 cups of flour to 4 cups of sugar, so there is 3/4 cup of flour for each cup of sugar.” “We paid $75 for 15 hamburgers, which is a rate of $5 per hamburger.”1

3. Useratioandratereasoningtosolvereal-worldandmathematicalproblems,e.g.,byreasoningabouttablesofequivalentratios,tapediagrams,doublenumberlinediagrams,orequations.

a. Maketablesofequivalentratiosrelatingquantitieswithwhole-numbermeasurements,findmissingvaluesinthetables,andplotthepairsofvaluesonthecoordinateplane.Usetablestocompareratios.

b. Solveunitrateproblemsincludingthoseinvolvingunitpricingandconstantspeed.For example, if it took 7 hours to mow 4 lawns, then at that rate, how many lawns could be mowed in 35 hours? At what rate were lawns being mowed?

c. Findapercentofaquantityasarateper100(e.g.,30%ofaquantitymeans30/100timesthequantity);solveproblemsinvolvingfindingthewhole,givenapartandthepercent.

d. Useratioreasoningtoconvertmeasurementunits;manipulateandtransformunitsappropriatelywhenmultiplyingordividingquantities.

the number System 6.nS

Apply and extend previous understandings of multiplication and division to divide fractions by fractions.

1. Interpretandcomputequotientsoffractions,andsolvewordproblemsinvolvingdivisionoffractionsbyfractions,e.g.,byusingvisualfractionmodelsandequationstorepresenttheproblem.For example, create a story context for (2/3) ÷ (3/4) and use a visual fraction model to show the quotient; use the relationship between multiplication and division to explain that (2/3) ÷ (3/4) = 8/9 because 3/4 of 8/9 is 2/3. (In general, (a/b) ÷ (c/d) = ad/bc.) How much chocolate will each person get if 3 people share 1/2 lb of chocolate equally? How many 3/4-cup servings are in 2/3 of a cup of yogurt? How wide is a rectangular strip of land with length 3/4 mi and area 1/2 square mi?

Compute fluently with multi-digit numbers and find common factors and multiples.

2. Fluentlydividemulti-digitnumbersusingthestandardalgorithm.

3. Fluentlyadd,subtract,multiply,anddividemulti-digitdecimalsusingthestandardalgorithmforeachoperation.

4. Findthegreatestcommonfactoroftwowholenumberslessthanorequalto100andtheleastcommonmultipleoftwowholenumberslessthanorequalto12.Usethedistributivepropertytoexpressasumoftwowholenumbers1–100withacommonfactorasamultipleofasumoftwowholenumberswithnocommonfactor.For example, express 36 + 8 as 4 (9 + 2).

1Expectationsforunitratesinthisgradearelimitedtonon-complexfractions.


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Apply and extend previous understandings of numbers to the system of rational numbers.

5. Understandthatpositiveandnegativenumbersareusedtogethertodescribequantitieshavingoppositedirectionsorvalues(e.g.,temperatureabove/belowzero,elevationabove/belowsealevel,credits/debits,positive/negativeelectriccharge);usepositiveandnegativenumberstorepresentquantitiesinreal-worldcontexts,explainingthemeaningof0ineachsituation.

6. Understandarationalnumberasapointonthenumberline.Extendnumberlinediagramsandcoordinateaxesfamiliarfrompreviousgradestorepresentpointsonthelineandintheplanewithnegativenumbercoordinates.

a. Recognizeoppositesignsofnumbersasindicatinglocationsonoppositesidesof0onthenumberline;recognizethattheoppositeoftheoppositeofanumberisthenumberitself,e.g.,–(–3)=3,andthat0isitsownopposite.

b. Understandsignsofnumbersinorderedpairsasindicatinglocationsinquadrantsofthecoordinateplane;recognizethatwhentwoorderedpairsdifferonlybysigns,thelocationsofthepointsarerelatedbyreflectionsacrossoneorbothaxes.

c. Findandpositionintegersandotherrationalnumbersonahorizontalorverticalnumberlinediagram;findandpositionpairsofintegersandotherrationalnumbersonacoordinateplane.

7. Understandorderingandabsolutevalueofrationalnumbers.

a. Interpretstatementsofinequalityasstatementsabouttherelativepositionoftwonumbersonanumberlinediagram.For example, interpret –3 > –7 as a statement that –3 is located to the right of –7 on a number line oriented from left to right.

b. Write,interpret,andexplainstatementsoforderforrationalnumbersinreal-worldcontexts.For example, write –3 oC > –7 oC to express the fact that –3 oC is warmer than –7 oC.

c. Understandtheabsolutevalueofarationalnumberasitsdistancefrom0onthenumberline;interpretabsolutevalueasmagnitudeforapositiveornegativequantityinareal-worldsituation.For example, for an account balance of –30 dollars, write |–30| = 30 to describe the size of the debt in dollars.

d. Distinguishcomparisonsofabsolutevaluefromstatementsaboutorder.For example, recognize that an account balance less than –30 dollars represents a debt greater than 30 dollars.

8. Solvereal-worldandmathematicalproblemsbygraphingpointsinallfourquadrantsofthecoordinateplane.Includeuseofcoordinatesandabsolutevaluetofinddistancesbetweenpointswiththesamefirstcoordinateorthesamesecondcoordinate.

expressions and equations 6.ee

Apply and extend previous understandings of arithmetic to algebraic expressions.

1. Writeandevaluatenumericalexpressionsinvolvingwhole-numberexponents.

2. Write,read,andevaluateexpressionsinwhichlettersstandfornumbers.

a. Writeexpressionsthatrecordoperationswithnumbersandwithlettersstandingfornumbers.For example, express the calculation “Subtract y from 5” as 5 – y.


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b. Identifypartsofanexpressionusingmathematicalterms(sum,term,product,factor,quotient,coefficient);viewoneormorepartsofanexpressionasasingleentity.For example, describe the expression 2 (8 + 7) as a product of two factors; view (8 + 7) as both a single entity and a sum of two terms.

c. Evaluateexpressionsatspecificvaluesoftheirvariables.Includeexpressionsthatarisefromformulasusedinreal-worldproblems.Performarithmeticoperations,includingthoseinvolvingwhole-numberexponents,intheconventionalorderwhentherearenoparenthesestospecifyaparticularorder(OrderofOperations).For example, use the formulas V = s3 and A = 6 s2 to find the volume and surface area of a cube with sides of length s = 1/2.

3. Applythepropertiesofoperationstogenerateequivalentexpressions. For example, apply the distributive property to the expression 3 (2 + x) to produce the equivalent expression 6 + 3x; apply the distributive property to the expression 24x + 18y to produce the equivalent expression 6 (4x + 3y); apply properties of operations to y + y + y to produce the equivalent expression 3y.

4. Identifywhentwoexpressionsareequivalent(i.e.,whenthetwoexpressionsnamethesamenumberregardlessofwhichvalueissubstitutedintothem).For example, the expressions y + y + y and 3y are equivalent because they name the same number regardless of which number y stands for.

Reason about and solve one-variable equations and inequalities.5. Understandsolvinganequationorinequalityasaprocessof

answeringaquestion:whichvaluesfromaspecifiedset,ifany,maketheequationorinequalitytrue?Usesubstitutiontodeterminewhetheragivennumberinaspecifiedsetmakesanequationorinequalitytrue.

6. Usevariablestorepresentnumbersandwriteexpressionswhensolvingareal-worldormathematicalproblem;understandthatavariablecanrepresentanunknownnumber,or,dependingonthepurposeathand,anynumberinaspecifiedset.

7. Solvereal-worldandmathematicalproblemsbywritingandsolvingequationsoftheformx+p=qandpx=qforcasesinwhichp,qandxareallnonnegativerationalnumbers.

8. Writeaninequalityoftheformx>corx <c torepresentaconstraintorconditioninareal-worldormathematicalproblem.Recognizethatinequalitiesoftheformx>corx<chaveinfinitelymanysolutions;representsolutionsofsuchinequalitiesonnumberlinediagrams.

Represent and analyze quantitative relationships between dependent and independent variables.

9. Usevariablestorepresenttwoquantitiesinareal-worldproblemthatchangeinrelationshiptooneanother;writeanequationtoexpressonequantity,thoughtofasthedependentvariable,intermsoftheotherquantity,thoughtofastheindependentvariable.Analyzetherelationshipbetweenthedependentandindependentvariablesusinggraphsandtables,andrelatethesetotheequation.For example, in a problem involving motion at constant speed, list and graph ordered pairs of distances and times, and write the equation d = 65t to represent the relationship between distance and time.

Geometry 6.G

Solve real-world and mathematical problems involving area, surface area, and volume.

1. Findtheareaofrighttriangles,othertriangles,specialquadrilaterals,andpolygonsbycomposingintorectanglesordecomposingintotrianglesandothershapes;applythesetechniquesinthecontextofsolvingreal-worldandmathematicalproblems.


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2. Findthevolumeofarightrectangularprismwithfractionaledgelengthsbypackingitwithunitcubesoftheappropriateunitfractionedgelengths,andshowthatthevolumeisthesameaswouldbefoundbymultiplyingtheedgelengthsoftheprism.ApplytheformulasV = l w h and V = b htofindvolumesofrightrectangularprismswithfractionaledgelengthsinthecontextofsolvingreal-worldandmathematicalproblems.

3. Drawpolygonsinthecoordinateplanegivencoordinatesforthevertices;usecoordinatestofindthelengthofasidejoiningpointswiththesamefirstcoordinateorthesamesecondcoordinate.Applythesetechniquesinthecontextofsolvingreal-worldandmathematicalproblems.

4. Representthree-dimensionalfiguresusingnetsmadeupofrectanglesandtriangles,andusethenetstofindthesurfaceareaofthesefigures.Applythesetechniquesinthecontextofsolvingreal-worldandmathematicalproblems.

Statistics and Probability 6.SP

Develop understanding of statistical variability.1. Recognizeastatisticalquestionasonethatanticipatesvariabilityin

thedatarelatedtothequestionandaccountsforitintheanswers.For example, “How old am I?” is not a statistical question, but “How old are the students in my school?” is a statistical question because one anticipates variability in students’ ages.

2. Understandthatasetofdatacollectedtoanswerastatisticalquestionhasadistributionwhichcanbedescribedbyitscenter,spread,andoverallshape.

3. Recognizethatameasureofcenterforanumericaldatasetsummarizesallofitsvalueswithasinglenumber,whileameasureofvariationdescribeshowitsvaluesvarywithasinglenumber.

Summarize and describe distributions.4. Displaynumericaldatainplotsonanumberline,includingdotplots,

histograms,andboxplots.

5. Summarizenumericaldatasetsinrelationtotheircontext,suchasby:

a. Reportingthenumberofobservations.

b. Describingthenatureoftheattributeunderinvestigation,includinghowitwasmeasuredanditsunitsofmeasurement.

c. Givingquantitativemeasuresofcenter(medianand/ormean)andvariability(interquartilerangeand/ormeanabsolutedeviation),aswellasdescribinganyoverallpatternandanystrikingdeviationsfromtheoverallpatternwithreferencetothecontextinwhichthedataweregathered.

d. Relatingthechoiceofmeasuresofcenterandvariabilitytotheshapeofthedatadistributionandthecontextinwhichthedataweregathered.


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developingunderstandingofandapplyingproportionalrelationships;

(2)developingunderstandingofoperationswithrationalnumbersand

workingwithexpressionsandlinearequations;(3)solvingproblems

involvingscaledrawingsandinformalgeometricconstructions,and

workingwithtwo-andthree-dimensionalshapestosolveproblems

involvingarea,surfacearea,andvolume;and(4)drawinginferencesabout

populationsbasedonsamples.

(1)Studentsextendtheirunderstandingofratiosanddevelopunderstandingofproportionalitytosolvesingle-andmulti-stepproblems.Studentsusetheirunderstandingofratiosandproportionalitytosolveawidevarietyofpercentproblems,includingthoseinvolvingdiscounts,interest,taxes,tips,andpercentincreaseordecrease.Studentssolveproblemsaboutscaledrawingsbyrelatingcorrespondinglengthsbetweentheobjectsorbyusingthefactthatrelationshipsoflengthswithinanobjectarepreservedinsimilarobjects.Studentsgraphproportionalrelationshipsandunderstandtheunitrateinformallyasameasureofthesteepnessoftherelatedline,calledtheslope.Theydistinguishproportionalrelationshipsfromotherrelationships.

(2)Studentsdevelopaunifiedunderstandingofnumber,recognizingfractions,decimals(thathaveafiniteorarepeatingdecimalrepresentation),andpercentsasdifferentrepresentationsofrationalnumbers.Studentsextendaddition,subtraction,multiplication,anddivisiontoallrationalnumbers,maintainingthepropertiesofoperationsandtherelationshipsbetweenadditionandsubtraction,andmultiplicationanddivision.Byapplyingtheseproperties,andbyviewingnegativenumbersintermsofeverydaycontexts(e.g.,amountsowedortemperaturesbelowzero),studentsexplainandinterprettherulesforadding,subtracting,multiplying,anddividingwithnegativenumbers.Theyusethearithmeticofrationalnumbersastheyformulateexpressionsandequationsinonevariableandusetheseequationstosolveproblems.

(3)StudentscontinuetheirworkwithareafromGrade6,solvingproblemsinvolvingtheareaandcircumferenceofacircleandsurfaceareaofthree-dimensionalobjects.InpreparationforworkoncongruenceandsimilarityinGrade8theyreasonaboutrelationshipsamongtwo-dimensionalfiguresusingscaledrawingsandinformalgeometricconstructions,andtheygainfamiliaritywiththerelationshipsbetweenanglesformedbyintersectinglines.Studentsworkwiththree-dimensionalfigures,relatingthemtotwo-dimensionalfiguresbyexaminingcross-sections.Theysolvereal-worldandmathematicalproblemsinvolvingarea,surfacearea,andvolumeoftwo-andthree-dimensionalobjectscomposedoftriangles,quadrilaterals,polygons,cubesandrightprisms.

(4)Studentsbuildontheirpreviousworkwithsingledatadistributionstocomparetwodatadistributionsandaddressquestionsaboutdifferencesbetweenpopulations.Theybegininformalworkwithrandomsamplingtogeneratedatasetsandlearnabouttheimportanceofrepresentativesamplesfordrawinginferences.


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ratios and Proportional relationships

• analyze proportional relationships and use them to solve real-world and mathematical problems.

the number System

• apply and extend previous understandings of operations with fractions to add, subtract, multiply, and divide rational numbers.


• Use properties of operations to generate equivalent expressions.

• Solve real-life and mathematical problems using numerical and algebraic expressions and equations.

Geometry

• draw, construct and describe geometrical figures and describe the relationships between them.

• Solve real-life and mathematical problems involving angle measure, area, surface area, and volume.


• Use random sampling to draw inferences about a population.

• draw informal comparative inferences about two populations.

• Investigate chance processes and develop, use, and evaluate probability models.










Grade 7 overview


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ratios and Proportional relationships 7.rP

Analyze proportional relationships and use them to solve real-world and mathematical problems.

1. Computeunitratesassociatedwithratiosoffractions,includingratiosoflengths,areasandotherquantitiesmeasuredinlikeordifferentunits.For example, if a person walks 1/2 mile in each 1/4 hour, compute the unit rate as the complex fraction 1/2/1/4 miles per hour, equivalently 2 miles per hour.

2. Recognizeandrepresentproportionalrelationshipsbetweenquantities.

a. Decidewhethertwoquantitiesareinaproportionalrelationship,e.g.,bytestingforequivalentratiosinatableorgraphingonacoordinateplaneandobservingwhetherthegraphisastraightlinethroughtheorigin.

b. Identifytheconstantofproportionality(unitrate)intables,graphs,equations,diagrams,andverbaldescriptionsofproportionalrelationships.

c. Representproportionalrelationshipsbyequations.For example, if total cost t is proportional to the number n of items purchased at a constant price p, the relationship between the total cost and the number of items can be expressed as t = pn.

d. Explainwhatapoint (x, y) onthegraphofaproportionalrelationshipmeansintermsofthesituation,withspecialattentiontothepoints(0,0)and(1, r) where r istheunitrate.

3. Useproportionalrelationshipstosolvemultistepratioandpercentproblems.Examples: simple interest, tax, markups and markdowns, gratuities and commissions, fees, percent increase and decrease, percent error.


Apply and extend previous understandings of operations with fractions to add, subtract, multiply, and divide rational numbers.

1. Applyandextendpreviousunderstandingsofadditionandsubtractiontoaddandsubtractrationalnumbers;representadditionandsubtractiononahorizontalorverticalnumberlinediagram.

a. Describesituationsinwhichoppositequantitiescombinetomake0.For example, a hydrogen atom has 0 charge because its two constituents are oppositely charged.

b. Understandp+qasthenumberlocatedadistance|q|fromp,inthepositiveornegativedirectiondependingonwhetherqispositiveornegative.Showthatanumberanditsoppositehaveasumof0(areadditiveinverses).Interpretsumsofrationalnumbersbydescribingreal-worldcontexts.

c. Understandsubtractionofrationalnumbersasaddingtheadditiveinverse,p–q=p+(–q).Showthatthedistancebetweentworationalnumbersonthenumberlineistheabsolutevalueoftheirdifference,andapplythisprincipleinreal-worldcontexts.

d. Applypropertiesofoperationsasstrategiestoaddandsubtractrationalnumbers.

2. Applyandextendpreviousunderstandingsofmultiplicationanddivisionandoffractionstomultiplyanddividerationalnumbers.

a. Understandthatmultiplicationisextendedfromfractionstorationalnumbersbyrequiringthatoperationscontinuetosatisfythepropertiesofoperations,particularlythedistributiveproperty,leadingtoproductssuchas(–1)(–1)=1andtherulesformultiplyingsignednumbers.Interpretproductsofrationalnumbersbydescribingreal-worldcontexts.


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b. Understandthatintegerscanbedivided,providedthatthedivisorisnotzero,andeveryquotientofintegers(withnon-zerodivisor)isarationalnumber.Ifpandqareintegers,then–(p/q)=(–p)/q=p/(–q).Interpretquotientsofrationalnumbersbydescribingreal-worldcontexts.

c. Applypropertiesofoperationsasstrategiestomultiplyanddividerationalnumbers.

d. Convertarationalnumbertoadecimalusinglongdivision;knowthatthedecimalformofarationalnumberterminatesin0soreventuallyrepeats.

3. Solvereal-worldandmathematicalproblemsinvolvingthefouroperationswithrationalnumbers.1


Use properties of operations to generate equivalent expressions.1. Applypropertiesofoperationsasstrategiestoadd,subtract,factor,

andexpandlinearexpressionswithrationalcoefficients.

2. Understandthatrewritinganexpressionindifferentformsinaproblemcontextcanshedlightontheproblemandhowthequantitiesinitarerelated.For example, a + 0.05a = 1.05a means that “increase by 5%” is the same as “multiply by 1.05.”

Solve real-life and mathematical problems using numerical and algebraic expressions and equations.

3. Solvemulti-stepreal-lifeandmathematicalproblemsposedwithpositiveandnegativerationalnumbersinanyform(wholenumbers,fractions,anddecimals),usingtoolsstrategically.Applypropertiesofoperationstocalculatewithnumbersinanyform;convertbetweenformsasappropriate;andassessthereasonablenessofanswersusingmentalcomputationandestimationstrategies.For example: If a woman making $25 an hour gets a 10% raise, she will make an additional 1/10 of her salary an hour, or $2.50, for a new salary of $27.50. If you want to place a towel bar 9 3/4 inches long in the center of a door that is 27 1/2 inches wide, you will need to place the bar about 9 inches from each edge; this estimate can be used as a check on the exact computation.

4. Usevariablestorepresentquantitiesinareal-worldormathematicalproblem,andconstructsimpleequationsandinequalitiestosolveproblemsbyreasoningaboutthequantities.

a. Solvewordproblemsleadingtoequationsoftheformpx + q = randp(x + q) = r,wherep,q,andrarespecificrationalnumbers.Solveequationsoftheseformsfluently.Compareanalgebraicsolutiontoanarithmeticsolution,identifyingthesequenceoftheoperationsusedineachapproach.For example, the perimeter of a rectangle is 54 cm. Its length is 6 cm. What is its width?

b. Solvewordproblemsleadingtoinequalitiesoftheformpx + q > rorpx + q<r,wherep,q,andrarespecificrationalnumbers.Graphthesolutionsetoftheinequalityandinterpretitinthecontextoftheproblem.For example: As a salesperson, you are paid $50 per week plus $3 per sale. This week you want your pay to be at least $100. Write an inequality for the number of sales you need to make, and describe the solutions.

Geometry 7.G

Draw, construct, and describe geometrical figures and describe the relationships between them.

1. Solveproblemsinvolvingscaledrawingsofgeometricfigures,includingcomputingactuallengthsandareasfromascaledrawingandreproducingascaledrawingatadifferentscale.

1Computationswithrationalnumbersextendtherulesformanipulatingfractionstocomplexfractions.


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2. Draw(freehand,withrulerandprotractor,andwithtechnology)geometricshapeswithgivenconditions.Focusonconstructingtrianglesfromthreemeasuresofanglesorsides,noticingwhentheconditionsdetermineauniquetriangle,morethanonetriangle,ornotriangle.

3. Describethetwo-dimensionalfiguresthatresultfromslicingthree-dimensionalfigures,asinplanesectionsofrightrectangularprismsandrightrectangularpyramids.

Solve real-life and mathematical problems involving angle measure, area, surface area, and volume.

4. Knowtheformulasfortheareaandcircumferenceofacircleandusethemtosolveproblems;giveaninformalderivationoftherelationshipbetweenthecircumferenceandareaofacircle.

5. Usefactsaboutsupplementary,complementary,vertical,andadjacentanglesinamulti-stepproblemtowriteandsolvesimpleequationsforanunknownangleinafigure.

6. Solvereal-worldandmathematicalproblemsinvolvingarea,volumeandsurfaceareaoftwo-andthree-dimensionalobjectscomposedoftriangles,quadrilaterals,polygons,cubes,andrightprisms.


Use random sampling to draw inferences about a population.1. Understandthatstatisticscanbeusedtogaininformationabouta

populationbyexaminingasampleofthepopulation;generalizationsaboutapopulationfromasamplearevalidonlyifthesampleisrepresentativeofthatpopulation.Understandthatrandomsamplingtendstoproducerepresentativesamplesandsupportvalidinferences.

2. Usedatafromarandomsampletodrawinferencesaboutapopulationwithanunknowncharacteristicofinterest.Generatemultiplesamples(orsimulatedsamples)ofthesamesizetogaugethevariationinestimatesorpredictions.For example, estimate the mean word length in a book by randomly sampling words from the book; predict the winner of a school election based on randomly sampled survey data. Gauge how far off the estimate or prediction might be.

Draw informal comparative inferences about two populations.3. Informallyassessthedegreeofvisualoverlapoftwonumerical

datadistributionswithsimilarvariabilities,measuringthedifferencebetweenthecentersbyexpressingitasamultipleofameasureofvariability.For example, the mean height of players on the basketball team is 10 cm greater than the mean height of players on the soccer team, about twice the variability (mean absolute deviation) on either team; on a dot plot, the separation between the two distributions of heights is noticeable.

4. Usemeasuresofcenterandmeasuresofvariabilityfornumericaldatafromrandomsamplestodrawinformalcomparativeinferencesabouttwopopulations.For example, decide whether the words in a chapter of a seventh-grade science book are generally longer than the words in a chapter of a fourth-grade science book.

Investigate chance processes and develop, use, and evaluate probability models.

5. Understandthattheprobabilityofachanceeventisanumberbetween0and1thatexpressesthelikelihoodoftheeventoccurring.Largernumbersindicategreaterlikelihood.Aprobabilitynear0indicatesanunlikelyevent,aprobabilityaround1/2indicatesaneventthatisneitherunlikelynorlikely,andaprobabilitynear1indicatesalikelyevent.


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6. Approximatetheprobabilityofachanceeventbycollectingdataonthechanceprocessthatproducesitandobservingitslong-runrelativefrequency,andpredicttheapproximaterelativefrequencygiventheprobability.For example, when rolling a number cube 600 times, predict that a 3 or 6 would be rolled roughly 200 times, but probably not exactly 200 times.

7. Developaprobabilitymodelanduseittofindprobabilitiesofevents.Compareprobabilitiesfromamodeltoobservedfrequencies;iftheagreementisnotgood,explainpossiblesourcesofthediscrepancy.

a. Developauniformprobabilitymodelbyassigningequalprobabilitytoalloutcomes,andusethemodeltodetermineprobabilitiesofevents.For example, if a student is selected at random from a class, find the probability that Jane will be selected and the probability that a girl will be selected.

b. Developaprobabilitymodel(whichmaynotbeuniform)byobservingfrequenciesindatageneratedfromachanceprocess.For example, find the approximate probability that a spinning penny will land heads up or that a tossed paper cup will land open-end down. Do the outcomes for the spinning penny appear to be equally likely based on the observed frequencies?

8. Findprobabilitiesofcompoundeventsusingorganizedlists,tables,treediagrams,andsimulation.

a. Understandthat,justaswithsimpleevents,theprobabilityofacompoundeventisthefractionofoutcomesinthesamplespaceforwhichthecompoundeventoccurs.

b. Representsamplespacesforcompoundeventsusingmethodssuchasorganizedlists,tablesandtreediagrams.Foraneventdescribedineverydaylanguage(e.g.,“rollingdoublesixes”),identifytheoutcomesinthesamplespacewhichcomposetheevent.

c. Designanduseasimulationtogeneratefrequenciesforcompoundevents.For example, use random digits as a simulation tool to approximate the answer to the question: If 40% of donors have type A blood, what is the probability that it will take at least 4 donors to find one with type A blood?


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mathematics | Grade 8InGrade8,instructionaltimeshouldfocusonthreecriticalareas:(1)formulating

andreasoningaboutexpressionsandequations,includingmodelinganassociation

inbivariatedatawithalinearequation,andsolvinglinearequationsandsystems

oflinearequations;(2)graspingtheconceptofafunctionandusingfunctions

todescribequantitativerelationships;(3)analyzingtwo-andthree-dimensional

spaceandfiguresusingdistance,angle,similarity,andcongruence,and

understandingandapplyingthePythagoreanTheorem.

(1)Studentsuselinearequationsandsystemsoflinearequationstorepresent,analyze,andsolveavarietyofproblems.Studentsrecognizeequationsforproportions(y/x=mory=mx)asspeciallinearequations(y=mx+b),understandingthattheconstantofproportionality(m)istheslope,andthegraphsarelinesthroughtheorigin.Theyunderstandthattheslope(m)ofalineisaconstantrateofchange,sothatiftheinputorx-coordinatechangesbyanamountA,theoutputory-coordinatechangesbytheamountm·A.Studentsalsousealinearequationtodescribetheassociationbetweentwoquantitiesinbivariatedata(suchasarmspanvs.heightforstudentsinaclassroom).Atthisgrade,fittingthemodel,andassessingitsfittothedataaredoneinformally.Interpretingthemodelinthecontextofthedatarequiresstudentstoexpressarelationshipbetweenthetwoquantitiesinquestionandtointerpretcomponentsoftherelationship(suchasslopeandy-intercept)intermsofthesituation.

Studentsstrategicallychooseandefficientlyimplementprocedurestosolvelinearequationsinonevariable,understandingthatwhentheyusethepropertiesofequalityandtheconceptoflogicalequivalence,theymaintainthesolutionsoftheoriginalequation.Studentssolvesystemsoftwolinearequationsintwovariablesandrelatethesystemstopairsoflinesintheplane;theseintersect,areparallel,orarethesameline.Studentsuselinearequations,systemsoflinearequations,linearfunctions,andtheirunderstandingofslopeofalinetoanalyzesituationsandsolveproblems.

(2)Studentsgrasptheconceptofafunctionasarulethatassignstoeachinputexactlyoneoutput.Theyunderstandthatfunctionsdescribesituationswhereonequantitydeterminesanother.Theycantranslateamongrepresentationsandpartialrepresentationsoffunctions(notingthattabularandgraphicalrepresentationsmaybepartialrepresentations),andtheydescribehowaspectsofthefunctionarereflectedinthedifferentrepresentations.

(3)Studentsuseideasaboutdistanceandangles,howtheybehaveundertranslations,rotations,reflections,anddilations,andideasaboutcongruenceandsimilaritytodescribeandanalyzetwo-dimensionalfiguresandtosolveproblems.Studentsshowthatthesumoftheanglesinatriangleistheangleformedbyastraightline,andthatvariousconfigurationsoflinesgiverisetosimilartrianglesbecauseoftheanglescreatedwhenatransversalcutsparallellines.StudentsunderstandthestatementofthePythagoreanTheoremanditsconverse,andcanexplainwhythePythagoreanTheoremholds,forexample,bydecomposingasquareintwodifferentways.TheyapplythePythagoreanTheoremtofinddistancesbetweenpointsonthecoordinateplane,tofindlengths,andtoanalyzepolygons.Studentscompletetheirworkonvolumebysolvingproblemsinvolvingcones,cylinders,andspheres.


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the number System

• Know that there are numbers that are not rational, and approximate them by rational numbers.


• Work with radicals and integer exponents.

• Understand the connections between proportional relationships, lines, and linear equations.

• analyze and solve linear equations and pairs of simultaneous linear equations.

functions

• define, evaluate, and compare functions.

• Use functions to model relationships between quantities.

Geometry

• Understand congruence and similarity using physical models, transparencies, or geometry software.

• Understand and apply the Pythagorean theorem.

• Solve real-world and mathematical problems involving volume of cylinders, cones and spheres.


• Investigate patterns of association in bivariate data.










Grade 8 overview


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Know that there are numbers that are not rational, and approximate them by rational numbers.

1. Understandinformallythateverynumberhasadecimalexpansion;therationalnumbersarethosewithdecimalexpansionsthatterminatein0soreventuallyrepeat.Knowthatothernumbersarecalledirrational.

2. Userationalapproximationsofirrationalnumberstocomparethesizeofirrationalnumbers,locatethemapproximatelyonanumberlinediagram,andestimatethevalueofexpressions(e.g.,π2).For example, by truncating the decimal expansion of √2, show that √2 is between 1 and 2, then between 1.4 and 1.5, and explain how to continue on to get better approximations.


Work with radicals and integer exponents. 1. Knowandapplythepropertiesofintegerexponentstogenerate

equivalentnumericalexpressions.For example, 32 × 3–5 = 3–3 = 1/33 = 1/27.

2. Usesquarerootandcuberootsymbolstorepresentsolutionstoequationsoftheformx2=pandx3=p,wherepisapositiverationalnumber.Evaluatesquarerootsofsmallperfectsquaresandcuberootsofsmallperfectcubes.Knowthat√2isirrational.

3. Usenumbersexpressedintheformofasingledigittimesanintegerpowerof10toestimateverylargeorverysmallquantities,andtoexpresshowmanytimesasmuchoneisthantheother.For example, estimate the population of the United States as 3 × 108 and the population of the world as 7 × 109, and determine that the world population is more than 20 times larger.

4. Performoperationswithnumbersexpressedinscientificnotation,includingproblemswherebothdecimalandscientificnotationareused.Usescientificnotationandchooseunitsofappropriatesizeformeasurementsofverylargeorverysmallquantities(e.g.,usemillimetersperyearforseafloorspreading).Interpretscientificnotationthathasbeengeneratedbytechnology.

Understand the connections between proportional relationships, lines, and linear equations.

5. Graphproportionalrelationships,interpretingtheunitrateastheslopeofthegraph.Comparetwodifferentproportionalrelationshipsrepresentedindifferentways.For example, compare a distance-time graph to a distance-time equation to determine which of two moving objects has greater speed.

6. Usesimilartrianglestoexplainwhytheslopemisthesamebetweenanytwodistinctpointsonanon-verticallineinthecoordinateplane;derivetheequationy=mxforalinethroughtheoriginandtheequationy=mx+bforalineinterceptingtheverticalaxisatb.

Analyze and solve linear equations and pairs of simultaneous linear equations.

7. Solvelinearequationsinonevariable.

a. Giveexamplesoflinearequationsinonevariablewithonesolution,infinitelymanysolutions,ornosolutions.Showwhichofthesepossibilitiesisthecasebysuccessivelytransformingthegivenequationintosimplerforms,untilanequivalentequationoftheformx=a,a=a,ora=bresults(whereaandbaredifferentnumbers).

b. Solvelinearequationswithrationalnumbercoefficients,includingequationswhosesolutionsrequireexpandingexpressionsusingthedistributivepropertyandcollectingliketerms.


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8. Analyzeandsolvepairsofsimultaneouslinearequations.

a. Understandthatsolutionstoasystemoftwolinearequationsintwovariablescorrespondtopointsofintersectionoftheirgraphs,becausepointsofintersectionsatisfybothequationssimultaneously.

b. Solvesystemsoftwolinearequationsintwovariablesalgebraically,andestimatesolutionsbygraphingtheequations.Solvesimplecasesbyinspection.For example, 3x + 2y = 5 and 3x + 2y = 6 have no solution because 3x + 2y cannot simultaneously be 5 and 6.

c. Solvereal-worldandmathematicalproblemsleadingtotwolinearequationsintwovariables.For example, given coordinates for two pairs of points, determine whether the line through the first pair of points intersects the line through the second pair.

functions 8.f

Define, evaluate, and compare functions.1. Understandthatafunctionisarulethatassignstoeachinputexactly

oneoutput.Thegraphofafunctionisthesetoforderedpairsconsistingofaninputandthecorrespondingoutput.1

2. Comparepropertiesoftwofunctionseachrepresentedinadifferentway(algebraically,graphically,numericallyintables,orbyverbaldescriptions).For example, given a linear function represented by a table of values and a linear function represented by an algebraic expression, determine which function has the greater rate of change.

3. Interprettheequationy=mx+basdefiningalinearfunction,whosegraphisastraightline;giveexamplesoffunctionsthatarenotlinear.For example, the function A = s2 giving the area of a square as a function of its side length is not linear because its graph contains the points (1,1), (2,4) and (3,9), which are not on a straight line.

Use functions to model relationships between quantities.4. Constructafunctiontomodelalinearrelationshipbetweentwo

quantities.Determinetherateofchangeandinitialvalueofthefunctionfromadescriptionofarelationshiporfromtwo(x,y)values,includingreadingthesefromatableorfromagraph.Interprettherateofchangeandinitialvalueofalinearfunctionintermsofthesituationitmodels,andintermsofitsgraphoratableofvalues.

5. Describequalitativelythefunctionalrelationshipbetweentwoquantitiesbyanalyzingagraph(e.g.,wherethefunctionisincreasingordecreasing,linearornonlinear).Sketchagraphthatexhibitsthequalitativefeaturesofafunctionthathasbeendescribedverbally.

Geometry 8.G

Understand congruence and similarity using physical models, trans-parencies, or geometry software.

1. Verifyexperimentallythepropertiesofrotations,reflections,andtranslations:

a. Linesaretakentolines,andlinesegmentstolinesegmentsofthesamelength.

b. Anglesaretakentoanglesofthesamemeasure.

c. Parallellinesaretakentoparallellines.

2. Understandthatatwo-dimensionalfigureiscongruenttoanotherifthesecondcanbeobtainedfromthefirstbyasequenceofrotations,reflections,andtranslations;giventwocongruentfigures,describeasequencethatexhibitsthecongruencebetweenthem.

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3. Describetheeffectofdilations,translations,rotations,andreflectionsontwo-dimensionalfiguresusingcoordinates.

4. Understandthatatwo-dimensionalfigureissimilartoanotherifthesecondcanbeobtainedfromthefirstbyasequenceofrotations,reflections,translations,anddilations;giventwosimilartwo-dimensionalfigures,describeasequencethatexhibitsthesimilaritybetweenthem.

5. Useinformalargumentstoestablishfactsabouttheanglesumandexteriorangleoftriangles,abouttheanglescreatedwhenparallellinesarecutbyatransversal,andtheangle-anglecriterionforsimilarityoftriangles.For example, arrange three copies of the same triangle so that the sum of the three angles appears to form a line, and give an argument in terms of transversals why this is so.

Understand and apply the Pythagorean Theorem.6. ExplainaproofofthePythagoreanTheoremanditsconverse.

7. ApplythePythagoreanTheoremtodetermineunknownsidelengthsinrighttrianglesinreal-worldandmathematicalproblemsintwoandthreedimensions.

8. ApplythePythagoreanTheoremtofindthedistancebetweentwopointsinacoordinatesystem.

Solve real-world and mathematical problems involving volume of cylinders, cones, and spheres.

9. Knowtheformulasforthevolumesofcones,cylinders,andspheresandusethemtosolvereal-worldandmathematicalproblems.


Investigate patterns of association in bivariate data.1. Constructandinterpretscatterplotsforbivariatemeasurement

datatoinvestigatepatternsofassociationbetweentwoquantities.Describepatternssuchasclustering,outliers,positiveornegativeassociation,linearassociation,andnonlinearassociation.

2. Knowthatstraightlinesarewidelyusedtomodelrelationshipsbetweentwoquantitativevariables.Forscatterplotsthatsuggestalinearassociation,informallyfitastraightline,andinformallyassessthemodelfitbyjudgingtheclosenessofthedatapointstotheline.

3. Usetheequationofalinearmodeltosolveproblemsinthecontextofbivariatemeasurementdata,interpretingtheslopeandintercept.For example, in a linear model for a biology experiment, interpret a slope of 1.5 cm/hr as meaning that an additional hour of sunlight each day is associated with an additional 1.5 cm in mature plant height.

4. Understandthatpatternsofassociationcanalsobeseeninbivariatecategoricaldatabydisplayingfrequenciesandrelativefrequenciesinatwo-waytable.Constructandinterpretatwo-waytablesummarizingdataontwocategoricalvariablescollectedfromthesamesubjects.Userelativefrequenciescalculatedforrowsorcolumnstodescribepossibleassociationbetweenthetwovariables.For example, collect data from students in your class on whether or not they have a curfew on school nights and whether or not they have assigned chores at home. Is there evidence that those who have a curfew also tend to have chores?

Common Core State StandardS for matHematICSH

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mathematics Standards for High SchoolThehighschoolstandardsspecifythemathematicsthatallstudentsshouldstudyinordertobecollegeandcareerready.Additionalmathematicsthatstudentsshouldlearninordertotakeadvancedcoursessuchascalculus,advancedstatistics,ordiscretemathematicsisindicatedby(+),asinthisexample:

(+)Representcomplexnumbersonthecomplexplaneinrectangularandpolarform(includingrealandimaginarynumbers).

Allstandardswithouta(+)symbolshouldbeinthecommonmathematicscurriculumforallcollegeandcareerreadystudents.Standardswithouta(+)symbolmayalsoappearincoursesintendedforallstudents.Thehighschoolstandardsarelistedinconceptualcategories:

• NumberandQuantity

• Algebra

• Functions

• Modeling

• Geometry

• StatisticsandProbability

Conceptualcategoriesportrayacoherentviewofhighschoolmathematics;astudent’sworkwithfunctions,forexample,crossesanumberoftraditionalcourseboundaries,potentiallyupthroughandincludingcalculus.

Modelingisbestinterpretednotasacollectionofisolatedtopicsbutinrelationtootherstandards.MakingmathematicalmodelsisaStandardforMathematicalPractice,andspecificmodelingstandardsappearthroughoutthehighschoolstandardsindicatedbyastarsymbol(★).Thestarsymbolsometimesappearsontheheadingforagroupofstandards;inthatcase,itshouldbeunderstoodtoapplytoallstandardsinthatgroup.


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mathematics | High School—number and QuantityNumbers and Number Systems.Duringtheyearsfromkindergartentoeighthgrade,studentsmustrepeatedlyextendtheirconceptionofnumber.Atfirst,“number”means“countingnumber”:1,2,3...Soonafterthat,0isusedtorepresent“none”andthewholenumbersareformedbythecountingnumberstogetherwithzero.Thenextextensionisfractions.Atfirst,fractionsarebarelynumbersandtiedstronglytopictorialrepresentations.Yetbythetimestudentsunderstanddivisionoffractions,theyhaveastrongconceptoffractionsasnumbersandhaveconnectedthem,viatheirdecimalrepresentations,withthebase-tensystemusedtorepresentthewholenumbers.Duringmiddleschool,fractionsareaugmentedbynegativefractionstoformtherationalnumbers.InGrade8,studentsextendthissystemoncemore,augmentingtherationalnumberswiththeirrationalnumberstoformtherealnumbers.Inhighschool,studentswillbeexposedtoyetanotherextensionofnumber,whentherealnumbersareaugmentedbytheimaginarynumberstoformthecomplexnumbers.

Witheachextensionofnumber,themeaningsofaddition,subtraction,multiplication,anddivisionareextended.Ineachnewnumbersystem—integers,rationalnumbers,realnumbers,andcomplexnumbers—thefouroperationsstaythesameintwoimportantways:Theyhavethecommutative,associative,anddistributivepropertiesandtheirnewmeaningsareconsistentwiththeirpreviousmeanings.

Extendingthepropertiesofwhole-numberexponentsleadstonewandproductivenotation.Forexample,propertiesofwhole-numberexponentssuggestthat(51/3)3shouldbe5(1/3)3=51=5andthat51/3shouldbethecuberootof5.

Calculators,spreadsheets,andcomputeralgebrasystemscanprovidewaysforstudentstobecomebetteracquaintedwiththesenewnumbersystemsandtheirnotation.Theycanbeusedtogeneratedatafornumericalexperiments,tohelpunderstandtheworkingsofmatrix,vector,andcomplexnumberalgebra,andtoexperimentwithnon-integerexponents.

Quantities.Inrealworldproblems,theanswersareusuallynotnumbersbutquantities:numberswithunits,whichinvolvesmeasurement.IntheirworkinmeasurementupthroughGrade8,studentsprimarilymeasurecommonlyusedattributessuchaslength,area,andvolume.Inhighschool,studentsencounterawidervarietyofunitsinmodeling,e.g.,acceleration,currencyconversions,derivedquantitiessuchasperson-hoursandheatingdegreedays,socialscienceratessuchasper-capitaincome,andratesineverydaylifesuchaspointsscoredpergameorbattingaverages.Theyalsoencounternovelsituationsinwhichtheythemselvesmustconceivetheattributesofinterest.Forexample,tofindagoodmeasureofoverallhighwaysafety,theymightproposemeasuressuchasfatalitiesperyear,fatalitiesperyearperdriver,orfatalitiespervehicle-miletraveled.Suchaconceptualprocessissometimescalledquantification.Quantificationisimportantforscience,aswhensurfaceareasuddenly“standsout”asanimportantvariableinevaporation.Quantificationisalsoimportantforcompanies,whichmustconceptualizerelevantattributesandcreateorchoosesuitablemeasuresforthem.


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The Real Number System

• extend the properties of exponents to rational exponents

• Use properties of rational and irrational numbers.

Quantities

• reason quantitatively and use units to solve problems

The Complex Number System

• Perform arithmetic operations with complex numbers

• represent complex numbers and their operations on the complex plane

• Use complex numbers in polynomial identities and equations

Vector and Matrix Quantities

• represent and model with vector quantities.

• Perform operations on vectors.

• Perform operations on matrices and use matrices in applications.










number and Quantity overview


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the real number System n-rn

Extend the properties of exponents to rational exponents.1. Explainhowthedefinitionofthemeaningofrationalexponents

followsfromextendingthepropertiesofintegerexponentstothosevalues,allowingforanotationforradicalsintermsofrationalexponents.For example, we define 51/3 to be the cube root of 5 because we want (51/3)3 = 5(1/3)3 to hold, so (51/3)3 must equal 5.

2. Rewriteexpressionsinvolvingradicalsandrationalexponentsusingthepropertiesofexponents.

Use properties of rational and irrational numbers.3. Explainwhythesumorproductoftworationalnumbersisrational;

thatthesumofarationalnumberandanirrationalnumberisirrational;andthattheproductofanonzerorationalnumberandanirrationalnumberisirrational.

Quantities★ n-Q

Reason quantitatively and use units to solve problems.1. Useunitsasawaytounderstandproblemsandtoguidethesolution

ofmulti-stepproblems;chooseandinterpretunitsconsistentlyinformulas;chooseandinterpretthescaleandtheoriginingraphsanddatadisplays.

2. Defineappropriatequantitiesforthepurposeofdescriptivemodeling.

3. Choosealevelofaccuracyappropriatetolimitationsonmeasurementwhenreportingquantities.

the Complex number System n-Cn

Perform arithmetic operations with complex numbers.1. Knowthereisacomplexnumberisuchthati2=–1,andeverycomplex

numberhastheforma +bi withaandbreal.

2. Usetherelationi2=–1andthecommutative,associative,anddistributivepropertiestoadd,subtract,andmultiplycomplexnumbers.

3. (+)Findtheconjugateofacomplexnumber;useconjugatestofindmoduliandquotientsofcomplexnumbers.

Represent complex numbers and their operations on the complex plane.

4. (+)Representcomplexnumbersonthecomplexplaneinrectangularandpolarform(includingrealandimaginarynumbers),andexplainwhytherectangularandpolarformsofagivencomplexnumberrepresentthesamenumber.

5. (+)Representaddition,subtraction,multiplication,andconjugationofcomplexnumbersgeometricallyonthecomplexplane;usepropertiesofthisrepresentationforcomputation.For example, (1–√3i)3=8because(1–√3i)has modulus2and argument120°.

6. (+)Calculatethedistancebetweennumbersinthecomplexplaneasthemodulusofthedifference,andthemidpointofasegmentastheaverageofthenumbersatitsendpoints.

Use complex numbers in polynomial identities and equations.7. Solvequadraticequationswithrealcoefficientsthathavecomplex

solutions.

8. (+)Extendpolynomialidentitiestothecomplexnumbers.For example, rewrite x2+4as(x+2i)(x–2i).

9. (+)KnowtheFundamentalTheoremofAlgebra;showthatitistrueforquadraticpolynomials.


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Vector and matrix Quantities n-Vm

Represent and model with vector quantities.1. (+)Recognizevectorquantitiesashavingbothmagnitudeand

direction.Representvectorquantitiesbydirectedlinesegments,anduseappropriatesymbolsforvectorsandtheirmagnitudes(e.g.,v,|v|,||v||,v).

2. (+)Findthecomponentsofavectorbysubtractingthecoordinatesofaninitialpointfromthecoordinatesofaterminalpoint.

3. (+)Solveproblemsinvolvingvelocityandotherquantitiesthatcanberepresentedbyvectors.

Perform operations on vectors.4. (+)Addandsubtractvectors.

a. Addvectorsend-to-end,component-wise,andbytheparallelogramrule.Understandthatthemagnitudeofasumoftwovectorsistypicallynotthesumofthemagnitudes.

b. Giventwovectorsinmagnitudeanddirectionform,determinethemagnitudeanddirectionoftheirsum.

c. Understandvectorsubtractionv–wasv+(–w),where–wistheadditiveinverseofw,withthesamemagnitudeaswandpointingintheoppositedirection.Representvectorsubtractiongraphicallybyconnectingthetipsintheappropriateorder,andperformvectorsubtractioncomponent-wise.

5. (+)Multiplyavectorbyascalar.

a. Representscalarmultiplicationgraphicallybyscalingvectorsandpossiblyreversingtheirdirection;performscalarmultiplicationcomponent-wise,e.g.,asc(vx,vy)=(cvx,cvy).

b. Computethemagnitudeofascalarmultiplecvusing||cv||=|c|v.Computethedirectionofcvknowingthatwhen|c|v≠0,thedirectionofcviseitheralongv(forc>0)oragainstv(forc<0).

Perform operations on matrices and use matrices in applications.6. (+)Usematricestorepresentandmanipulatedata,e.g.,torepresent

payoffsorincidencerelationshipsinanetwork.

7. (+)Multiplymatricesbyscalarstoproducenewmatrices,e.g.,aswhenallofthepayoffsinagamearedoubled.

8. (+)Add,subtract,andmultiplymatricesofappropriatedimensions.

9. (+)Understandthat,unlikemultiplicationofnumbers,matrixmultiplicationforsquarematricesisnotacommutativeoperation,butstillsatisfiestheassociativeanddistributiveproperties.

10. (+)Understandthatthezeroandidentitymatricesplayaroleinmatrixadditionandmultiplicationsimilartotheroleof0and1intherealnumbers.Thedeterminantofasquarematrixisnonzeroifandonlyifthematrixhasamultiplicativeinverse.

11. (+)Multiplyavector(regardedasamatrixwithonecolumn)byamatrixofsuitabledimensionstoproduceanothervector.Workwithmatricesastransformationsofvectors.

12. (+)Workwith2×2matricesasatransformationsoftheplane,andinterprettheabsolutevalueofthedeterminantintermsofarea.


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mathematics | High School—algebraExpressions.Anexpressionisarecordofacomputationwithnumbers,symbolsthatrepresentnumbers,arithmeticoperations,exponentiation,and,atmoreadvancedlevels,theoperationofevaluatingafunction.Conventionsabouttheuseofparenthesesandtheorderofoperationsassurethateachexpressionisunambiguous.Creatinganexpressionthatdescribesacomputationinvolvingageneralquantityrequirestheabilitytoexpressthecomputationingeneralterms,abstractingfromspecificinstances.

Readinganexpressionwithcomprehensioninvolvesanalysisofitsunderlyingstructure.Thismaysuggestadifferentbutequivalentwayofwritingtheexpressionthatexhibitssomedifferentaspectofitsmeaning.Forexample,p + 0.05pcanbeinterpretedastheadditionofa5%taxtoapricep.Rewritingp + 0.05pas1.05pshowsthataddingataxisthesameasmultiplyingthepricebyaconstantfactor.

Algebraicmanipulationsaregovernedbythepropertiesofoperationsandexponents,andtheconventionsofalgebraicnotation.Attimes,anexpressionistheresultofapplyingoperationstosimplerexpressions.Forexample,p + 0.05pisthesumofthesimplerexpressionspand0.05p.Viewinganexpressionastheresultofoperationonsimplerexpressionscansometimesclarifyitsunderlyingstructure.

Aspreadsheetoracomputeralgebrasystem(CAS)canbeusedtoexperimentwithalgebraicexpressions,performcomplicatedalgebraicmanipulations,andunderstandhowalgebraicmanipulationsbehave.

Equations and inequalities.Anequationisastatementofequalitybetweentwoexpressions,oftenviewedasaquestionaskingforwhichvaluesofthevariablestheexpressionsoneithersideareinfactequal.Thesevaluesarethesolutionstotheequation.Anidentity,incontrast,istrueforallvaluesofthevariables;identitiesareoftendevelopedbyrewritinganexpressioninanequivalentform.

Thesolutionsofanequationinonevariableformasetofnumbers;thesolutionsofanequationintwovariablesformasetoforderedpairsofnumbers,whichcanbeplottedinthecoordinateplane.Twoormoreequationsand/orinequalitiesformasystem.Asolutionforsuchasystemmustsatisfyeveryequationandinequalityinthesystem.

Anequationcanoftenbesolvedbysuccessivelydeducingfromitoneormoresimplerequations.Forexample,onecanaddthesameconstanttobothsideswithoutchangingthesolutions,butsquaringbothsidesmightleadtoextraneoussolutions.Strategiccompetenceinsolvingincludeslookingaheadforproductivemanipulationsandanticipatingthenatureandnumberofsolutions.

Someequationshavenosolutionsinagivennumbersystem,buthaveasolutioninalargersystem.Forexample,thesolutionofx+1=0isaninteger,notawholenumber;thesolutionof2x+1=0isarationalnumber,notaninteger;thesolutionsofx2–2=0arerealnumbers,notrationalnumbers;andthesolutionsofx2+2=0arecomplexnumbers,notrealnumbers.

Thesamesolutiontechniquesusedtosolveequationscanbeusedtorearrangeformulas.Forexample,theformulafortheareaofatrapezoid,A=((b1+b2)/2)h,canbesolvedforhusingthesamedeductiveprocess.

Inequalitiescanbesolvedbyreasoningaboutthepropertiesofinequality.Many,butnotall,ofthepropertiesofequalitycontinuetoholdforinequalitiesandcanbeusefulinsolvingthem.

Connections to Functions and Modeling. Expressionscandefinefunctions,andequivalentexpressionsdefinethesamefunction.Askingwhentwofunctionshavethesamevalueforthesameinputleadstoanequation;graphingthetwofunctionsallowsforfindingapproximatesolutionsoftheequation.Convertingaverbaldescriptiontoanequation,inequality,orsystemoftheseisanessentialskillinmodeling.


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Seeing Structure in Expressions

• Interpret the structure of expressions

• Write expressions in equivalent forms to solve problems

Arithmetic with Polynomials and Rational Func-tions

• Perform arithmetic operations on polynomials

• Understand the relationship between zeros and factors of polynomials

• Use polynomial identities to solve problems

• rewrite rational expressions

Creating Equations

• Create equations that describe numbers or relationships

Reasoning with Equations and Inequalities

• Understand solving equations as a process of reasoning and explain the reasoning

• Solve equations and inequalities in one variable

• Solve systems of equations

• represent and solve equations and inequalities graphically










algebra overview


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Seeing Structure in expressions a-SSe

Interpret the structure of expressions1. Interpretexpressionsthatrepresentaquantityintermsofitscontext.★

a. Interpretpartsofanexpression,suchasterms,factors,andcoefficients.

b. Interpretcomplicatedexpressionsbyviewingoneormoreoftheirpartsasasingleentity.For example, interpretP(1+r)nas the product of P and a factor not depending on P.

2. Usethestructureofanexpressiontoidentifywaystorewriteit.For example, see x4–y4as(x2)2– (y2)2,thus recognizing it as a difference of squares that can be factored as(x2–y2)(x2+y2).

Write expressions in equivalent forms to solve problems3. Chooseandproduceanequivalentformofanexpressiontorevealand

explainpropertiesofthequantityrepresentedbytheexpression.

a. Factoraquadraticexpressiontorevealthezerosofthefunctionitdefines.

b. Completethesquareinaquadraticexpressiontorevealthemaximumorminimumvalueofthefunctionitdefines.

c. Usethepropertiesofexponentstotransformexpressionsforexponentialfunctions. For example the expression1.15tcan be rewritten as(1.151/12)12t≈1.01212tto reveal the approximate equivalent monthly interest rate if the annual rate is 15%.

4. Derivetheformulaforthesumofafinitegeometricseries(whenthecommonratioisnot1),andusetheformulatosolveproblems.For example, calculate mortgage payments.

arithmetic with Polynomials and rational expressions a-aPr

Perform arithmetic operations on polynomials1. Understandthatpolynomialsformasystemanalogoustotheintegers,

namely,theyareclosedundertheoperationsofaddition,subtraction,andmultiplication;add,subtract,andmultiplypolynomials.

Understand the relationship between zeros and factors of polynomials

2. KnowandapplytheRemainderTheorem:Forapolynomialp(x)andanumbera,theremainderondivisionbyx–aisp(a),sop(a)=0ifandonlyif(x–a)isafactorofp(x).

3. Identifyzerosofpolynomialswhensuitablefactorizationsareavailable,andusethezerostoconstructaroughgraphofthefunctiondefinedbythepolynomial.

Use polynomial identities to solve problems4. Provepolynomialidentitiesandusethemtodescribenumerical

relationships.For example, the polynomial identity(x2 + y2)2= (x2 – y2)2+(2xy)2 can be used to generate Pythagorean triples.

5. (+)KnowandapplytheBinomialTheoremfortheexpansionof(x+y)ninpowersofxandyforapositiveintegern,wherexandyareanynumbers,withcoefficientsdeterminedforexamplebyPascal’sTriangle.1

1TheBinomialTheoremcanbeprovedbymathematicalinductionorbyacom-binatorialargument.


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Rewrite rational expressions6. Rewritesimplerationalexpressionsindifferentforms;writea(x)/b(x)

intheformq(x)+r(x)/b(x),wherea(x),b(x),q(x),andr(x)arepolynomialswiththedegreeofr(x)lessthanthedegreeofb(x),usinginspection,longdivision,or,forthemorecomplicatedexamples,acomputeralgebrasystem.

7. (+)Understandthatrationalexpressionsformasystemanalogoustotherationalnumbers,closedunderaddition,subtraction,multiplication,anddivisionbyanonzerorationalexpression;add,subtract,multiply,anddividerationalexpressions.

Creating equations★ a-Ced

Create equations that describe numbers or relationships1. Createequationsandinequalitiesinonevariableandusethemto

solveproblems.Include equations arising from linear and quadratic functions, and simple rational and exponential functions.

2. Createequationsintwoormorevariablestorepresentrelationshipsbetweenquantities;graphequationsoncoordinateaxeswithlabelsandscales.

3. Representconstraintsbyequationsorinequalities,andbysystemsofequationsand/orinequalities,andinterpretsolutionsasviableornon-viableoptionsinamodelingcontext.For example, represent inequalities describing nutritional and cost constraints on combinations of different foods.

4. Rearrangeformulastohighlightaquantityofinterest,usingthesamereasoningasinsolvingequations.For example, rearrange Ohm’s law V = IR to highlight resistance R.

reasoning with equations and Inequalities a-reI

Understand solving equations as a process of reasoning and explain the reasoning

1. Explaineachstepinsolvingasimpleequationasfollowingfromtheequalityofnumbersassertedatthepreviousstep,startingfromtheassumptionthattheoriginalequationhasasolution.Constructaviableargumenttojustifyasolutionmethod.

2. Solvesimplerationalandradicalequationsinonevariable,andgiveexamplesshowinghowextraneoussolutionsmayarise.

Solve equations and inequalities in one variable3. Solvelinearequationsandinequalitiesinonevariable,including

equationswithcoefficientsrepresentedbyletters.

4. Solvequadraticequationsinonevariable.

a. Usethemethodofcompletingthesquaretotransformanyquadraticequationinxintoanequationoftheform(x–p)2=qthathasthesamesolutions.Derivethequadraticformulafromthisform.

b. Solvequadraticequationsbyinspection(e.g.,forx2=49),takingsquareroots,completingthesquare,thequadraticformulaandfactoring,asappropriatetotheinitialformoftheequation.Recognizewhenthequadraticformulagivescomplexsolutionsandwritethemasa±biforrealnumbersaandb.

Solve systems of equations5. Provethat,givenasystemoftwoequationsintwovariables,replacing

oneequationbythesumofthatequationandamultipleoftheotherproducesasystemwiththesamesolutions.


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6. Solvesystemsoflinearequationsexactlyandapproximately(e.g.,withgraphs),focusingonpairsoflinearequationsintwovariables.

7. Solveasimplesystemconsistingofalinearequationandaquadraticequationintwovariablesalgebraicallyandgraphically.For example, find the points of intersection between the line y=–3xandthecirclex2+y2=3.

8. (+)Representasystemoflinearequationsasasinglematrixequationinavectorvariable.

9. (+)Findtheinverseofamatrixifitexistsanduseittosolvesystemsoflinearequations(usingtechnologyformatricesofdimension3×3orgreater).

Represent and solve equations and inequalities graphically10. Understandthatthegraphofanequationintwovariablesisthesetof

allitssolutionsplottedinthecoordinateplane,oftenformingacurve(whichcouldbealine).

11. Explainwhythex-coordinatesofthepointswherethegraphsoftheequationsy=f(x)andy=g(x)intersectarethesolutionsoftheequationf(x)=g(x);findthesolutionsapproximately,e.g.,usingtechnologytographthefunctions,maketablesofvalues,orfindsuccessiveapproximations.Includecaseswheref(x)and/org(x)arelinear,polynomial,rational,absolutevalue,exponential,andlogarithmicfunctions.★

12. Graphthesolutionstoalinearinequalityintwovariablesasahalf-plane(excludingtheboundaryinthecaseofastrictinequality),andgraphthesolutionsettoasystemoflinearinequalitiesintwovariablesastheintersectionofthecorrespondinghalf-planes.


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mathematics | High School—functionsFunctionsdescribesituationswhereonequantitydeterminesanother.Forexample,thereturnon$10,000investedatanannualizedpercentagerateof4.25%isafunctionofthelengthoftimethemoneyisinvested.Becausewecontinuallymaketheoriesaboutdependenciesbetweenquantitiesinnatureandsociety,functionsareimportanttoolsintheconstructionofmathematicalmodels.

Inschoolmathematics,functionsusuallyhavenumericalinputsandoutputsandareoftendefinedbyanalgebraicexpression.Forexample,thetimeinhoursittakesforacartodrive100milesisafunctionofthecar’sspeedinmilesperhour,v;theruleT(v)=100/vexpressesthisrelationshipalgebraicallyanddefinesafunctionwhosenameisT.

Thesetofinputstoafunctioniscalleditsdomain.Weofteninferthedomaintobeallinputsforwhichtheexpressiondefiningafunctionhasavalue,orforwhichthefunctionmakessenseinagivencontext.

Afunctioncanbedescribedinvariousways,suchasbyagraph(e.g.,thetraceofaseismograph);byaverbalrule,asin,“I’llgiveyouastate,yougivemethecapitalcity;”byanalgebraicexpressionlikef(x)=a+bx;orbyarecursiverule.Thegraphofafunctionisoftenausefulwayofvisualizingtherelationshipofthefunctionmodels,andmanipulatingamathematicalexpressionforafunctioncanthrowlightonthefunction’sproperties.

Functionspresentedasexpressionscanmodelmanyimportantphenomena.Twoimportantfamiliesoffunctionscharacterizedbylawsofgrowtharelinearfunctions,whichgrowataconstantrate,andexponentialfunctions,whichgrowataconstantpercentrate.Linearfunctionswithaconstanttermofzerodescribeproportionalrelationships.

Agraphingutilityoracomputeralgebrasystemcanbeusedtoexperimentwithpropertiesofthesefunctionsandtheirgraphsandtobuildcomputationalmodelsoffunctions,includingrecursivelydefinedfunctions.

Connections to Expressions, Equations, Modeling, and Coordinates.Determininganoutputvalueforaparticularinputinvolvesevaluatinganexpression;findinginputsthatyieldagivenoutputinvolvessolvinganequation.Questionsaboutwhentwofunctionshavethesamevalueforthesameinputleadtoequations,whosesolutionscanbevisualizedfromtheintersectionoftheirgraphs.Becausefunctionsdescriberelationshipsbetweenquantities,theyarefrequentlyusedinmodeling.Sometimesfunctionsaredefinedbyarecursiveprocess,whichcanbedisplayedeffectivelyusingaspreadsheetorothertechnology.


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Interpreting Functions

• Understand the concept of a function and use function notation

• Interpret functions that arise in applications in terms of the context

• analyze functions using different representations

Building Functions

• Build a function that models a relationship between two quantities

• Build new functions from existing functions

Linear, Quadratic, and Exponential Models

• Construct and compare linear and exponential models and solve problems

• Interpret expressions for functions in terms of the situation they model

Trigonometric Functions

• extend the domain of trigonometric functions using the unit circle

• model periodic phenomena with trigonometric functions

• Prove and apply trigonometric identities










functions overview


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Interpreting functions f-If

Understand the concept of a function and use function notation1. Understandthatafunctionfromoneset(calledthedomain)to

anotherset(calledtherange)assignstoeachelementofthedomainexactlyoneelementoftherange.Iffisafunctionandxisanelementofitsdomain,thenf(x)denotestheoutputoffcorrespondingtotheinputx.Thegraphoffisthegraphoftheequationy=f(x).

2. Usefunctionnotation,evaluatefunctionsforinputsintheirdomains,andinterpretstatementsthatusefunctionnotationintermsofacontext.

3. Recognizethatsequencesarefunctions,sometimesdefinedrecursively,whosedomainisasubsetoftheintegers.For example, the Fibonacci sequence is defined recursively by f(0) = f(1) = 1, f(n+1) = f(n) + f(n-1) for n ≥ 1.

Interpret functions that arise in applications in terms of the context4. Forafunctionthatmodelsarelationshipbetweentwoquantities,

interpretkeyfeaturesofgraphsandtablesintermsofthequantities,andsketchgraphsshowingkeyfeaturesgivenaverbaldescriptionoftherelationship.Key features include: intercepts; intervals where the function is increasing, decreasing, positive, or negative; relative maximums and minimums; symmetries; end behavior; and periodicity.★

5. Relatethedomainofafunctiontoitsgraphand,whereapplicable,tothequantitativerelationshipitdescribes.For example, if the function h(n) gives the number of person-hours it takes to assemble n engines in a factory, then the positive integers would be an appropriate domain for the function.★

6. Calculateandinterprettheaveragerateofchangeofafunction(presentedsymbolicallyorasatable)overaspecifiedinterval.Estimatetherateofchangefromagraph.★

Analyze functions using different representations7. Graphfunctionsexpressedsymbolicallyandshowkeyfeaturesof

thegraph,byhandinsimplecasesandusingtechnologyformorecomplicatedcases.★

a. Graphlinearandquadraticfunctionsandshowintercepts,maxima,andminima.

b. Graphsquareroot,cuberoot,andpiecewise-definedfunctions,includingstepfunctionsandabsolutevaluefunctions.

c. Graphpolynomialfunctions,identifyingzeroswhensuitablefactorizationsareavailable,andshowingendbehavior.

d. (+)Graphrationalfunctions,identifyingzerosandasymptoteswhensuitablefactorizationsareavailable,andshowingendbehavior.

e. Graphexponentialandlogarithmicfunctions,showinginterceptsandendbehavior,andtrigonometricfunctions,showingperiod,midline,andamplitude.

8. Writeafunctiondefinedbyanexpressionindifferentbutequivalentformstorevealandexplaindifferentpropertiesofthefunction.

a. Usetheprocessoffactoringandcompletingthesquareinaquadraticfunctiontoshowzeros,extremevalues,andsymmetryofthegraph,andinterprettheseintermsofacontext.

b. Usethepropertiesofexponentstointerpretexpressionsforexponentialfunctions.For example, identify percent rate of change in functions such as y = (1.02)t, y = (0.97)t, y = (1.01)12t, y = (1.2)t/10, and classify them as representing exponential growth or decay.


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9. Comparepropertiesoftwofunctionseachrepresentedinadifferentway(algebraically,graphically,numericallyintables,orbyverbaldescriptions).For example, given a graph of one quadratic function and an algebraic expression for another, say which has the larger maximum.

Building functions f-Bf

Build a function that models a relationship between two quantities 1. Writeafunctionthatdescribesarelationshipbetweentwoquantities.★

a. Determineanexplicitexpression,arecursiveprocess,orstepsforcalculationfromacontext.

b. Combinestandardfunctiontypesusingarithmeticoperations.For example, build a function that models the temperature of a cooling body by adding a constant function to a decaying exponential, and relate these functions to the model.

c. (+)Composefunctions. For example, if T(y) is the temperature in the atmosphere as a function of height, and h(t) is the height of a weather balloon as a function of time, then T(h(t)) is the temperature at the location of the weather balloon as a function of time.

2. Writearithmeticandgeometricsequencesbothrecursivelyandwithanexplicitformula,usethemtomodelsituations,andtranslatebetweenthetwoforms.★

Build new functions from existing functions3. Identifytheeffectonthegraphofreplacingf(x)byf(x)+k,kf(x),

f(kx),andf(x+k)forspecificvaluesofk(bothpositiveandnegative);findthevalueofkgiventhegraphs.Experimentwithcasesandillustrateanexplanationoftheeffectsonthegraphusingtechnology.Include recognizing even and odd functions from their graphs and algebraic expressions for them.

4. Findinversefunctions.

a. Solveanequationoftheformf(x)=cforasimplefunctionfthathasaninverseandwriteanexpressionfortheinverse.For example, f(x) =2 x3 for x > 0 or f(x) = (x+1)/(x–1) for x ≠ 1.

b. (+)Verifybycompositionthatonefunctionistheinverseofanother.

c. (+)Readvaluesofaninversefunctionfromagraphoratable,giventhatthefunctionhasaninverse.

d. (+)Produceaninvertiblefunctionfromanon-invertiblefunctionbyrestrictingthedomain.

5. (+)Understandtheinverserelationshipbetweenexponentsandlogarithmsandusethisrelationshiptosolveproblemsinvolvinglogarithmsandexponents.

Linear and exponential models★ f-Le

Construct and compare linear and exponential models and solve problems

1. Distinguishbetweensituationsthatcanbemodeledwithlinearfunctionsandwithexponentialfunctions.

a. Provethatlinearfunctionsgrowbyequaldifferencesoverequalintervals,andthatexponentialfunctionsgrowbyequalfactorsoverequalintervals.

b. Recognizesituationsinwhichonequantitychangesataconstantrateperunitintervalrelativetoanother.

c. Recognizesituationsinwhichaquantitygrowsordecaysbyaconstantpercentrateperunitintervalrelativetoanother.


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2. Constructlinearandexponentialfunctions,includingarithmeticandgeometricsequences,givenagraph,adescriptionofarelationship,ortwoinput-outputpairs(includereadingthesefromatable).

3. Observeusinggraphsandtablesthataquantityincreasingexponentiallyeventuallyexceedsaquantityincreasinglinearly,quadratically,or(moregenerally)asapolynomialfunction.

4. Forexponentialmodels,expressasalogarithmthesolutiontoabct=dwherea,c,anddarenumbersandthebasebis2,10,ore;evaluatethelogarithmusingtechnology.

Interpret expressions for functions in terms of the situation they model

5. Interprettheparametersinalinearorexponentialfunctionintermsofacontext.

trigonometric functions f-tf

Extend the domain of trigonometric functions using the unit circle1. Understandradianmeasureofanangleasthelengthofthearconthe

unitcirclesubtendedbytheangle.

2. Explainhowtheunitcircleinthecoordinateplaneenablestheextensionoftrigonometricfunctionstoallrealnumbers,interpretedasradianmeasuresofanglestraversedcounterclockwisearoundtheunitcircle.

3. (+)Usespecialtrianglestodeterminegeometricallythevaluesofsine,cosine,tangentforπ/3,π/4andπ/6,andusetheunitcircletoexpressthevaluesofsine,cosines,andtangentforx,π+x,and2π–xintermsoftheirvaluesforx,wherexisanyrealnumber.

4. (+)Usetheunitcircletoexplainsymmetry(oddandeven)andperiodicityoftrigonometricfunctions.

Model periodic phenomena with trigonometric functions5. Choosetrigonometricfunctionstomodelperiodicphenomenawith

specifiedamplitude,frequency,andmidline.★

6. (+)Understandthatrestrictingatrigonometricfunctiontoadomainonwhichitisalwaysincreasingoralwaysdecreasingallowsitsinversetobeconstructed.

7. (+)Useinversefunctionstosolvetrigonometricequationsthatariseinmodelingcontexts;evaluatethesolutionsusingtechnology,andinterpretthemintermsofthecontext.★

Prove and apply trigonometric identities8. ProvethePythagoreanidentitysin2(θ)+cos2(θ)=1anduseitto

calculatetrigonometricratios.

9. (+)Provetheadditionandsubtractionformulasforsine,cosine,andtangentandusethemtosolveproblems.


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mathematics | High School—modelingModelinglinksclassroommathematicsandstatisticstoeverydaylife,work,anddecision-making.Modelingistheprocessofchoosingandusingappropriatemathematicsandstatisticstoanalyzeempiricalsituations,tounderstandthembetter,andtoimprovedecisions.Quantitiesandtheirrelationshipsinphysical,economic,publicpolicy,social,andeverydaysituationscanbemodeledusingmathematicalandstatisticalmethods.Whenmakingmathematicalmodels,technologyisvaluableforvaryingassumptions,exploringconsequences,andcomparingpredictionswithdata.

Amodelcanbeverysimple,suchaswritingtotalcostasaproductofunitpriceandnumberbought,orusingageometricshapetodescribeaphysicalobjectlikeacoin.Evensuchsimplemodelsinvolvemakingchoices.Itisuptouswhethertomodelacoinasathree-dimensionalcylinder,orwhetheratwo-dimensionaldiskworkswellenoughforourpurposes.Othersituations—modelingadeliveryroute,aproductionschedule,oracomparisonofloanamortizations—needmoreelaboratemodelsthatuseothertoolsfromthemathematicalsciences.Real-worldsituationsarenotorganizedandlabeledforanalysis;formulatingtractablemodels,representingsuchmodels,andanalyzingthemisappropriatelyacreativeprocess.Likeeverysuchprocess,thisdependsonacquiredexpertiseaswellascreativity.

Someexamplesofsuchsituationsmightinclude:

• Estimatinghowmuchwaterandfoodisneededforemergencyreliefinadevastatedcityof3millionpeople,andhowitmightbedistributed.

• Planningatabletennistournamentfor7playersataclubwith4tables,whereeachplayerplaysagainsteachotherplayer.

• Designingthelayoutofthestallsinaschoolfairsoastoraiseasmuchmoneyaspossible.

• Analyzingstoppingdistanceforacar.

• Modelingsavingsaccountbalance,bacterialcolonygrowth,orinvestmentgrowth.

• Engagingincriticalpathanalysis,e.g.,appliedtoturnaroundofanaircraftatanairport.

• Analyzingriskinsituationssuchasextremesports,pandemics,andterrorism.

• Relatingpopulationstatisticstoindividualpredictions.

Insituationslikethese,themodelsdeviseddependonanumberoffactors:Howpreciseananswerdowewantorneed?Whataspectsofthesituationdowemostneedtounderstand,control,oroptimize?Whatresourcesoftimeandtoolsdowehave?Therangeofmodelsthatwecancreateandanalyzeisalsoconstrainedbythelimitationsofourmathematical,statistical,andtechnicalskills,andourabilitytorecognizesignificantvariablesandrelationshipsamongthem.Diagramsofvariouskinds,spreadsheetsandothertechnology,andalgebraarepowerfultoolsforunderstandingandsolvingproblemsdrawnfromdifferenttypesofreal-worldsituations.

Oneoftheinsightsprovidedbymathematicalmodelingisthatessentiallythesamemathematicalorstatisticalstructurecansometimesmodelseeminglydifferentsituations.Modelscanalsoshedlightonthemathematicalstructuresthemselves,forexample,aswhenamodelofbacterialgrowthmakesmorevividtheexplosivegrowthoftheexponentialfunction.

Thebasicmodelingcycleissummarizedinthediagram.Itinvolves(1)identifyingvariablesinthesituationandselectingthosethatrepresentessentialfeatures,(2)formulatingamodelbycreatingandselectinggeometric,graphical,tabular,algebraic,orstatisticalrepresentationsthatdescriberelationshipsbetweenthevariables,(3)analyzingandperformingoperationsontheserelationshipstodrawconclusions,(4)interpretingtheresultsofthemathematicsintermsoftheoriginalsituation,(5)validatingtheconclusionsbycomparingthemwiththesituation,andtheneitherimprovingthemodelor,ifit


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isacceptable,(6)reportingontheconclusionsandthereasoningbehindthem.Choices,assumptions,andapproximationsarepresentthroughoutthiscycle.

Indescriptivemodeling,amodelsimplydescribesthephenomenaorsummarizestheminacompactform.Graphsofobservationsareafamiliardescriptivemodel—forexample,graphsofglobaltemperatureandatmosphericCO2overtime.

Analyticmodelingseekstoexplaindataonthebasisofdeepertheoreticalideas,albeitwithparametersthatareempiricallybased;forexample,exponentialgrowthofbacterialcolonies(untilcut-offmechanismssuchaspollutionorstarvationintervene)followsfromaconstantreproductionrate.Functionsareanimportanttoolforanalyzingsuchproblems.

Graphingutilities,spreadsheets,computeralgebrasystems,anddynamicgeometrysoftwarearepowerfultoolsthatcanbeusedtomodelpurelymathematicalphenomena(e.g.,thebehaviorofpolynomials)aswellasphysicalphenomena.

modeling Standards Modeling is best interpreted not as a collection of isolated topics but rather in relation to other standards. Making mathematical models is a Standard for Mathematical Practice, and specific modeling standards appear throughout the high school standards indicated by a star symbol (★).


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mathematics | High School—GeometryAnunderstandingoftheattributesandrelationshipsofgeometricobjectscanbeappliedindiversecontexts—interpretingaschematicdrawing,estimatingtheamountofwoodneededtoframeaslopingroof,renderingcomputergraphics,ordesigningasewingpatternforthemostefficientuseofmaterial.

Althoughtherearemanytypesofgeometry,schoolmathematicsisdevotedprimarilytoplaneEuclideangeometry,studiedbothsynthetically(withoutcoordinates)andanalytically(withcoordinates).EuclideangeometryischaracterizedmostimportantlybytheParallelPostulate,thatthroughapointnotonagivenlinethereisexactlyoneparallelline.(Sphericalgeometry,incontrast,hasnoparallellines.)

Duringhighschool,studentsbegintoformalizetheirgeometryexperiencesfromelementaryandmiddleschool,usingmoreprecisedefinitionsanddevelopingcarefulproofs.LaterincollegesomestudentsdevelopEuclideanandothergeometriescarefullyfromasmallsetofaxioms.

Theconceptsofcongruence,similarity,andsymmetrycanbeunderstoodfromtheperspectiveofgeometrictransformation.Fundamentalaretherigidmotions:translations,rotations,reflections,andcombinationsofthese,allofwhicharehereassumedtopreservedistanceandangles(andthereforeshapesgenerally).Reflectionsandrotationseachexplainaparticulartypeofsymmetry,andthesymmetriesofanobjectofferinsightintoitsattributes—aswhenthereflectivesymmetryofanisoscelestriangleassuresthatitsbaseanglesarecongruent.

Intheapproachtakenhere,twogeometricfiguresaredefinedtobecongruentifthereisasequenceofrigidmotionsthatcarriesoneontotheother.Thisistheprincipleofsuperposition.Fortriangles,congruencemeanstheequalityofallcorrespondingpairsofsidesandallcorrespondingpairsofangles.Duringthemiddlegrades,throughexperiencesdrawingtrianglesfromgivenconditions,studentsnoticewaystospecifyenoughmeasuresinatriangletoensurethatalltrianglesdrawnwiththosemeasuresarecongruent.Oncethesetrianglecongruencecriteria(ASA,SAS,andSSS)areestablishedusingrigidmotions,theycanbeusedtoprovetheoremsabouttriangles,quadrilaterals,andothergeometricfigures.

Similaritytransformations(rigidmotionsfollowedbydilations)definesimilarityinthesamewaythatrigidmotionsdefinecongruence,therebyformalizingthesimilarityideasof"sameshape"and"scalefactor"developedinthemiddlegrades.Thesetransformationsleadtothecriterionfortrianglesimilaritythattwopairsofcorrespondinganglesarecongruent.

Thedefinitionsofsine,cosine,andtangentforacuteanglesarefoundedonrighttrianglesandsimilarity,and,withthePythagoreanTheorem,arefundamentalinmanyreal-worldandtheoreticalsituations.ThePythagoreanTheoremisgeneralizedtonon-righttrianglesbytheLawofCosines.Together,theLawsofSinesandCosinesembodythetrianglecongruencecriteriaforthecaseswherethreepiecesofinformationsufficetocompletelysolveatriangle.Furthermore,theselawsyieldtwopossiblesolutionsintheambiguouscase,illustratingthatSide-Side-Angleisnotacongruencecriterion.

Analyticgeometryconnectsalgebraandgeometry,resultinginpowerfulmethodsofanalysisandproblemsolving.Justasthenumberlineassociatesnumberswithlocationsinonedimension,apairofperpendicularaxesassociatespairsofnumberswithlocationsintwodimensions.Thiscorrespondencebetweennumericalcoordinatesandgeometricpointsallowsmethodsfromalgebratobeappliedtogeometryandviceversa.Thesolutionsetofanequationbecomesageometriccurve,makingvisualizationatoolfordoingandunderstandingalgebra.Geometricshapescanbedescribedbyequations,makingalgebraicmanipulationintoatoolforgeometricunderstanding,modeling,andproof.Geometrictransformationsofthegraphsofequationscorrespondtoalgebraicchangesintheirequations.

Dynamicgeometryenvironmentsprovidestudentswithexperimentalandmodelingtoolsthatallowthemtoinvestigategeometricphenomenainmuchthesamewayascomputeralgebrasystemsallowthemtoexperimentwithalgebraicphenomena.

Connections to Equations. Thecorrespondencebetweennumericalcoordinatesandgeometricpointsallowsmethodsfromalgebratobeappliedtogeometryandviceversa.Thesolutionsetofanequationbecomesageometriccurve,makingvisualizationatoolfordoingandunderstandingalgebra.Geometricshapescanbedescribedbyequations,makingalgebraicmanipulationintoatoolforgeometricunderstanding,modeling,andproof.


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Congruence

• experiment with transformations in the plane

• Understand congruence in terms of rigid motions

• Prove geometric theorems

• make geometric constructions

Similarity, Right Triangles, and Trigonometry

• Understand similarity in terms of similarity transformations

• Prove theorems involving similarity

• define trigonometric ratios and solve problems involving right triangles

• apply trigonometry to general triangles

Circles

• Understand and apply theorems about circles

• find arc lengths and areas of sectors of circles

Expressing Geometric Properties with Equations

• translate between the geometric description and the equation for a conic section

• Use coordinates to prove simple geometric theorems algebraically

Geometric Measurement and Dimension

• explain volume formulas and use them to solve problems

• Visualize relationships between two-dimensional and three-dimensional objects

Modeling with Geometry

• apply geometric concepts in modeling situations


1. Applygeometricconceptsinmodelingsituations

2. MathematicalPractices









Geometry overview


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Congruence G-Co

Experiment with transformations in the plane1. Knowprecisedefinitionsofangle,circle,perpendicularline,parallel

line,andlinesegment,basedontheundefinednotionsofpoint,line,distancealongaline,anddistancearoundacirculararc.

2. Representtransformationsintheplaneusing,e.g.,transparenciesandgeometrysoftware;describetransformationsasfunctionsthattakepointsintheplaneasinputsandgiveotherpointsasoutputs.Comparetransformationsthatpreservedistanceandangletothosethatdonot(e.g.,translationversushorizontalstretch).

3. Givenarectangle,parallelogram,trapezoid,orregularpolygon,describetherotationsandreflectionsthatcarryitontoitself.

4. Developdefinitionsofrotations,reflections,andtranslationsintermsofangles,circles,perpendicularlines,parallellines,andlinesegments.

5. Givenageometricfigureandarotation,reflection,ortranslation,drawthetransformedfigureusing,e.g.,graphpaper,tracingpaper,orgeometrysoftware.Specifyasequenceoftransformationsthatwillcarryagivenfigureontoanother.

Understand congruence in terms of rigid motions6. Usegeometricdescriptionsofrigidmotionstotransformfiguresand

topredicttheeffectofagivenrigidmotiononagivenfigure;giventwofigures,usethedefinitionofcongruenceintermsofrigidmotionstodecideiftheyarecongruent.

7. Usethedefinitionofcongruenceintermsofrigidmotionstoshowthattwotrianglesarecongruentifandonlyifcorrespondingpairsofsidesandcorrespondingpairsofanglesarecongruent.

8. Explainhowthecriteriafortrianglecongruence(ASA,SAS,andSSS)followfromthedefinitionofcongruenceintermsofrigidmotions.

Prove geometric theorems9. Provetheoremsaboutlinesandangles. Theorems include: vertical

angles are congruent; when a transversal crosses parallel lines, alternate interior angles are congruent and corresponding angles are congruent; points on a perpendicular bisector of a line segment are exactly those equidistant from the segment’s endpoints.

10. Provetheoremsabouttriangles.Theorems include: measures of interior angles of a triangle sum to 180°; base angles of isosceles triangles are congruent; the segment joining midpoints of two sides of a triangle is parallel to the third side and half the length; the medians of a triangle meet at a point.

11. Provetheoremsaboutparallelograms.Theorems include: opposite sides are congruent, opposite angles are congruent, the diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other, and conversely, rectangles are parallelograms with congruent diagonals.

Make geometric constructions12. Makeformalgeometricconstructionswithavarietyoftoolsand

methods(compassandstraightedge,string,reflectivedevices,paperfolding,dynamicgeometricsoftware,etc.).Copying a segment; copying an angle; bisecting a segment; bisecting an angle; constructing perpendicular lines, including the perpendicular bisector of a line segment; and constructing a line parallel to a given line through a point not on the line.

13. Constructanequilateraltriangle,asquare,andaregularhexagoninscribedinacircle.


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Similarity, right triangles, and trigonometry G-Srt

Understand similarity in terms of similarity transformations1. Verifyexperimentallythepropertiesofdilationsgivenbyacenterand

ascalefactor:

a. Adilationtakesalinenotpassingthroughthecenterofthedilationtoaparallelline,andleavesalinepassingthroughthecenterunchanged.

b. Thedilationofalinesegmentislongerorshorterintheratiogivenbythescalefactor.

2. Giventwofigures,usethedefinitionofsimilarityintermsofsimilaritytransformations todecideiftheyaresimilar;explainusingsimilaritytransformationsthemeaningofsimilarityfortrianglesastheequalityofallcorrespondingpairsofanglesandtheproportionalityofallcorrespondingpairsofsides.

3. UsethepropertiesofsimilaritytransformationstoestablishtheAAcriterionfortwotrianglestobesimilar.

Prove theorems involving similarity4. Provetheoremsabouttriangles.Theorems include: a line parallel to one

side of a triangle divides the other two proportionally, and conversely; the Pythagorean Theorem proved using triangle similarity.

5. Usecongruenceandsimilaritycriteriafortrianglestosolveproblemsandtoproverelationshipsingeometricfigures.

Define trigonometric ratios and solve problems involving right triangles

6. Understandthatbysimilarity,sideratiosinrighttrianglesarepropertiesoftheanglesinthetriangle,leadingtodefinitionsoftrigonometricratiosforacuteangles.

7. Explainandusetherelationshipbetweenthesineandcosineofcomplementaryangles.

8. UsetrigonometricratiosandthePythagoreanTheoremtosolverighttrianglesinappliedproblems.

Apply trigonometry to general triangles9. (+)DerivetheformulaA=1/2absin(C)fortheareaofatriangleby

drawinganauxiliarylinefromavertexperpendiculartotheoppositeside.

10. (+)ProvetheLawsofSinesandCosinesandusethemtosolveproblems.

11. (+)UnderstandandapplytheLawofSinesandtheLawofCosinestofindunknownmeasurementsinrightandnon-righttriangles(e.g.,surveyingproblems,resultantforces).

Circles G-C

Understand and apply theorems about circles1. Provethatallcirclesaresimilar.

2. Identifyanddescriberelationshipsamonginscribedangles,radii,andchords.Include the relationship between central, inscribed, and circumscribed angles; inscribed angles on a diameter are right angles; the radius of a circle is perpendicular to the tangent where the radius intersects the circle.

3. Constructtheinscribedandcircumscribedcirclesofatriangle,andprovepropertiesofanglesforaquadrilateralinscribedinacircle.

4. (+)Constructatangentlinefromapointoutsideagivencircletothecircle.


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Find arc lengths and areas of sectors of circles 5. Deriveusingsimilaritythefactthatthelengthofthearcintercepted

byanangleisproportionaltotheradius,anddefinetheradianmeasureoftheangleastheconstantofproportionality;derivetheformulafortheareaofasector.

expressing Geometric Properties with equations G-GPe

Translate between the geometric description and the equation for a conic section

1. DerivetheequationofacircleofgivencenterandradiususingthePythagoreanTheorem;completethesquaretofindthecenterandradiusofacirclegivenbyanequation.

2. Derivetheequationofaparabolagivenafocusanddirectrix.

3. (+)Derivetheequationsofellipsesandhyperbolasgivenfocianddirectrices.

Use coordinates to prove simple geometric theorems algebraically4. Usecoordinatestoprovesimplegeometrictheoremsalgebraically.For

example, prove or disprove that a figure defined by four given points in the coordinate plane is a rectangle; prove or disprove that the point (1, √3) lies on the circle centered at the origin and containing the point (0, 2).

5. Provetheslopecriteriaforparallelandperpendicularlinesandusethemtosolvegeometricproblems(e.g.,findtheequationofalineparallelorperpendiculartoagivenlinethatpassesthroughagivenpoint).

6. Findthepointonadirectedlinesegmentbetweentwogivenpointsthatpartitionsthesegmentinagivenratio.

7. Usecoordinatestocomputeperimetersofpolygonsandareasoftrianglesandrectangles,e.g.,usingthedistanceformula.★

Geometric measurement and dimension G-Gmd

Explain volume formulas and use them to solve problems1. Giveaninformalargumentfortheformulasforthecircumferenceof

acircle,areaofacircle,volumeofacylinder,pyramid,andcone.Use dissection arguments, Cavalieri’s principle, and informal limit arguments.

2. (+)GiveaninformalargumentusingCavalieri’sprinciplefortheformulasforthevolumeofasphereandothersolidfigures.

3. Usevolumeformulasforcylinders,pyramids,cones,andspherestosolveproblems.★

Visualize relationships between two-dimensional and three-dimensional objects

4. Identifytheshapesoftwo-dimensionalcross-sectionsofthree-dimensionalobjects,andidentifythree-dimensionalobjectsgeneratedbyrotationsoftwo-dimensionalobjects.

modeling with Geometry G-mG

Apply geometric concepts in modeling situations1. Usegeometricshapes,theirmeasures,andtheirpropertiestodescribe

objects(e.g.,modelingatreetrunkorahumantorsoasacylinder).★

2. Applyconceptsofdensitybasedonareaandvolumeinmodelingsituations(e.g.,personspersquaremile,BTUspercubicfoot).★

3. Applygeometricmethodstosolvedesignproblems(e.g.,designinganobjectorstructuretosatisfyphysicalconstraintsorminimizecost;workingwithtypographicgridsystemsbasedonratios).★


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mathematics | High School—Statistics and Probability★

Decisionsorpredictionsareoftenbasedondata—numbersincontext.Thesedecisionsorpredictionswouldbeeasyifthedataalwayssentaclearmessage,butthemessageisoftenobscuredbyvariability.Statisticsprovidestoolsfordescribingvariabilityindataandformakinginformeddecisionsthattakeitintoaccount.

Dataaregathered,displayed,summarized,examined,andinterpretedtodiscoverpatternsanddeviationsfrompatterns.Quantitativedatacanbedescribedintermsofkeycharacteristics:measuresofshape,center,andspread.Theshapeofadatadistributionmightbedescribedassymmetric,skewed,flat,orbellshaped,anditmightbesummarizedbyastatisticmeasuringcenter(suchasmeanormedian)andastatisticmeasuringspread(suchasstandarddeviationorinterquartilerange).Differentdistributionscanbecomparednumericallyusingthesestatisticsorcomparedvisuallyusingplots.Knowledgeofcenterandspreadarenotenoughtodescribeadistribution.Whichstatisticstocompare,whichplotstouse,andwhattheresultsofacomparisonmightmean,dependonthequestiontobeinvestigatedandthereal-lifeactionstobetaken.

Randomizationhastwoimportantusesindrawingstatisticalconclusions.First,collectingdatafromarandomsampleofapopulationmakesitpossibletodrawvalidconclusionsaboutthewholepopulation,takingvariabilityintoaccount.Second,randomlyassigningindividualstodifferenttreatmentsallowsafaircomparisonoftheeffectivenessofthosetreatments.Astatisticallysignificantoutcomeisonethatisunlikelytobeduetochancealone,andthiscanbeevaluatedonlyundertheconditionofrandomness.Theconditionsunderwhichdataarecollectedareimportantindrawingconclusionsfromthedata;incriticallyreviewingusesofstatisticsinpublicmediaandotherreports,itisimportanttoconsiderthestudydesign,howthedataweregathered,andtheanalysesemployedaswellasthedatasummariesandtheconclusionsdrawn.

Randomprocessescanbedescribedmathematicallybyusingaprobabilitymodel:alistordescriptionofthepossibleoutcomes(thesamplespace),eachofwhichisassignedaprobability.Insituationssuchasflippingacoin,rollinganumbercube,ordrawingacard,itmightbereasonabletoassumevariousoutcomesareequallylikely.Inaprobabilitymodel,samplepointsrepresentoutcomesandcombinetomakeupevents;probabilitiesofeventscanbecomputedbyapplyingtheAdditionandMultiplicationRules.Interpretingtheseprobabilitiesreliesonanunderstandingofindependenceandconditionalprobability,whichcanbeapproachedthroughtheanalysisoftwo-waytables.

Technologyplaysanimportantroleinstatisticsandprobabilitybymakingitpossibletogenerateplots,regressionfunctions,andcorrelationcoefficients,andtosimulatemanypossibleoutcomesinashortamountoftime.

Connections to Functions and Modeling.Functionsmaybeusedtodescribedata;ifthedatasuggestalinearrelationship,therelationshipcanbemodeledwitharegressionline,anditsstrengthanddirectioncanbeexpressedthroughacorrelationcoefficient.


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Interpreting Categorical and Quantitative Data

• Summarize, represent, and interpret data on a single count or measurement variable

• Summarize, represent, and interpret data on two categorical and quantitative variables

• Interpret linear models

Making Inferences and Justifying Conclusions

• Understand and evaluate random processes underlying statistical experiments

• make inferences and justify conclusions from sample surveys, experiments and observational studies

Conditional Probability and the Rules of Prob-ability

• Understand independence and conditional probability and use them to interpret data

• Use the rules of probability to compute probabilities of compound events in a uniform probability model

Using Probability to Make Decisions

• Calculate expected values and use them to solve problems

• Use probability to evaluate outcomes of decisions










Statistics and Probability overview


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Interpreting Categorical and Quantitative data S-Id

Summarize, represent, and interpret data on a single count or measurement variable

1. Representdatawithplotsontherealnumberline(dotplots,histograms,andboxplots).

2. Usestatisticsappropriatetotheshapeofthedatadistributiontocomparecenter(median,mean)andspread(interquartilerange,standarddeviation)oftwoormoredifferentdatasets.

3. Interpretdifferencesinshape,center,andspreadinthecontextofthedatasets,accountingforpossibleeffectsofextremedatapoints(outliers).

4. Usethemeanandstandarddeviationofadatasettofitittoanormaldistributionandtoestimatepopulationpercentages.Recognizethattherearedatasetsforwhichsuchaprocedureisnotappropriate.Usecalculators,spreadsheets,andtablestoestimateareasunderthenormalcurve.

Summarize, represent, and interpret data on two categorical and quantitative variables

5. Summarizecategoricaldatafortwocategoriesintwo-wayfrequencytables.Interpretrelativefrequenciesinthecontextofthedata(includingjoint,marginal,andconditionalrelativefrequencies).Recognizepossibleassociationsandtrendsinthedata.

6. Representdataontwoquantitativevariablesonascatterplot,anddescribehowthevariablesarerelated.

a. Fitafunctiontothedata;usefunctionsfittedtodatatosolveproblemsinthecontextofthedata.Use given functions or choose a function suggested by the context. Emphasize linear and exponential models.

b. Informallyassessthefitofafunctionbyplottingandanalyzingresiduals.

c. Fitalinearfunctionforascatterplotthatsuggestsalinearassociation.

Interpret linear models7. Interprettheslope(rateofchange)andtheintercept(constantterm)

ofalinearmodelinthecontextofthedata.

8. Compute(usingtechnology)andinterpretthecorrelationcoefficientofalinearfit.

9. Distinguishbetweencorrelationandcausation.

making Inferences and Justifying Conclusions S-IC

Understand and evaluate random processes underlying statistical experiments

1. Understandstatisticsasaprocessformakinginferencesaboutpopulationparametersbasedonarandomsamplefromthatpopulation.

2. Decideifaspecifiedmodelisconsistentwithresultsfromagivendata-generatingprocess,e.g.,usingsimulation.For example, a model says a spinning coin falls heads up with probability 0.5. Would a result of 5 tails in a row cause you to question the model?

Make inferences and justify conclusions from sample surveys, experiments, and observational studies

3. Recognizethepurposesofanddifferencesamongsamplesurveys,experiments,andobservationalstudies;explainhowrandomizationrelatestoeach.


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4. Usedatafromasamplesurveytoestimateapopulationmeanorproportion;developamarginoferrorthroughtheuseofsimulationmodelsforrandomsampling.

5. Usedatafromarandomizedexperimenttocomparetwotreatments;usesimulationstodecideifdifferencesbetweenparametersaresignificant.

6. Evaluatereportsbasedondata.

Conditional Probability and the rules of Probability S-CP

Understand independence and conditional probability and use them to interpret data

1. Describeeventsassubsetsofasamplespace(thesetofoutcomes)usingcharacteristics(orcategories)oftheoutcomes,orasunions,intersections,orcomplementsofotherevents(“or,”“and,”“not”).

2. UnderstandthattwoeventsAandBareindependentiftheprobabilityofAandBoccurringtogetheristheproductoftheirprobabilities,andusethischaracterizationtodetermineiftheyareindependent.

3. UnderstandtheconditionalprobabilityofAgivenBas P(AandB)/P(B),andinterpretindependenceofAandBassayingthattheconditionalprobabilityof Agiven BisthesameastheprobabilityofA,andtheconditionalprobabilityofBgivenAisthesameastheprobabilityofB.

4. Constructandinterprettwo-wayfrequencytablesofdatawhentwocategoriesareassociatedwitheachobjectbeingclassified.Usethetwo-waytableasasamplespacetodecideifeventsareindependentandtoapproximateconditionalprobabilities.For example, collect data from a random sample of students in your school on their favorite subject among math, science, and English. Estimate the probability that a randomly selected student from your school will favor science given that the student is in tenth grade. Do the same for other subjects and compare the results.

5. Recognizeandexplaintheconceptsofconditionalprobabilityandindependenceineverydaylanguageandeverydaysituations.For example, compare the chance of having lung cancer if you are a smoker with the chance of being a smoker if you have lung cancer.

Use the rules of probability to compute probabilities of compound events in a uniform probability model

6. FindtheconditionalprobabilityofAgivenBasthefractionofB’soutcomesthatalsobelongtoA,andinterprettheanswerintermsofthemodel.

7. ApplytheAdditionRule,P(AorB)=P(A)+P(B)–P(AandB),andinterprettheanswerintermsofthemodel.

8. (+)ApplythegeneralMultiplicationRuleinauniformprobabilitymodel,P(AandB)=P(A)P(B|A)=P(B)P(A|B),andinterprettheanswerintermsofthemodel.

9. (+)Usepermutationsandcombinationstocomputeprobabilitiesofcompoundeventsandsolveproblems.

Using Probability to make decisions S-md

Calculate expected values and use them to solve problems1. (+)Definearandomvariableforaquantityofinterestbyassigning

anumericalvaluetoeacheventinasamplespace;graphthecorrespondingprobabilitydistributionusingthesamegraphicaldisplaysasfordatadistributions.

2. (+)Calculatetheexpectedvalueofarandomvariable;interpretitasthemeanoftheprobabilitydistribution.


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3. (+)Developaprobabilitydistributionforarandomvariabledefinedforasamplespaceinwhichtheoreticalprobabilitiescanbecalculated;findtheexpectedvalue.For example, find the theoretical probability distribution for the number of correct answers obtained by guessing on all five questions of a multiple-choice test where each question has four choices, and find the expected grade under various grading schemes.

4. (+)Developaprobabilitydistributionforarandomvariabledefinedforasamplespaceinwhichprobabilitiesareassignedempirically;findtheexpectedvalue.For example, find a current data distribution on the number of TV sets per household in the United States, and calculate the expected number of sets per household. How many TV sets would you expect to find in 100 randomly selected households?

Use probability to evaluate outcomes of decisions5. (+)Weighthepossibleoutcomesofadecisionbyassigning

probabilitiestopayoffvaluesandfindingexpectedvalues.

a. Findtheexpectedpayoffforagameofchance.For example, find the expected winnings from a state lottery ticket or a game at a fast-food restaurant.

b. Evaluateandcomparestrategiesonthebasisofexpectedvalues.For example, compare a high-deductible versus a low-deductible automobile insurance policy using various, but reasonable, chances of having a minor or a major accident.

6. (+)Useprobabilitiestomakefairdecisions(e.g.,drawingbylots,usingarandomnumbergenerator).

7. (+)Analyzedecisionsandstrategiesusingprobabilityconcepts(e.g.,producttesting,medicaltesting,pullingahockeygoalieattheendofagame).

Common Core State StandardS for matHematICS8

4

note on courses and transitions

ThehighschoolportionoftheStandardsforMathematicalContentspecifiesthemathematicsallstudentsshouldstudyforcollegeandcareerreadiness.Thesestandardsdonotmandatethesequenceofhighschoolcourses.However,theorganizationofhighschoolcoursesisacriticalcomponenttoimplementationofthestandards.Tothatend,samplehighschoolpathwaysformathematics–inbothatraditionalcoursesequence(AlgebraI,Geometry,andAlgebraII)aswellasanintegratedcoursesequence(Mathematics1,Mathematics2,Mathematics3)–willbemadeavailableshortlyafterthereleaseofthefinalCommonCoreStateStandards.Itisexpectedthatadditionalmodelpathwaysbasedonthesestandardswillbecomeavailableaswell.

Thestandardsthemselvesdonotdictatecurriculum,pedagogy,ordeliveryofcontent.Inparticular,statesmayhandlethetransitiontohighschoolindifferentways.Forexample,manystudentsintheU.S.todaytakeAlgebraIinthe8thgrade,andinsomestatesthisisarequirement.TheK-7standardscontaintheprerequisitestopreparestudentsforAlgebraIby8thgrade,andthestandardsaredesignedtopermitstatestocontinueexistingpoliciesconcerningAlgebraIin8thgrade.

Asecondmajortransitionisthetransitionfromhighschooltopost-secondaryeducationforcollegeandcareers.Theevidenceconcerningcollegeandcareerreadinessshowsclearlythattheknowledge,skills,andpracticesimportantforreadinessincludeagreatdealofmathematicspriortotheboundarydefinedby(+)symbolsinthesestandards.Indeed,someofthehighestprioritycontentforcollegeandcareerreadinesscomesfromGrades6-8.Thisbodyofmaterialincludespowerfullyusefulproficienciessuchasapplyingratioreasoninginreal-worldandmathematicalproblems,computingfluentlywithpositiveandnegativefractionsanddecimals,andsolvingreal-worldandmathematicalproblemsinvolvinganglemeasure,area,surfacearea,andvolume.Becauseimportantstandardsforcollegeandcareerreadinessaredistributedacrossgradesandcourses,systemsforevaluatingcollegeandcareerreadinessshouldreachasfarbackinthestandardsasGrades6-8.Itisimportanttonoteaswellthatcutscoresorotherinformationgeneratedbyassessmentsystemsforcollegeandcareerreadinessshouldbedevelopedincollaborationwithrepresentativesfromhighereducationandworkforcedevelopmentprograms,andshouldbevalidatedbysubsequentperformanceofstudentsincollegeandtheworkforce.


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Addition and subtraction within 5, 10, 20, 100, or 1000.Additionorsubtractionoftwowholenumberswithwholenumberanswers,andwithsumorminuendintherange0-5,0-10,0-20,or0-100,respectively.Example:8+2=10isanadditionwithin10,14–5=9isasubtractionwithin20,and55–18=37isasubtractionwithin100.

Additive inverses.Twonumberswhosesumis0areadditiveinversesofoneanother.Example:3/4and–3/4areadditiveinversesofoneanotherbecause3/4+(–3/4)=(–3/4)+3/4=0.

Associative property of addition.SeeTable3inthisGlossary.

Associative property of multiplication. SeeTable3inthisGlossary.

Bivariate data. Pairsoflinkednumericalobservations.Example:alistofheightsandweightsforeachplayeronafootballteam.

Box plot.Amethodofvisuallydisplayingadistributionofdatavaluesbyusingthemedian,quartiles,andextremesofthedataset.Aboxshowsthemiddle50%ofthedata.1

Commutative property.SeeTable3inthisGlossary.

Complex fraction.AfractionA/BwhereAand/orBarefractions(Bnonzero).

Computation algorithm.Asetofpredefinedstepsapplicabletoaclassofproblemsthatgivesthecorrectresultineverycasewhenthestepsarecarriedoutcorrectly.See also:computationstrategy.

Computation strategy.Purposefulmanipulationsthatmaybechosenforspecificproblems,maynothaveafixedorder,andmaybeaimedatconvertingoneproblemintoanother.See also:computationalgorithm.

Congruent.Twoplaneorsolidfiguresarecongruentifonecanbeobtainedfromtheotherbyrigidmotion(asequenceofrotations,reflections,andtranslations).

Counting on.Astrategyforfindingthenumberofobjectsinagroupwithouthavingtocounteverymemberofthegroup.Forexample,ifastackofbooksisknowntohave8booksand3morebooksareaddedtothetop,itisnotnecessarytocountthestackalloveragain.Onecanfindthetotalbycounting on—pointingtothetopbookandsaying“eight,”followingthiswith“nine,ten,eleven.Thereareelevenbooksnow.”

Dot plot. See: lineplot.

Dilation.Atransformationthatmoveseachpointalongtheraythroughthepointemanatingfromafixedcenter,andmultipliesdistancesfromthecenterbyacommonscalefactor.

Expanded form.Amulti-digitnumberisexpressedinexpandedformwhenitiswrittenasasumofsingle-digitmultiplesofpowersoften.Forexample,643=600+40+3.

Expected value. Forarandomvariable,theweightedaverageofitspossiblevalues,withweightsgivenbytheirrespectiveprobabilities.

First quartile. ForadatasetwithmedianM,thefirstquartileisthemedianofthedatavalueslessthanM.Example:Forthedataset{1,3,6,7,10,12,14,15,22,120},thefirstquartileis6.2See also:median,thirdquartile,interquartilerange.

Fraction.Anumberexpressibleintheforma/bwhereaisawholenumberandbisapositivewholenumber.(Thewordfractioninthesestandardsalwaysreferstoanon-negativenumber.)See also:rationalnumber.

Identity property of 0.SeeTable3inthisGlossary.

Independently combined probability models.Twoprobabilitymodelsaresaidtobecombinedindependentlyiftheprobabilityofeachorderedpairinthecombinedmodelequalstheproductoftheoriginalprobabilitiesofthetwoindividualoutcomesintheorderedpair.

1AdaptedfromWisconsinDepartmentofPublicInstruction,http://dpi.wi.gov/standards/mathglos.html,accessedMarch2,2010.2Manydifferentmethodsforcomputingquartilesareinuse.ThemethoddefinedhereissometimescalledtheMooreandMcCabemethod.SeeLangford,E.,“QuartilesinElementaryStatistics,”Journal of Statistics EducationVolume14,Number3(2006).

Glossary


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Integer.Anumberexpressibleintheformaor–aforsomewholenumbera.

Interquartile Range. Ameasureofvariationinasetofnumericaldata,theinterquartilerangeisthedistancebetweenthefirstandthirdquartilesofthedataset.Example:Forthedataset{1,3,6,7,10,12,14,15,22,120},theinterquartilerangeis15 – 6=9.See also:firstquartile,thirdquartile.

Line plot.Amethodofvisuallydisplayingadistributionofdatavalueswhereeachdatavalueisshownasadotormarkaboveanumberline.Alsoknownasadotplot.3

Mean.Ameasureofcenterinasetofnumericaldata,computedbyaddingthevaluesinalistandthendividingbythenumberofvaluesinthelist.4Example:Forthedataset{1,3,6,7,10,12,14,15,22,120},themeanis21.

Mean absolute deviation.Ameasureofvariationinasetofnumericaldata,computedbyaddingthedistancesbetweeneachdatavalueandthemean,thendividingbythenumberofdatavalues.Example:Forthedataset{2,3,6,7,10,12,14,15,22,120},themeanabsolutedeviationis20.

Median.Ameasureofcenterinasetofnumericaldata.Themedianofalistofvaluesisthevalueappearingatthecenterofasortedversionofthelist—orthemeanofthetwocentralvalues,ifthelistcontainsanevennumberofvalues.Example:Forthedataset{2,3,6,7,10,12,14,15,22,90},themedianis11.

Midline. Inthegraphofatrigonometricfunction,thehorizontallinehalfwaybetweenitsmaximumandminimumvalues.

Multiplication and division within 100.Multiplicationordivisionoftwowholenumberswithwholenumberanswers,andwithproductordividendintherange0-100.Example:72÷8=9.

Multiplicative inverses.Twonumberswhoseproductis1aremultiplicativeinversesofoneanother.Example:3/4and4/3aremultiplicativeinversesofoneanotherbecause3/4×4/3=4/3×3/4=1.

Number line diagram. Adiagramofthenumberlineusedtorepresentnumbersandsupportreasoningaboutthem.Inanumberlinediagramformeasurementquantities,theintervalfrom0to1onthediagramrepresentstheunitofmeasureforthequantity.

Percent rate of change.Arateofchangeexpressedasapercent.Example:ifapopulationgrowsfrom50to55inayear,itgrowsby5/50=10%peryear.

Probability distribution.Thesetofpossiblevaluesofarandomvariablewithaprobabilityassignedtoeach.

Properties of operations.SeeTable3inthisGlossary.

Properties of equality.SeeTable4inthisGlossary.

Properties of inequality.SeeTable5inthisGlossary.

Properties of operations.SeeTable3inthisGlossary.

Probability.Anumberbetween0and1usedtoquantifylikelihoodforprocessesthathaveuncertainoutcomes(suchastossingacoin,selectingapersonatrandomfromagroupofpeople,tossingaballatatarget,ortestingforamedicalcondition).

Probability model. Aprobabilitymodelisusedtoassignprobabilitiestooutcomesofachanceprocessbyexaminingthenatureoftheprocess.Thesetofalloutcomesiscalledthesamplespace,andtheirprobabilitiessumto1.See also: uniformprobabilitymodel.

Random variable. Anassignmentofanumericalvaluetoeachoutcomeinasamplespace.

Rational expression.Aquotientoftwopolynomialswithanon-zerodenominator.

Rational number.Anumberexpressibleintheforma/bor– a/bforsomefractiona/b.Therationalnumbersincludetheintegers.

Rectilinear figure. Apolygonallanglesofwhicharerightangles.

Rigid motion.Atransformationofpointsinspaceconsistingofasequenceof3AdaptedfromWisconsinDepartmentofPublicInstruction,op. cit.4Tobemoreprecise,thisdefinesthearithmetic mean.


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oneormoretranslations,reflections,and/orrotations.Rigidmotionsarehereassumedtopreservedistancesandanglemeasures.

Repeating decimal.Thedecimalformofarationalnumber.See also:terminatingdecimal.

Sample space.Inaprobabilitymodelforarandomprocess,alistoftheindividualoutcomesthataretobeconsidered.

Scatter plot. Agraphinthecoordinateplanerepresentingasetofbivariatedata.Forexample,theheightsandweightsofagroupofpeoplecouldbedisplayedonascatterplot.5

Similarity transformation.Arigidmotionfollowedbyadilation.

Tape diagram.Adrawingthatlookslikeasegmentoftape,usedtoillustratenumberrelationships.Alsoknownasastripdiagram,barmodel,fractionstrip,orlengthmodel.

Terminating decimal. Adecimaliscalledterminatingifitsrepeatingdigitis0.

Third quartile.ForadatasetwithmedianM,thethirdquartileisthemedianofthedatavaluesgreaterthanM.Example:Forthedataset{2,3,6,7,10,12,14,15,22,120},thethirdquartileis15.See also:median,firstquartile,interquartilerange.

Transitivity principle for indirect measurement. IfthelengthofobjectAisgreaterthanthelengthofobjectB,andthelengthofobjectBisgreaterthanthelengthofobjectC,thenthelengthofobjectAisgreaterthanthelengthofobjectC.Thisprincipleappliestomeasurementofotherquantitiesaswell.

Uniform probability model.Aprobabilitymodelwhichassignsequalprobabilitytoalloutcomes.See also:probabilitymodel.

Vector. Aquantitywithmagnitudeanddirectionintheplaneorinspace,definedbyanorderedpairortripleofrealnumbers.

Visual fraction model. Atapediagram,numberlinediagram,orareamodel.

Whole numbers.Thenumbers0,1,2,3,….

5AdaptedfromWisconsinDepartmentofPublicInstruction,op. cit.


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Table 1.Commonadditionandsubtractionsituations.6

result Unknown Change Unknown Start Unknown

add to

Twobunniessatonthegrass.Threemorebunnieshoppedthere.Howmanybunniesareonthegrassnow?

2+3=?

Twobunniesweresittingonthegrass.Somemorebunnieshoppedthere.Thentherewerefivebunnies.Howmanybunnieshoppedovertothefirsttwo?

2+?=5

Somebunniesweresittingonthegrass.Threemorebunnieshoppedthere.Thentherewerefivebunnies.Howmanybunnieswereonthegrassbefore?

?+3=5

take from

Fiveappleswereonthetable.Iatetwoapples.Howmanyapplesareonthetablenow?

5–2=?

Fiveappleswereonthetable.Iatesomeapples.Thentherewerethreeapples.HowmanyapplesdidIeat?

5–?=3

Someappleswereonthetable.Iatetwoapples.Thentherewerethreeapples.Howmanyappleswereonthetablebefore?

?–2=3

total Unknown addend Unknown Both addends Unknown1

Put together/ take apart2

Threeredapplesandtwogreenapplesareonthetable.Howmanyapplesareonthetable?

3+2=?

Fiveapplesareonthetable.Threeareredandtherestaregreen.Howmanyapplesaregreen?

3+?=5,5–3=?

Grandmahasfiveflowers.Howmanycansheputinherredvaseandhowmanyinherbluevase?

5=0+5,5=5+0

5=1+4,5=4+1

5=2+3,5=3+2

difference Unknown Bigger Unknown Smaller Unknown

Compare3

(“Howmanymore?”version):

Lucyhastwoapples.Juliehasfiveapples.HowmanymoreapplesdoesJuliehavethanLucy?

(“Howmanyfewer?”version):

Lucyhastwoapples.Juliehasfiveapples.HowmanyfewerapplesdoesLucyhavethanJulie?

2+?=5,5–2=?

(Versionwith“more”):

JuliehasthreemoreapplesthanLucy.Lucyhastwoapples.HowmanyapplesdoesJuliehave?

(Versionwith“fewer”):

Lucyhas3fewerapplesthanJulie.Lucyhastwoapples.HowmanyapplesdoesJuliehave?

2+3=?,3+2=?

(Versionwith“more”):

JuliehasthreemoreapplesthanLucy.Juliehasfiveapples.HowmanyapplesdoesLucyhave?

(Versionwith“fewer”):

Lucyhas3fewerapplesthanJulie.Juliehasfiveapples.HowmanyapplesdoesLucyhave?

5–3=?,?+3=5

6AdaptedfromBox2-4ofNationalResearchCouncil(2009,op.cit.,pp.32,33).

1Thesetakeapartsituationscanbeusedtoshowallthedecompositionsofagivennumber.Theassociatedequations,whichhavethetotalontheleftoftheequalsign,helpchildrenunderstandthatthe=signdoesnotalwaysmeanmakesorresultsinbutalwaysdoesmeanisthesamenumberas.2Eitheraddendcanbeunknown,sotherearethreevariationsoftheseproblemsituations.BothAddendsUnknownisapro-ductiveextensionofthisbasicsituation,especiallyforsmallnumberslessthanorequalto10.3FortheBiggerUnknownorSmallerUnknownsituations,oneversiondirectsthecorrectoperation(theversionusingmoreforthebiggerunknownandusinglessforthesmallerunknown).Theotherversionsaremoredifficult.


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Table 2. Commonmultiplicationanddivisionsituations.7

Unknown ProductGroup Size Unknown

(“Howmanyineachgroup?”Division)

number of Groups Unknown(“Howmanygroups?”Division)

3 × 6 = ? 3 × ? = 18, and 18 ÷ 3 = ? ? × 6 = 18, and 18 ÷ 6 = ?

equal Groups

Thereare3bagswith6plumsineachbag.Howmanyplumsarethereinall?

Measurement example.Youneed3lengthsofstring,each6incheslong.Howmuchstringwillyouneedaltogether?

If18plumsaresharedequallyinto3bags,thenhowmanyplumswillbeineachbag?

Measurement example.Youhave18inchesofstring,whichyouwillcutinto3equalpieces.Howlongwilleachpieceofstringbe?

If18plumsaretobepacked6toabag,thenhowmanybagsareneeded?

Measurement example.Youhave18inchesofstring,whichyouwillcutintopiecesthatare6incheslong.Howmanypiecesofstringwillyouhave?

arrays,4 area5

Thereare3rowsofappleswith6applesineachrow.Howmanyapplesarethere?

Area example.Whatistheareaofa3cmby6cmrectangle?

If18applesarearrangedinto3equalrows,howmanyappleswillbeineachrow?

Area example.Arectanglehasarea18squarecentimeters.Ifonesideis3cmlong,howlongisasidenexttoit?

If18applesarearrangedintoequalrowsof6apples,howmanyrowswilltherebe?

Area example.Arectanglehasarea18squarecentimeters.Ifonesideis6cmlong,howlongisasidenexttoit?

Compare

Abluehatcosts$6.Aredhatcosts3timesasmuchasthebluehat.Howmuchdoestheredhatcost?

Measurement example.Arubberbandis6cmlong.Howlongwilltherubberbandbewhenitisstretchedtobe3timesaslong?

Aredhatcosts$18andthatis3timesasmuchasabluehatcosts.Howmuchdoesabluehatcost?

Measurement example.Arubberbandisstretchedtobe18cmlongandthatis3timesaslongasitwasatfirst.Howlongwastherubberbandatfirst?

Aredhatcosts$18andabluehatcosts$6.Howmanytimesasmuchdoestheredhatcostasthebluehat?

Measurement example.Arubberbandwas6cmlongatfirst.Nowitisstretchedtobe18cmlong.Howmanytimesaslongistherubberbandnowasitwasatfirst?

General a×b=? a×? =p,andp÷ a=? ?×b=p, and p÷ b =?

7Thefirstexamplesineachcellareexamplesofdiscretethings.Theseareeasierforstudentsandshouldbegivenbeforethemeasurementexamples.

4Thelanguageinthearrayexamplesshowstheeasiestformofarrayproblems. Aharderformistousethetermsrowsandcolumns: Theapplesinthegrocerywindowarein3rowsand6columns. Howmanyapplesareinthere? Bothformsarevaluable.5Areainvolvesarraysofsquaresthathavebeenpushedtogethersothattherearenogapsoroverlaps,soarrayproblemsincludetheseespeciallyimportantmeasurementsituations.


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Table 3.Thepropertiesofoperations.Herea,bandcstandforarbitrarynumbersinagivennumbersystem.Thepropertiesofoperationsapplytotherationalnumbersystem,therealnumbersystem,andthecomplexnumbersystem.

Associative property of addition

Commutative property of addition

Additive identity property of 0

Existence of additive inverses

Associative property of multiplication

Commutative property of multiplication

Multiplicative identity property of 1

Existence of multiplicative inverses

Distributive property of multiplication over addition

(a + b)+ c = a + (b + c)

a + b= b + a

a + 0 = 0+ a= a

Foreveryathereexists–asothata+(–a)= (–a)+a=0.

(a × b)× c = a × (b × c)

a × b= b × a

a × 1= 1×a= a

Foreverya≠0thereexists1/asothata×1/a=1/a× a=1.

a ×(b + c) = a × b + a × c

Table 4.Thepropertiesofequality.Herea,bandcstandforarbitrarynumbersintherational,real,orcomplexnumbersystems.

Reflexive property of equality

Symmetric property of equality

Transitive property of equality

Addition property of equality

Subtraction property of equality

Multiplication property of equality

Division property of equality

Substitution property of equality

a=a

If a = b,then b = a.

If a = b and b = c,then a = c.

If a = b,then a + c = b + c.

If a = b,then a – c = b – c.

If a = b,then a × c = b × c.

If a = b and c ≠ 0,then a ÷ c = b ÷ c.

Ifa=b,thenbmaybesubstitutedfora

inanyexpressioncontaininga.

Table 5.Thepropertiesofinequality.Herea,bandcstandforarbitrarynumbersintherationalorrealnumbersystems.

Exactlyoneofthefollowingistrue:a<b,a=b,a>b.

Ifa>bandb>cthena>c.

Ifa>b,thenb<a.

Ifa>b,then–a<–b.

If a>b,thena±c>b±c.

Ifa>bandc>0,thena ×c>b ×c.

Ifa>bandc<0,thena ×c<b ×c.

Ifa>bandc>0,thena ÷c>b ÷c.

Ifa>bandc<0,thena ÷c<b ÷c.

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