Research ArticleCommodity Systems Assessment Methodology of PostharvestLosses in Vegetable Amaranths The Case of Tamale Ghana

Mildred Osei-Kwarteng1 Joseph Patrick Gweyi-Onyango2 and Gustav Komla Mahunu1

1Department of Horticulture Faculty of Agriculture University for Development Studies PO Box TL 1882 Tamale Ghana2Department of Agricultural Science and Technology Kenyatta University PO Box 4384400100 Nairobi Kenya

Correspondence should be addressed to Mildred Osei-Kwarteng misokwartyahoocom

Received 23 January 2017 Accepted 5 March 2017 Published 20 March 2017

Academic Editor Allen Barker

Copyright copy 2017 Mildred Osei-Kwarteng et alThis is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons AttributionLicense which permits unrestricted use distribution and reproduction in any medium provided the original work is properlycited

A semistructured questionnaire based on the commodity system assessment methodology (CSAM) was used to determinepostharvest losses in vegetable amaranths (VA) Fifty producers and retailers were randomly selected from five and four majorVA producing areas and markets respectively and interviewed Data obtained were subjected to descriptive statistical analysesThe survey revealed that absence of laws regulation incentives and inadequate technical information affected the production ofVA The utmost preproduction challenge was poor quality seeds with poor seed yield (35) low viability (19) and nontrueness(46) It was noted that some cultural practices including planting pattern and density irrigation and fertiliser use had effects onpostharvest losses Some postharvest practices used were cleaning with water trimming sorting and grading Usually the producewas transported to marketing centers by cars and motor cycle trailers Generally poor temperature management after harvest wasa big challenge for the postharvest handling of VA The potential of vegetable amaranths as a commodity in the study area canbe enhanced by providing the necessary institutional support incentives and use of good management practices along the valuechain An interdisciplinary approach and quantification of losses along the chain are recommended for any future study

1 Introduction

In Ghana it is estimated that about 20ndash50 of vegetablesproduced are lost due to preharvest and postharvest factorsincluding cultural practices (eg fertilisation water supplyand harvestingmethod) and poor postharvest handling [1 2]In developing countries (eg Benin) postharvest losses invegetable amaranths can be as a high as 79ndash895 due todamage and decay [3 4] resulting from poor handling andstorage facilities [5]

Commodity systems assessmentmethodology (CSAM) isa postharvest loss assessment procedure that was originallydeveloped and modified over years [6 7] This methodevolved as a result of the perceived need for a systematicapproach to identify prioritize and resolve postharvestproblems from planning to product distribution to ensurethat all factors affecting a given commodity are consideredalong the value chain The CSAM covers two major aspectsof the value chain preharvest (preproduction and produc-tion) and postharvest (harvesting and marketing) [6 7]

An important feature of this methodology is that with 26components (Figure 1) it permits an analysis of a wholecommodity system thus facilitating the identification andprioritization of problems throughout the systemTheCSAMwas employed to assess postharvest losses of about 16 cropsincluding leafy vegetables in South Asia (India) and sub-Saharan Africa (Benin Ghana and Rwanda) and for othercrops worldwide as a first step towards the reduction of foodlosses and improve the efficiency and productivity of thevalue chain of these commodities [7 8]

Amaranths (Amaranthus spp L) are widely grown in thetropics as one of the most important leafy vegetables in thelowlands of Africa and Asia but have a short postharvestshelf life of 1-2 days [9] Grubben and Denton [10] noted theeconomic value of amaranths as the main African leafy veg-etable ranking high in terms of quantity and area under cul-tivation They are recognized as an easy-to-grow extremelyproductive and nutritious vegetable and probably the highestyielding leafy vegetable in the tropics The protein vitaminA vitamin C calcium iron and zinc content in the leaves

HindawiInternational Journal of AgronomyVolume 2017 Article ID 1747869 7 pageshttpsdoiorg10115520171747869

2 International Journal of Agronomy

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

1516

171

81920

2122

23

24

25

26

Preproduction ProductionPosth

arvest

handlin

gMarketing

Importance

Government

Relevant

Facilitating

Farmer

Environmental

Availability

Farm

ersrsquo

Pests

and

Preharvest

Production

Harvest

Grading andPostharvestPackaging

CoolingStorage

Transport

Delayswaiting

Other typesPr

oces

sing

Mar

ketMark

et

ConsumerExports

MarketingPreharvest

Postharvest

of crop

policies

institutions

services

organizationsconditions

seedsplants

disea

ses

treatment

costs

inspectiontreatments

of handlinginter

med

iaries

informati

ondemand

costs

cultu

ral

prac

tices

Figure 1 Components of the CSAM [6 7]

per 100 g edible portion are 32ndash46 g 17ndash57mg 36ndash64mg270ndash582mg 24ndash89mg and 07ndash15mg respectively [11]Their excellent nutritional values make them important forhuman nutrition both in rural areas for home consumptionand as cheap green vegetable in cities [10] It was also notedby Osei-Kwarteng et al [12] as the indigenous leafy vegetable(ILV) with the highest market share in Tamale metropolitanareaThe above qualities enhance their potential for nutritionsensitive agriculture and therefore the need for systematicanalysis of the postharvest losses of vegetable amaranthsMoreover ILVs that are adapted to the agroecological zonesof Northern Ghana are to be promoted towards food secu-rity eradication of malnutrition and poverty reduction Asimplified survey was conducted to assess the contribution ofthe preproduction production postharvest and marketingactivities on the postharvest losses of vegetable amaranthsThe output from the CSAM will synthesize informationwhich can be used to improve the value chain of vegetableamaranths and food security in the study area

2 Material and Methods

The survey was conducted in Tamale (Figure 2) the northernregional capital of Ghana which lies between latitude 9∘151015840and 9∘051015840N and longitude 0∘451015840 and 1∘01015840W and at an altitudeof 185m above sea level and its suburban areasThe investiga-tionwas conducted betweenMay and June 2012 Two separatesemistructured questionnaires based on the components ofthe commodity systems assessment methodology [CSAM[6]] were used in interviewing 50 producers and 50 retailersof vegetable amaranths Simple random sampling technique[13] was used in selecting the respondents for the sur-vey This study concentrated on preharvest (preproductionand production) and postharvest (postharvest handling and

marketing) components of the CSAM for the assessmentof losses in vegetable amaranth production The selectedrespondents were from five major vegetable producing areas(Datoyili Bulpiela Gumbihini Manguli and Sangani) andfourmajormarkets (Tamale Central Lamashegu Kukuo andAboabo markets Figure 2)

Some of the issues considered in the survey instrumentwere (i) preproduction relative importance of the crop gov-ernmental policies relevant institutions facilitating servicesproducershipper organizations environmental conditionsand availability of plantingmaterials (ii) production farmersrsquogeneral cultural practices pest and diseases preharvest treat-ments and production cost and (iii) postharvest harvestgrading sorting and inspection postharvest treatmentspackaging cooling storage transport delay or waitingagroprocessing market intermediaries market informationconsumer demand and exports However the study did notquantify the losses within the product value chain

Data obtained from the survey were subjected to descrip-tive statistical analyses using the Statistical Package for SocialSciences (version 170) software

3 Results and Discussion

31 Preproduction Vegetable amaranth is themost cultivatedindigenous vegetable in Tamalemetropolitan area as reportedby Osei-Kwarteng et al [12] The reasons why producerscultivated vegetable amaranths included high demand (33)high profit (32) low initial capital (25) and fast growth(20) The importance of the crop is further deepened byits relative contribution to the local diet and livelihoods ofthe people These are corroborated by the report of Ngugi etal [14] which stated that in urban centers in Kenya there ishigh demand for African indigenous vegetables (AIVs) dueto their nutritional and medicinal values

The survey noted the nonexistence of laws regulation orincentives supporting the production of vegetable amaranthsdue to the fact that (1) they are relatively less importantin the crop production system in Ghana and consequentlyignored by development and government agencies [15] (2)there is less research focus [15] and (3) information on thequantities cultivated and their urban demand structure isinadequate [16 17] since they are minor crops that contributelittle to the livelihoods and nutrition of people Shackletonet al [18] reported that policies on ALVs are absent orweak in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) countries because theyare a subset of agricultural crops and are considered undergeneral agricultural policies They can only have specificpolicy considerations when their advantages are evident bynumerous research [18] Hence it is not surprising to findan absence of policy on vegetable amaranths in Ghana inspite of their high market share among the indigenous leafyvegetables in the Tamale metropolitan area [12] Moreoverrelevant government and nongovernment agencies work onmajor mandated crops or principal fruits and vegetables suchas tomatoes pepper onions okra and eggplant A reviewon the food and agriculture policies in Ghana a decade agoconfirmed lack of comprehensive national policy documenton underutilized plant species including amaranths [19]

International Journal of Agronomy 3

Sangani

Manguli

Datoyili

Bulpiela

Gumbihini

KukuoLamashigu

Aboabo marketTamale Central market

Northern

Upper WestUpper East

Fuo

Zuo

Tuya

Gumo

Yong

Taha

Difaa

Nwogu

Gohni

Gurugu

Gumani

Wovogu

Cheshe

Nanton

Nwoduo

Zibogo

BanvimKpanvo

TamaleSangani

Kanvili

Tikyeli

Dunying

Nyohini

Zogbeli

CFC Jct

Builpela

Nyanshie

Datoyili

NyerizeeShishegu

Tiguyoni

Gbanyamn

Gumbihini

Walenyili

Mbanayili

Daluguyili

Kulaa Zung

Kpitntalgi

Dakpemyili

Bogunayili

Rie RangeVitin-Dabogse

Chohho-Manayili

Sugashie Wumbeyili

(km)

N

0 05 1 2 3 4

10∘09984000998400998400N

0∘09984000998400998400

2∘30

9984000998400998400W

0∘53

9984000998400998400W

9∘2799840030998400998400N

9∘229984000998400998400N

RoadTamale metropolitan assembly

Vegetable producing areasMajor vegetable markets

Figure 2 Map of Tamale metropolitan area showing major vegetable producing areas and markets

However the study showed that the support fromnongovern-mental organizations (NGOs) is noteworthy as producers(24) cited the German Technical Service (GIZ) for tech-nical support whiles less of that came from the Ministryof Food and Agriculture (4) In the Upper East Region(Bongo district) the World Vision International providedextension support for indigenous leafy vegetables (ILVs)production while Adventist Development and Relief Agency(ADRA) Catholic Diocese andActionAidGhana supportedinfrastructure development (dams) for the production ofILVs including vegetable amaranths [15] TRAX Ghana alsotrained ILVs farmers in the Bongo district on soil and waterconservation technologies [15] The support given by theNGOs is based on the importance (commercial potential) ofILVs including amaranths to the livelihoods of the people inthe communities

Results from the investigation also indicated that pro-ducers obtained seeds from either the local market (35)or their own farms (65) However it was noted that thequality of the seeds was not reliable due to poor seed yield(35) low viability (19) and being not true to type (46)

Similarly in Upper East Region 10ndash80 of the farmersobtained seeds for ILVs including amaranths from themarket[15] and our findings on amaranth seeds corroborate theirobservation Hence farmers suggested that the availabilityof quality seeds will moderate this challenge The sourceof seeds for amaranth production affirms the existence oftwo parallel seed systems in Ghana (traditionalinformaland formal) [20] Absence of improved and standard seedsfor ILVs including amaranths was also observed in theSouth African Development Community region (TanzaniaZambia and Botswana) [17] and Kenya [21] Generally thenonexistence of improved seeds for the cultivation of AfricanILVs is a major challenge to the broad production of ILVs inAfrica including Ghana as farmers use their own seed fromunselected planting materials mostly without any qualityand standard criteria and technical supervision [20 21]Additionally farmers own and purchased seedswhichmay bepoorly handled at storage and consequently affect the vigourand germination percentage [20] These seed constraintsindicate the need for research and improvement of seedsources or delivery system [19] for vegetable amaranths

4 International Journal of Agronomy

The environmental and other constraints that were rec-ognized by the producers as affecting the quality of theirproduce included insect damage (48) water shortage (6)low soil fertility (18) and low yields (28) Producerscould not identify the type of insect pest that damaged theirproduce but reported holes in the leaves which reduced thequality of leaves ILVs are reported to be tolerant to local pestand disease [22] and in Southeast Asia [23] amaranths are alsonoted to have no serious insect pest disease and nematodes[24] attackHowever there is an expected pest build-up in hotand humid climates when an intensive monoculture is regu-larly practiced [18] Moreover in some West African coun-tries insect pests and disease have been found on amaranths[23] Hence in regular production producers must practicesafe and effective integrated pest management methods [22]before or after production to reduce postharvest loses Anavoidable loss of 20 in vegetable amaranthswas estimated inKenya as caused by insect pests [22] Inadequate water supplyduring production induces flowering and reduces the leaveyield in vegetable amaranth [25] Vegetable amaranths do beston fertile well-drained deep soils although they are adapted toa variety of soils including marginal soils [25]

32 Production The study revealed that all the producerswere conversantwith production practices that affect producequality They listed planting density and pattern weed pestand disease control irrigation and fertiliser use as familiarpractices They also observed insect pests that made holes inthe leaves This knowledge is based on the experience gainedover the years Conversely they could not identify viral andfungal infections Previous reports on the postharvest lossesof 16 commodities including leafy vegetables showed thatfarmers used some production practices that increased thechallenges of postharvest quality and losses of these crops[26] Vegetable amaranths are usually grown commerciallyas a sole crop and intercropped with food crops in homegardens [27] Most farmers plant at a density of 180 plantsm2for single harvest by uprooting the whole plant but a plantdensity of 100 pltsm2 is strategic for good quality produce Ifthe desire is several harvests during the season then vegetableamaranths should be planted at 20 pltsm2 [27] Generallygood cultural practices specific for vegetable amaranthsare recommended for good quality produce at harvest forimmediate consumption or further handling

Ninety-two percent (92) of the producers harvestedthemselves in the morning by cutting with sharp knives orby uprooting Harvesting with sharp knives avoids severeabrasions or bruises that occur with blunt knives whichopens up entry points for microorganisms and hastens therate of produce decay [7] while physical damage causes 3-4 times more moisture loss than undamaged produce [8]Other types of equipment used during harvesting includebaskets basins sacks and fiber and fertiliser bags Majorityof farmers (54) used the number of nodes and branches asan indicator ofmaturity Additional determinants ofmaturitywere plant height (27) and canopy spread (19) Vegetableamaranths can be harvested between 30 and 55 days aftersowing at a height of 60 cmwhen leaves are young and slender[25] Harvesting at the right physiological age prevents the

rapid loss of quality of the produce since at the appropriateharvest maturity leaves are less prone to moisture loss andsubsequent wilting [8] Leafy vegetables harvested at earlyhours (0400 hrs) and late hours (2000 hrs) contained higherwater potential which reduces the rate of water loss More-over produce harvested late in the day has high sugar levelsdue to the photosynthesis in the day [8] At late harvestingleafy vegetables become fibrous and lose their tenderness [7]Poor packaging materials such as baskets basins and sackseasily make the produce prone to damage from bruises andfurther allow entry of microorganism during transport andstorage Additionally leafy vegetables are easily stressed insuch packaging material during storage and transport [7]

33 Postharvest The postharvest practices used by farmerswere cleaning (66) trimming (34) and cooling eitherunder shady trees in the ambient air (25) or with coolwater (75) at ambient temperature The problem withcooling under ambient air conditions is that temperatureincreases within the piled produce with time In this casethe respiration rate of the piled produce increases resultingin water and weight loss and thus reduces the market value[8] Cooling of produce is done immediately after harveston farms Two basins of cool water are used for washing theproduce after harvesting roots are washed in the first basinand the harvested shoots are washed in the second basinSubsequently cool water is sprinkled on the dayrsquos harvest andstacked in containers for transportationWashing all producein the same basin may contaminate the produce with soilor plant pathogens which will facilitate postharvest diseases[8] hence for good sanitation practices produce should bewashed in clean water At the market produce is also cooledagain by sprinkling water on display Unsold produce isalso sprinkled with water to maintain the freshness for thenext day In spite of the above cooling practices stackingor piling of produce in containers (woven baskets andpans) during transport or storage renders the whole practiceineffective Temperature management after harvesting is toavoid a high ambient temperature which reduces the qualityof produce and the market value after harvest [8] The highmean day time temperatures (28ndash43∘C [28]) of the Tamalemetropolitan area demand a good cooling system for theharvested produce

Retailers stored produce in their stalls while producersstored produce either at shady places (46) or in theirkitchen or hut (54) at ambient temperature In these storagesituations the produce experiences fluctuating temperaturewhich affects the stability of the quality and acceptability ofthe produce by the consumers Freshly harvested vegetableamaranths can be maintained at a temperature of 0ndash2∘Cand relative humidity of 95ndash100 for 14 days [29] Vegetableamaranths packaged under modified atmospheric conditions(active bags) and stored at 5∘C at 75 relative humidity couldbe stored for 23 dayswith about 55 retention of ascorbic acidcompared to the control sample stored at room temperature(25∘C) [5]

Middlemen transports produce by using cars (57) andmotorcycle trailers (motor king in Ghana 43) Produc-ers transports produce by either head porting (34) or

International Journal of Agronomy 5

motorcycle trailers (65) During transport fresh produce isstressed by packing them tightly so as to have more room formore produce Nevertheless the atmospheric conditions (eghigh temperature and low relative humidity) during transportalso increases the respiration rates which result in weight lossof the produce as tissues lose turgor and succulence [30]

Delay in transporting produce to marketing centers canbe at least 2 hours (43) and a maximum of 6 hours(36) Fifty-eight percent (58) of middlemen registereddelay in transportation Delays were attributed to vehicularbreakdown (30) heavy rains (16) and sheer delay bydrivers retailers and producers (54) Because harvestedproduce are transported under high ambient temperaturesand also piled such delays are to be avoided

Retailers were very particular about grading and sortingin the market for better pricing This indicates that theconsumers are not only particular about price but alsosome standard for quality produce [7] Thirty-two percentof retailers stated the inadequacy of labour for grading andsorting when they have large volumes of produce while68 did not see that as a problem because they are sortedand graded by themselves Few (6) of handlers (6) arewell trained in sorting and grading but the retailers firstdemonstrate how their hired labour should do the activity

There was no processing method for harvested produceother than the drying and grinding of dried leaves in thestudy area Drying is not mostly done because consumershave preference for fresh produce for their soups and saucesAll actors emphasized the urgent need for simple innovativeagroprocessing methods during the glut period Traditionaldrying in the sun can be improved by using affordablesolar drying methods which avoid possible incomplete oruneven drying that allows microbial growth and preventsloss of nutritional quality (vitamins and minerals) [30 31]Processing freshly harvested vegetable amaranths can reducepostharvest losses of about 20ndash50 within the value chain[31] Processing methods such as solar drying and freezedrying are recommended for the upgrading of vegetableamaranths into supermarkets in Tamale

Twenty percent of retailers indicated that they are able tohandle produce for 2 days while the majority (80) can doso in a day because of the perishable nature of the amaranthleaves Vegetable amaranths displayed in the market havea short postharvest shelf life due to the hot environmentalconditions and no cooling facilities

Packaging materials for transport and storage of produceare basins (30) baskets (28) polyethylene bags (26) andsacks (16) which are not highly conducive for the purposeTherefore the need for an appropriate packagingmaterial willprotect the produce from damage preserve the quality andenable good ventilation to avoid the accumulation of heatandor unwanted gases in the produce [29]

34 Marketing Seventy-six percent of retailers indicated thatproducers set prices at the beginning of the production periodto ensure that price per unit weight is similar throughoutthe production area This implies that producers are wellorganized and take decisions that make them benefit fromtheir produce Producers do not have any formal means of

getting market information other than visiting the marketsthemselves However they are mostly informed on trendsand consumer demand in the market by the retailers andmiddlemen who mostly come to their farms to harvestpurchased plots or harvestable produce Retailers also decideon market prices from the prevailing farm gate price

Retailers (64) indicated that consumers preferred theproduce bundled while 36 desired loosely packed portionsOut of the retailers who indicated consumer preference forbundled produce 52 observed that consumers normallylike smaller bundle sizes compared to 48 who like biggerbundles Fresh dark green leaves were much preferredThe smaller bundle sized produce is mostly for home orhousehold use while the bigger bundle sized produce is forcommercial cooking purposes Bigger bundle sized produceis more prone to postharvest losses as there is less aircirculation within the produce because it is mostly piled inbasins or baskets during sales

Almost all retailers (98) expressed unmet demand andoversupply of produce in some occasions Unmet demandsoccurred during the dry seasonwhen produce is scarce due towater shortage (33) and pest and diseases (35)Thirty-twopercent of retailers had excess supply of the produce in thewetseason resulting in cheaper farm gate prices but maintainedtheir prices and rather increased the size of the bundles forthe same price This suggests the need to process into otherforms to avoid losses in the wet season Consumers ratherlooked out for high quality produce (undamaged and darkgreen) during the wet seasonal glut Producers confirmedthat amaranth leaves are not exported as such there is noexisting regulation on its trade Producers marketers andconsumers of vegetable amaranths wished that there could besimple postharvest treatments Nevertheless they preferrednonchemical and inexpensive treatments

4 Conclusion

The study assessed the contribution of current practices onpostharvest losses of vegetables amaranths using a commod-ity systemassessmentmethodology in theTamalemetropolisGhana Our investigation revealed absence of laws regu-lation and incentives for vegetable amaranth productionThere is also deficiency in quality seed for production sinceseeds are mostly obtained from the producerrsquos field and openmarkets and not subjected to any standard quality criteriaProducers had a fair understanding of the influence of somecultural practices (eg planting pattern and density weedpest and disease control irrigation and fertiliser use) onpostharvest losses Further produce is transported at ambienttemperature to market centers by cars or motorcycle trailersRetailers are particular in grading and sorting of the produceto enhance pricing

There are observed challenges at all stages of the productchain and the potential of vegetable amaranths as a com-modity in the study area can be enhanced by providing thenecessary institutional support and incentives This workprovides first-hand information for development plannersand government and nongovernment institutions that areseeking to improve a popular indigenous leafy vegetable in

6 International Journal of Agronomy

urban communities such as the Tamale metropolitan areaFinally the quantification of losses at each level of the chainis recommended

Conflicts of Interest

Theauthors declare no conflicts of interest for this publicationand that data used are from their own investigation

Acknowledgments

The authors are grateful to Dr Lisa Kitinoja and her Posthar-vest Education Foundation team for the revision of the firstdraft of the manuscript

References

[1] Y S Gonzalez Y Dijkxhoorn I Koomen et al ldquoVegetable busi-ness opportunities in Ghanardquo The GhanaVeg Sector Reports2016 httpghanavegorg

[2] I K Arah H Amaglo E K Kumah and H Ofori ldquoPreharvestand postharvest factors affecting the quality and shelf life ofharvested tomatoes a mini reviewrdquo International Journal ofAgronomy vol 2015 Article ID 478041 6 pages 2015

[3] H Affognon C Mutungi P Sanginga and C BorgemeisterldquoUnpacking postharvest losses in sub-Saharan Africa a meta-analysisrdquoWorld Development vol 66 pp 49ndash68 2015

[4] L Kitinoja ldquoIdentification of appropriate postharvest tech-nologies for improving market access and incomes for smallhorticultural farmers in sub-Saharan Africa and south AsiardquoWFLO Grant Final Report 2010

[5] J A Nyaura D N Sila and W O Owino ldquoPostharveststability of vegetable amaranths (Amaranthus dubius) combinedlow temperature and modified atmospheric packagingrdquo FoodScience and Quality Management vol 30 pp 66ndash72 2014

[6] J La Gra A Commodity Systems Assessment Methodology forProblem and Project Identification Postharvest Institute forPerishables University of Idaho IICA AFHB Moscow IdahoUSA 1990

[7] J La Gra L Kitinoja and K Alpizar Commodity SystemsAssessment Methodology for Value Chain Problem and ProjectIdentification A First Step in Food Loss Reduction Inter-American Institute for Cooperation on Agriculture San IsidroCosta Rica 2016

[8] A L Acedo Jr Postharvest Technology for VegetablesAVDRCmdashADBPostharvest Projects RETA 62086376 AVDRCPublication no 10-733 AVDRCmdashTheWorld Vegetable CenterTainan Taiwan 2010

[9] J Norman Tropical Vegetable Crops Arthur H Stockwell LtdDevon UK 1992

[10] G J H Grubben and O A Denton Eds Plant Resources ofTropical Africa 2 Vegetables PROTA Foundation WageningenThe Netherlands Backhuys Publishers Leiden The Nether-lands CTA Wageningen The Netherlands 2004

[11] E G Achigan-Dako O E D Sogbohossou and P MaunduldquoCurrent knowledge on Amaranthus spp research avenues forimproved nutritional value and yield in leafy amaranths in sub-Saharan Africardquo Euphytica vol 197 no 3 pp 303ndash317 2014

[12] M Osei-Kwarteng G K Mahunu and E Yeboah ldquoBaselinesurvey on the seasonal market share of exotic and indigenous

leafy vegetables produced sold and consumed in TamaleGhanardquoGhana Journal of Horticulture vol 10 pp 119ndash129 2012

[13] J W Creswell Educational Research Planning Conducting andEvaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research (4th edn)Pearson Education Inc Boston Mass USA 2012

[14] I K Ngugi R Gitau and J NyoroAccess to High ValueMarketsby Smallholder Farmers of African Indigenous Vegetables inKenya Regoverning Markets Innovative Practice Series IIEDLondon UK 2007

[15] ICRACBUD Indigenous Leafy Vegetables in the Upper EastRegion of Ghana Opportunities and Constraints for Conserva-tion and Commercialisation Working Document Series 102ICRACBUD Kumasi Ghana 2002

[16] F I Smith and P Eyzaguirre ldquoAfrican leafy vegetables their rolein the World Health Organizationrsquos global fruit and vegetablesinitiativerdquo African Journal of Food Agriculture Nutrition andDevelopment vol 7 no 3 pp 1ndash17 2007

[17] E Lyatuu and L Lebotse Eds Marketing of Indigenous LeafyVegetables and How Small-Scale Farmers Can Improve TheirIncomes Agricultural Research Council Dar es Salaam Tanza-nia 2010

[18] C M Shackleton MW Pasquini and AW Drescher ldquoAfricanindigenous vegetables in urban agriculture recurring themesand policyrdquo in African Indigenous Vegetables in Urban Agricul-ture C M Shackleton M W Pasquini and A W DrescherEds pp 271ndash283 Earthscan Routledge UK 2009

[19] Council for Scientific and Industrial Research GhanaGlobalFacilitation Unit for Underutilized Species ldquoUnderutilizedplant species strategies and policies Analysis of existingnational policies and legislation that enable or inhibit thewider use of underutilized plant species for food and agri-culture in Ghanardquo Report 2007 httpwwwunderutilizedspe-ciesorgrecord details id 836html

[20] P M Etwire I D K Atokple S S J Buah A L Abdulai A SKarikari and PAsungre ldquoAnalysis of the seed system inGhanardquoInternational Journal of AdvanceAgricultural Research vol 1 pp17ndash13 2013

[21] M O Abukutsa-Onyango ldquoSeed production and support sys-tems for African leafy vegetables in three communities inwestern Kenyardquo African Journal of Food Agriculture Nutritionand Development vol 7 no 3 pp 1ndash16 2007

[22] M O Oluoch G N Pichop D Silue M O Abukutsa-Onyango M Diouf and C M Shackleton ldquoProduction andharvesting systems for African indigenous leafy vegetablesrdquoin African Indigenous Vegetables in Urban Agriculture C MShackleton M W Pasquini and A W Drescher Eds pp 145ndash170 Earthscan London UK 2009

[23] G J H Grubben The Cultivation of Amaranths as a Trop-ical Leaf Vegetable with Special Reference to South-DahomeyCommunication 67 of theDepartment of Agricultural ResearchKoninklijk Instituut voor de Tropen Amsterdam NetherlandsRoyal Tropical Instistute 1976

[24] J E Knott and J Deanon Vegetable production in South-East Asia University of the Philippines Press Metro ManilaPhilippines 1967

[25] Production Guidelines ldquoAmaranthusrdquo Department of Agri-culture Forestry and Fisheries 2010 httpwwwndaagriczadocsBrochuresAmaranthuspdf

[26] WFLO ldquoIdentification of appropriate postharvest technologiesfor improving market access and incomes for small hor-ticultural farmers in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asiardquo

International Journal of Agronomy 3

Sangani

Manguli

Datoyili

Bulpiela

Gumbihini

KukuoLamashigu

Aboabo marketTamale Central market

Northern

Upper WestUpper East

Fuo

Zuo

Tuya

Gumo

Yong

Taha

Difaa

Nwogu

Gohni

Gurugu

Gumani

Wovogu

Cheshe

Nanton

Nwoduo

Zibogo

BanvimKpanvo

TamaleSangani

Kanvili

Tikyeli

Dunying

Nyohini

Zogbeli

CFC Jct

Builpela

Nyanshie

Datoyili

NyerizeeShishegu

Tiguyoni

Gbanyamn

Gumbihini

Walenyili

Mbanayili

Daluguyili

Kulaa Zung

Kpitntalgi

Dakpemyili

Bogunayili

Rie RangeVitin-Dabogse

Chohho-Manayili

Sugashie Wumbeyili

(km)

N

0 05 1 2 3 4

10∘09984000998400998400N

0∘09984000998400998400

2∘30

9984000998400998400W

0∘53

9984000998400998400W

9∘2799840030998400998400N

9∘229984000998400998400N

RoadTamale metropolitan assembly

Vegetable producing areasMajor vegetable markets

Figure 2 Map of Tamale metropolitan area showing major vegetable producing areas and markets

However the study showed that the support fromnongovern-mental organizations (NGOs) is noteworthy as producers(24) cited the German Technical Service (GIZ) for tech-nical support whiles less of that came from the Ministryof Food and Agriculture (4) In the Upper East Region(Bongo district) the World Vision International providedextension support for indigenous leafy vegetables (ILVs)production while Adventist Development and Relief Agency(ADRA) Catholic Diocese andActionAidGhana supportedinfrastructure development (dams) for the production ofILVs including vegetable amaranths [15] TRAX Ghana alsotrained ILVs farmers in the Bongo district on soil and waterconservation technologies [15] The support given by theNGOs is based on the importance (commercial potential) ofILVs including amaranths to the livelihoods of the people inthe communities

Results from the investigation also indicated that pro-ducers obtained seeds from either the local market (35)or their own farms (65) However it was noted that thequality of the seeds was not reliable due to poor seed yield(35) low viability (19) and being not true to type (46)

Similarly in Upper East Region 10ndash80 of the farmersobtained seeds for ILVs including amaranths from themarket[15] and our findings on amaranth seeds corroborate theirobservation Hence farmers suggested that the availabilityof quality seeds will moderate this challenge The sourceof seeds for amaranth production affirms the existence oftwo parallel seed systems in Ghana (traditionalinformaland formal) [20] Absence of improved and standard seedsfor ILVs including amaranths was also observed in theSouth African Development Community region (TanzaniaZambia and Botswana) [17] and Kenya [21] Generally thenonexistence of improved seeds for the cultivation of AfricanILVs is a major challenge to the broad production of ILVs inAfrica including Ghana as farmers use their own seed fromunselected planting materials mostly without any qualityand standard criteria and technical supervision [20 21]Additionally farmers own and purchased seedswhichmay bepoorly handled at storage and consequently affect the vigourand germination percentage [20] These seed constraintsindicate the need for research and improvement of seedsources or delivery system [19] for vegetable amaranths

4 International Journal of Agronomy

The environmental and other constraints that were rec-ognized by the producers as affecting the quality of theirproduce included insect damage (48) water shortage (6)low soil fertility (18) and low yields (28) Producerscould not identify the type of insect pest that damaged theirproduce but reported holes in the leaves which reduced thequality of leaves ILVs are reported to be tolerant to local pestand disease [22] and in Southeast Asia [23] amaranths are alsonoted to have no serious insect pest disease and nematodes[24] attackHowever there is an expected pest build-up in hotand humid climates when an intensive monoculture is regu-larly practiced [18] Moreover in some West African coun-tries insect pests and disease have been found on amaranths[23] Hence in regular production producers must practicesafe and effective integrated pest management methods [22]before or after production to reduce postharvest loses Anavoidable loss of 20 in vegetable amaranthswas estimated inKenya as caused by insect pests [22] Inadequate water supplyduring production induces flowering and reduces the leaveyield in vegetable amaranth [25] Vegetable amaranths do beston fertile well-drained deep soils although they are adapted toa variety of soils including marginal soils [25]

32 Production The study revealed that all the producerswere conversantwith production practices that affect producequality They listed planting density and pattern weed pestand disease control irrigation and fertiliser use as familiarpractices They also observed insect pests that made holes inthe leaves This knowledge is based on the experience gainedover the years Conversely they could not identify viral andfungal infections Previous reports on the postharvest lossesof 16 commodities including leafy vegetables showed thatfarmers used some production practices that increased thechallenges of postharvest quality and losses of these crops[26] Vegetable amaranths are usually grown commerciallyas a sole crop and intercropped with food crops in homegardens [27] Most farmers plant at a density of 180 plantsm2for single harvest by uprooting the whole plant but a plantdensity of 100 pltsm2 is strategic for good quality produce Ifthe desire is several harvests during the season then vegetableamaranths should be planted at 20 pltsm2 [27] Generallygood cultural practices specific for vegetable amaranthsare recommended for good quality produce at harvest forimmediate consumption or further handling

Ninety-two percent (92) of the producers harvestedthemselves in the morning by cutting with sharp knives orby uprooting Harvesting with sharp knives avoids severeabrasions or bruises that occur with blunt knives whichopens up entry points for microorganisms and hastens therate of produce decay [7] while physical damage causes 3-4 times more moisture loss than undamaged produce [8]Other types of equipment used during harvesting includebaskets basins sacks and fiber and fertiliser bags Majorityof farmers (54) used the number of nodes and branches asan indicator ofmaturity Additional determinants ofmaturitywere plant height (27) and canopy spread (19) Vegetableamaranths can be harvested between 30 and 55 days aftersowing at a height of 60 cmwhen leaves are young and slender[25] Harvesting at the right physiological age prevents the

rapid loss of quality of the produce since at the appropriateharvest maturity leaves are less prone to moisture loss andsubsequent wilting [8] Leafy vegetables harvested at earlyhours (0400 hrs) and late hours (2000 hrs) contained higherwater potential which reduces the rate of water loss More-over produce harvested late in the day has high sugar levelsdue to the photosynthesis in the day [8] At late harvestingleafy vegetables become fibrous and lose their tenderness [7]Poor packaging materials such as baskets basins and sackseasily make the produce prone to damage from bruises andfurther allow entry of microorganism during transport andstorage Additionally leafy vegetables are easily stressed insuch packaging material during storage and transport [7]

33 Postharvest The postharvest practices used by farmerswere cleaning (66) trimming (34) and cooling eitherunder shady trees in the ambient air (25) or with coolwater (75) at ambient temperature The problem withcooling under ambient air conditions is that temperatureincreases within the piled produce with time In this casethe respiration rate of the piled produce increases resultingin water and weight loss and thus reduces the market value[8] Cooling of produce is done immediately after harveston farms Two basins of cool water are used for washing theproduce after harvesting roots are washed in the first basinand the harvested shoots are washed in the second basinSubsequently cool water is sprinkled on the dayrsquos harvest andstacked in containers for transportationWashing all producein the same basin may contaminate the produce with soilor plant pathogens which will facilitate postharvest diseases[8] hence for good sanitation practices produce should bewashed in clean water At the market produce is also cooledagain by sprinkling water on display Unsold produce isalso sprinkled with water to maintain the freshness for thenext day In spite of the above cooling practices stackingor piling of produce in containers (woven baskets andpans) during transport or storage renders the whole practiceineffective Temperature management after harvesting is toavoid a high ambient temperature which reduces the qualityof produce and the market value after harvest [8] The highmean day time temperatures (28ndash43∘C [28]) of the Tamalemetropolitan area demand a good cooling system for theharvested produce

Retailers stored produce in their stalls while producersstored produce either at shady places (46) or in theirkitchen or hut (54) at ambient temperature In these storagesituations the produce experiences fluctuating temperaturewhich affects the stability of the quality and acceptability ofthe produce by the consumers Freshly harvested vegetableamaranths can be maintained at a temperature of 0ndash2∘Cand relative humidity of 95ndash100 for 14 days [29] Vegetableamaranths packaged under modified atmospheric conditions(active bags) and stored at 5∘C at 75 relative humidity couldbe stored for 23 dayswith about 55 retention of ascorbic acidcompared to the control sample stored at room temperature(25∘C) [5]

Middlemen transports produce by using cars (57) andmotorcycle trailers (motor king in Ghana 43) Produc-ers transports produce by either head porting (34) or

International Journal of Agronomy 5

motorcycle trailers (65) During transport fresh produce isstressed by packing them tightly so as to have more room formore produce Nevertheless the atmospheric conditions (eghigh temperature and low relative humidity) during transportalso increases the respiration rates which result in weight lossof the produce as tissues lose turgor and succulence [30]

Delay in transporting produce to marketing centers canbe at least 2 hours (43) and a maximum of 6 hours(36) Fifty-eight percent (58) of middlemen registereddelay in transportation Delays were attributed to vehicularbreakdown (30) heavy rains (16) and sheer delay bydrivers retailers and producers (54) Because harvestedproduce are transported under high ambient temperaturesand also piled such delays are to be avoided

Retailers were very particular about grading and sortingin the market for better pricing This indicates that theconsumers are not only particular about price but alsosome standard for quality produce [7] Thirty-two percentof retailers stated the inadequacy of labour for grading andsorting when they have large volumes of produce while68 did not see that as a problem because they are sortedand graded by themselves Few (6) of handlers (6) arewell trained in sorting and grading but the retailers firstdemonstrate how their hired labour should do the activity

There was no processing method for harvested produceother than the drying and grinding of dried leaves in thestudy area Drying is not mostly done because consumershave preference for fresh produce for their soups and saucesAll actors emphasized the urgent need for simple innovativeagroprocessing methods during the glut period Traditionaldrying in the sun can be improved by using affordablesolar drying methods which avoid possible incomplete oruneven drying that allows microbial growth and preventsloss of nutritional quality (vitamins and minerals) [30 31]Processing freshly harvested vegetable amaranths can reducepostharvest losses of about 20ndash50 within the value chain[31] Processing methods such as solar drying and freezedrying are recommended for the upgrading of vegetableamaranths into supermarkets in Tamale

Twenty percent of retailers indicated that they are able tohandle produce for 2 days while the majority (80) can doso in a day because of the perishable nature of the amaranthleaves Vegetable amaranths displayed in the market havea short postharvest shelf life due to the hot environmentalconditions and no cooling facilities

Packaging materials for transport and storage of produceare basins (30) baskets (28) polyethylene bags (26) andsacks (16) which are not highly conducive for the purposeTherefore the need for an appropriate packagingmaterial willprotect the produce from damage preserve the quality andenable good ventilation to avoid the accumulation of heatandor unwanted gases in the produce [29]

34 Marketing Seventy-six percent of retailers indicated thatproducers set prices at the beginning of the production periodto ensure that price per unit weight is similar throughoutthe production area This implies that producers are wellorganized and take decisions that make them benefit fromtheir produce Producers do not have any formal means of

getting market information other than visiting the marketsthemselves However they are mostly informed on trendsand consumer demand in the market by the retailers andmiddlemen who mostly come to their farms to harvestpurchased plots or harvestable produce Retailers also decideon market prices from the prevailing farm gate price

Retailers (64) indicated that consumers preferred theproduce bundled while 36 desired loosely packed portionsOut of the retailers who indicated consumer preference forbundled produce 52 observed that consumers normallylike smaller bundle sizes compared to 48 who like biggerbundles Fresh dark green leaves were much preferredThe smaller bundle sized produce is mostly for home orhousehold use while the bigger bundle sized produce is forcommercial cooking purposes Bigger bundle sized produceis more prone to postharvest losses as there is less aircirculation within the produce because it is mostly piled inbasins or baskets during sales

Almost all retailers (98) expressed unmet demand andoversupply of produce in some occasions Unmet demandsoccurred during the dry seasonwhen produce is scarce due towater shortage (33) and pest and diseases (35)Thirty-twopercent of retailers had excess supply of the produce in thewetseason resulting in cheaper farm gate prices but maintainedtheir prices and rather increased the size of the bundles forthe same price This suggests the need to process into otherforms to avoid losses in the wet season Consumers ratherlooked out for high quality produce (undamaged and darkgreen) during the wet seasonal glut Producers confirmedthat amaranth leaves are not exported as such there is noexisting regulation on its trade Producers marketers andconsumers of vegetable amaranths wished that there could besimple postharvest treatments Nevertheless they preferrednonchemical and inexpensive treatments

4 Conclusion

The study assessed the contribution of current practices onpostharvest losses of vegetables amaranths using a commod-ity systemassessmentmethodology in theTamalemetropolisGhana Our investigation revealed absence of laws regu-lation and incentives for vegetable amaranth productionThere is also deficiency in quality seed for production sinceseeds are mostly obtained from the producerrsquos field and openmarkets and not subjected to any standard quality criteriaProducers had a fair understanding of the influence of somecultural practices (eg planting pattern and density weedpest and disease control irrigation and fertiliser use) onpostharvest losses Further produce is transported at ambienttemperature to market centers by cars or motorcycle trailersRetailers are particular in grading and sorting of the produceto enhance pricing

There are observed challenges at all stages of the productchain and the potential of vegetable amaranths as a com-modity in the study area can be enhanced by providing thenecessary institutional support and incentives This workprovides first-hand information for development plannersand government and nongovernment institutions that areseeking to improve a popular indigenous leafy vegetable in

6 International Journal of Agronomy

urban communities such as the Tamale metropolitan areaFinally the quantification of losses at each level of the chainis recommended

Conflicts of Interest

Theauthors declare no conflicts of interest for this publicationand that data used are from their own investigation

Acknowledgments

The authors are grateful to Dr Lisa Kitinoja and her Posthar-vest Education Foundation team for the revision of the firstdraft of the manuscript

References

[1] Y S Gonzalez Y Dijkxhoorn I Koomen et al ldquoVegetable busi-ness opportunities in Ghanardquo The GhanaVeg Sector Reports2016 httpghanavegorg

[2] I K Arah H Amaglo E K Kumah and H Ofori ldquoPreharvestand postharvest factors affecting the quality and shelf life ofharvested tomatoes a mini reviewrdquo International Journal ofAgronomy vol 2015 Article ID 478041 6 pages 2015

[3] H Affognon C Mutungi P Sanginga and C BorgemeisterldquoUnpacking postharvest losses in sub-Saharan Africa a meta-analysisrdquoWorld Development vol 66 pp 49ndash68 2015

[4] L Kitinoja ldquoIdentification of appropriate postharvest tech-nologies for improving market access and incomes for smallhorticultural farmers in sub-Saharan Africa and south AsiardquoWFLO Grant Final Report 2010

[5] J A Nyaura D N Sila and W O Owino ldquoPostharveststability of vegetable amaranths (Amaranthus dubius) combinedlow temperature and modified atmospheric packagingrdquo FoodScience and Quality Management vol 30 pp 66ndash72 2014

[6] J La Gra A Commodity Systems Assessment Methodology forProblem and Project Identification Postharvest Institute forPerishables University of Idaho IICA AFHB Moscow IdahoUSA 1990

[7] J La Gra L Kitinoja and K Alpizar Commodity SystemsAssessment Methodology for Value Chain Problem and ProjectIdentification A First Step in Food Loss Reduction Inter-American Institute for Cooperation on Agriculture San IsidroCosta Rica 2016

[8] A L Acedo Jr Postharvest Technology for VegetablesAVDRCmdashADBPostharvest Projects RETA 62086376 AVDRCPublication no 10-733 AVDRCmdashTheWorld Vegetable CenterTainan Taiwan 2010

[9] J Norman Tropical Vegetable Crops Arthur H Stockwell LtdDevon UK 1992

[10] G J H Grubben and O A Denton Eds Plant Resources ofTropical Africa 2 Vegetables PROTA Foundation WageningenThe Netherlands Backhuys Publishers Leiden The Nether-lands CTA Wageningen The Netherlands 2004

[11] E G Achigan-Dako O E D Sogbohossou and P MaunduldquoCurrent knowledge on Amaranthus spp research avenues forimproved nutritional value and yield in leafy amaranths in sub-Saharan Africardquo Euphytica vol 197 no 3 pp 303ndash317 2014

[12] M Osei-Kwarteng G K Mahunu and E Yeboah ldquoBaselinesurvey on the seasonal market share of exotic and indigenous

leafy vegetables produced sold and consumed in TamaleGhanardquoGhana Journal of Horticulture vol 10 pp 119ndash129 2012

[13] J W Creswell Educational Research Planning Conducting andEvaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research (4th edn)Pearson Education Inc Boston Mass USA 2012

[14] I K Ngugi R Gitau and J NyoroAccess to High ValueMarketsby Smallholder Farmers of African Indigenous Vegetables inKenya Regoverning Markets Innovative Practice Series IIEDLondon UK 2007

[15] ICRACBUD Indigenous Leafy Vegetables in the Upper EastRegion of Ghana Opportunities and Constraints for Conserva-tion and Commercialisation Working Document Series 102ICRACBUD Kumasi Ghana 2002

[16] F I Smith and P Eyzaguirre ldquoAfrican leafy vegetables their rolein the World Health Organizationrsquos global fruit and vegetablesinitiativerdquo African Journal of Food Agriculture Nutrition andDevelopment vol 7 no 3 pp 1ndash17 2007

[17] E Lyatuu and L Lebotse Eds Marketing of Indigenous LeafyVegetables and How Small-Scale Farmers Can Improve TheirIncomes Agricultural Research Council Dar es Salaam Tanza-nia 2010

[18] C M Shackleton MW Pasquini and AW Drescher ldquoAfricanindigenous vegetables in urban agriculture recurring themesand policyrdquo in African Indigenous Vegetables in Urban Agricul-ture C M Shackleton M W Pasquini and A W DrescherEds pp 271ndash283 Earthscan Routledge UK 2009

[19] Council for Scientific and Industrial Research GhanaGlobalFacilitation Unit for Underutilized Species ldquoUnderutilizedplant species strategies and policies Analysis of existingnational policies and legislation that enable or inhibit thewider use of underutilized plant species for food and agri-culture in Ghanardquo Report 2007 httpwwwunderutilizedspe-ciesorgrecord details id 836html

[20] P M Etwire I D K Atokple S S J Buah A L Abdulai A SKarikari and PAsungre ldquoAnalysis of the seed system inGhanardquoInternational Journal of AdvanceAgricultural Research vol 1 pp17ndash13 2013

[21] M O Abukutsa-Onyango ldquoSeed production and support sys-tems for African leafy vegetables in three communities inwestern Kenyardquo African Journal of Food Agriculture Nutritionand Development vol 7 no 3 pp 1ndash16 2007

[22] M O Oluoch G N Pichop D Silue M O Abukutsa-Onyango M Diouf and C M Shackleton ldquoProduction andharvesting systems for African indigenous leafy vegetablesrdquoin African Indigenous Vegetables in Urban Agriculture C MShackleton M W Pasquini and A W Drescher Eds pp 145ndash170 Earthscan London UK 2009

[23] G J H Grubben The Cultivation of Amaranths as a Trop-ical Leaf Vegetable with Special Reference to South-DahomeyCommunication 67 of theDepartment of Agricultural ResearchKoninklijk Instituut voor de Tropen Amsterdam NetherlandsRoyal Tropical Instistute 1976

[24] J E Knott and J Deanon Vegetable production in South-East Asia University of the Philippines Press Metro ManilaPhilippines 1967

[25] Production Guidelines ldquoAmaranthusrdquo Department of Agri-culture Forestry and Fisheries 2010 httpwwwndaagriczadocsBrochuresAmaranthuspdf

[26] WFLO ldquoIdentification of appropriate postharvest technologiesfor improving market access and incomes for small hor-ticultural farmers in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asiardquo

4 International Journal of Agronomy

The environmental and other constraints that were rec-ognized by the producers as affecting the quality of theirproduce included insect damage (48) water shortage (6)low soil fertility (18) and low yields (28) Producerscould not identify the type of insect pest that damaged theirproduce but reported holes in the leaves which reduced thequality of leaves ILVs are reported to be tolerant to local pestand disease [22] and in Southeast Asia [23] amaranths are alsonoted to have no serious insect pest disease and nematodes[24] attackHowever there is an expected pest build-up in hotand humid climates when an intensive monoculture is regu-larly practiced [18] Moreover in some West African coun-tries insect pests and disease have been found on amaranths[23] Hence in regular production producers must practicesafe and effective integrated pest management methods [22]before or after production to reduce postharvest loses Anavoidable loss of 20 in vegetable amaranthswas estimated inKenya as caused by insect pests [22] Inadequate water supplyduring production induces flowering and reduces the leaveyield in vegetable amaranth [25] Vegetable amaranths do beston fertile well-drained deep soils although they are adapted toa variety of soils including marginal soils [25]

32 Production The study revealed that all the producerswere conversantwith production practices that affect producequality They listed planting density and pattern weed pestand disease control irrigation and fertiliser use as familiarpractices They also observed insect pests that made holes inthe leaves This knowledge is based on the experience gainedover the years Conversely they could not identify viral andfungal infections Previous reports on the postharvest lossesof 16 commodities including leafy vegetables showed thatfarmers used some production practices that increased thechallenges of postharvest quality and losses of these crops[26] Vegetable amaranths are usually grown commerciallyas a sole crop and intercropped with food crops in homegardens [27] Most farmers plant at a density of 180 plantsm2for single harvest by uprooting the whole plant but a plantdensity of 100 pltsm2 is strategic for good quality produce Ifthe desire is several harvests during the season then vegetableamaranths should be planted at 20 pltsm2 [27] Generallygood cultural practices specific for vegetable amaranthsare recommended for good quality produce at harvest forimmediate consumption or further handling

Ninety-two percent (92) of the producers harvestedthemselves in the morning by cutting with sharp knives orby uprooting Harvesting with sharp knives avoids severeabrasions or bruises that occur with blunt knives whichopens up entry points for microorganisms and hastens therate of produce decay [7] while physical damage causes 3-4 times more moisture loss than undamaged produce [8]Other types of equipment used during harvesting includebaskets basins sacks and fiber and fertiliser bags Majorityof farmers (54) used the number of nodes and branches asan indicator ofmaturity Additional determinants ofmaturitywere plant height (27) and canopy spread (19) Vegetableamaranths can be harvested between 30 and 55 days aftersowing at a height of 60 cmwhen leaves are young and slender[25] Harvesting at the right physiological age prevents the

rapid loss of quality of the produce since at the appropriateharvest maturity leaves are less prone to moisture loss andsubsequent wilting [8] Leafy vegetables harvested at earlyhours (0400 hrs) and late hours (2000 hrs) contained higherwater potential which reduces the rate of water loss More-over produce harvested late in the day has high sugar levelsdue to the photosynthesis in the day [8] At late harvestingleafy vegetables become fibrous and lose their tenderness [7]Poor packaging materials such as baskets basins and sackseasily make the produce prone to damage from bruises andfurther allow entry of microorganism during transport andstorage Additionally leafy vegetables are easily stressed insuch packaging material during storage and transport [7]

33 Postharvest The postharvest practices used by farmerswere cleaning (66) trimming (34) and cooling eitherunder shady trees in the ambient air (25) or with coolwater (75) at ambient temperature The problem withcooling under ambient air conditions is that temperatureincreases within the piled produce with time In this casethe respiration rate of the piled produce increases resultingin water and weight loss and thus reduces the market value[8] Cooling of produce is done immediately after harveston farms Two basins of cool water are used for washing theproduce after harvesting roots are washed in the first basinand the harvested shoots are washed in the second basinSubsequently cool water is sprinkled on the dayrsquos harvest andstacked in containers for transportationWashing all producein the same basin may contaminate the produce with soilor plant pathogens which will facilitate postharvest diseases[8] hence for good sanitation practices produce should bewashed in clean water At the market produce is also cooledagain by sprinkling water on display Unsold produce isalso sprinkled with water to maintain the freshness for thenext day In spite of the above cooling practices stackingor piling of produce in containers (woven baskets andpans) during transport or storage renders the whole practiceineffective Temperature management after harvesting is toavoid a high ambient temperature which reduces the qualityof produce and the market value after harvest [8] The highmean day time temperatures (28ndash43∘C [28]) of the Tamalemetropolitan area demand a good cooling system for theharvested produce

Retailers stored produce in their stalls while producersstored produce either at shady places (46) or in theirkitchen or hut (54) at ambient temperature In these storagesituations the produce experiences fluctuating temperaturewhich affects the stability of the quality and acceptability ofthe produce by the consumers Freshly harvested vegetableamaranths can be maintained at a temperature of 0ndash2∘Cand relative humidity of 95ndash100 for 14 days [29] Vegetableamaranths packaged under modified atmospheric conditions(active bags) and stored at 5∘C at 75 relative humidity couldbe stored for 23 dayswith about 55 retention of ascorbic acidcompared to the control sample stored at room temperature(25∘C) [5]

Middlemen transports produce by using cars (57) andmotorcycle trailers (motor king in Ghana 43) Produc-ers transports produce by either head porting (34) or

International Journal of Agronomy 5

motorcycle trailers (65) During transport fresh produce isstressed by packing them tightly so as to have more room formore produce Nevertheless the atmospheric conditions (eghigh temperature and low relative humidity) during transportalso increases the respiration rates which result in weight lossof the produce as tissues lose turgor and succulence [30]

Delay in transporting produce to marketing centers canbe at least 2 hours (43) and a maximum of 6 hours(36) Fifty-eight percent (58) of middlemen registereddelay in transportation Delays were attributed to vehicularbreakdown (30) heavy rains (16) and sheer delay bydrivers retailers and producers (54) Because harvestedproduce are transported under high ambient temperaturesand also piled such delays are to be avoided

Retailers were very particular about grading and sortingin the market for better pricing This indicates that theconsumers are not only particular about price but alsosome standard for quality produce [7] Thirty-two percentof retailers stated the inadequacy of labour for grading andsorting when they have large volumes of produce while68 did not see that as a problem because they are sortedand graded by themselves Few (6) of handlers (6) arewell trained in sorting and grading but the retailers firstdemonstrate how their hired labour should do the activity

There was no processing method for harvested produceother than the drying and grinding of dried leaves in thestudy area Drying is not mostly done because consumershave preference for fresh produce for their soups and saucesAll actors emphasized the urgent need for simple innovativeagroprocessing methods during the glut period Traditionaldrying in the sun can be improved by using affordablesolar drying methods which avoid possible incomplete oruneven drying that allows microbial growth and preventsloss of nutritional quality (vitamins and minerals) [30 31]Processing freshly harvested vegetable amaranths can reducepostharvest losses of about 20ndash50 within the value chain[31] Processing methods such as solar drying and freezedrying are recommended for the upgrading of vegetableamaranths into supermarkets in Tamale

Twenty percent of retailers indicated that they are able tohandle produce for 2 days while the majority (80) can doso in a day because of the perishable nature of the amaranthleaves Vegetable amaranths displayed in the market havea short postharvest shelf life due to the hot environmentalconditions and no cooling facilities

Packaging materials for transport and storage of produceare basins (30) baskets (28) polyethylene bags (26) andsacks (16) which are not highly conducive for the purposeTherefore the need for an appropriate packagingmaterial willprotect the produce from damage preserve the quality andenable good ventilation to avoid the accumulation of heatandor unwanted gases in the produce [29]

34 Marketing Seventy-six percent of retailers indicated thatproducers set prices at the beginning of the production periodto ensure that price per unit weight is similar throughoutthe production area This implies that producers are wellorganized and take decisions that make them benefit fromtheir produce Producers do not have any formal means of

getting market information other than visiting the marketsthemselves However they are mostly informed on trendsand consumer demand in the market by the retailers andmiddlemen who mostly come to their farms to harvestpurchased plots or harvestable produce Retailers also decideon market prices from the prevailing farm gate price

Retailers (64) indicated that consumers preferred theproduce bundled while 36 desired loosely packed portionsOut of the retailers who indicated consumer preference forbundled produce 52 observed that consumers normallylike smaller bundle sizes compared to 48 who like biggerbundles Fresh dark green leaves were much preferredThe smaller bundle sized produce is mostly for home orhousehold use while the bigger bundle sized produce is forcommercial cooking purposes Bigger bundle sized produceis more prone to postharvest losses as there is less aircirculation within the produce because it is mostly piled inbasins or baskets during sales

Almost all retailers (98) expressed unmet demand andoversupply of produce in some occasions Unmet demandsoccurred during the dry seasonwhen produce is scarce due towater shortage (33) and pest and diseases (35)Thirty-twopercent of retailers had excess supply of the produce in thewetseason resulting in cheaper farm gate prices but maintainedtheir prices and rather increased the size of the bundles forthe same price This suggests the need to process into otherforms to avoid losses in the wet season Consumers ratherlooked out for high quality produce (undamaged and darkgreen) during the wet seasonal glut Producers confirmedthat amaranth leaves are not exported as such there is noexisting regulation on its trade Producers marketers andconsumers of vegetable amaranths wished that there could besimple postharvest treatments Nevertheless they preferrednonchemical and inexpensive treatments

4 Conclusion

The study assessed the contribution of current practices onpostharvest losses of vegetables amaranths using a commod-ity systemassessmentmethodology in theTamalemetropolisGhana Our investigation revealed absence of laws regu-lation and incentives for vegetable amaranth productionThere is also deficiency in quality seed for production sinceseeds are mostly obtained from the producerrsquos field and openmarkets and not subjected to any standard quality criteriaProducers had a fair understanding of the influence of somecultural practices (eg planting pattern and density weedpest and disease control irrigation and fertiliser use) onpostharvest losses Further produce is transported at ambienttemperature to market centers by cars or motorcycle trailersRetailers are particular in grading and sorting of the produceto enhance pricing

There are observed challenges at all stages of the productchain and the potential of vegetable amaranths as a com-modity in the study area can be enhanced by providing thenecessary institutional support and incentives This workprovides first-hand information for development plannersand government and nongovernment institutions that areseeking to improve a popular indigenous leafy vegetable in

6 International Journal of Agronomy

urban communities such as the Tamale metropolitan areaFinally the quantification of losses at each level of the chainis recommended

Conflicts of Interest

Theauthors declare no conflicts of interest for this publicationand that data used are from their own investigation

Acknowledgments

The authors are grateful to Dr Lisa Kitinoja and her Posthar-vest Education Foundation team for the revision of the firstdraft of the manuscript

References

[1] Y S Gonzalez Y Dijkxhoorn I Koomen et al ldquoVegetable busi-ness opportunities in Ghanardquo The GhanaVeg Sector Reports2016 httpghanavegorg

[2] I K Arah H Amaglo E K Kumah and H Ofori ldquoPreharvestand postharvest factors affecting the quality and shelf life ofharvested tomatoes a mini reviewrdquo International Journal ofAgronomy vol 2015 Article ID 478041 6 pages 2015

[3] H Affognon C Mutungi P Sanginga and C BorgemeisterldquoUnpacking postharvest losses in sub-Saharan Africa a meta-analysisrdquoWorld Development vol 66 pp 49ndash68 2015

[4] L Kitinoja ldquoIdentification of appropriate postharvest tech-nologies for improving market access and incomes for smallhorticultural farmers in sub-Saharan Africa and south AsiardquoWFLO Grant Final Report 2010

[5] J A Nyaura D N Sila and W O Owino ldquoPostharveststability of vegetable amaranths (Amaranthus dubius) combinedlow temperature and modified atmospheric packagingrdquo FoodScience and Quality Management vol 30 pp 66ndash72 2014

[6] J La Gra A Commodity Systems Assessment Methodology forProblem and Project Identification Postharvest Institute forPerishables University of Idaho IICA AFHB Moscow IdahoUSA 1990

[7] J La Gra L Kitinoja and K Alpizar Commodity SystemsAssessment Methodology for Value Chain Problem and ProjectIdentification A First Step in Food Loss Reduction Inter-American Institute for Cooperation on Agriculture San IsidroCosta Rica 2016

[8] A L Acedo Jr Postharvest Technology for VegetablesAVDRCmdashADBPostharvest Projects RETA 62086376 AVDRCPublication no 10-733 AVDRCmdashTheWorld Vegetable CenterTainan Taiwan 2010

[9] J Norman Tropical Vegetable Crops Arthur H Stockwell LtdDevon UK 1992

[10] G J H Grubben and O A Denton Eds Plant Resources ofTropical Africa 2 Vegetables PROTA Foundation WageningenThe Netherlands Backhuys Publishers Leiden The Nether-lands CTA Wageningen The Netherlands 2004

[11] E G Achigan-Dako O E D Sogbohossou and P MaunduldquoCurrent knowledge on Amaranthus spp research avenues forimproved nutritional value and yield in leafy amaranths in sub-Saharan Africardquo Euphytica vol 197 no 3 pp 303ndash317 2014

[12] M Osei-Kwarteng G K Mahunu and E Yeboah ldquoBaselinesurvey on the seasonal market share of exotic and indigenous

leafy vegetables produced sold and consumed in TamaleGhanardquoGhana Journal of Horticulture vol 10 pp 119ndash129 2012

[13] J W Creswell Educational Research Planning Conducting andEvaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research (4th edn)Pearson Education Inc Boston Mass USA 2012

[14] I K Ngugi R Gitau and J NyoroAccess to High ValueMarketsby Smallholder Farmers of African Indigenous Vegetables inKenya Regoverning Markets Innovative Practice Series IIEDLondon UK 2007

[15] ICRACBUD Indigenous Leafy Vegetables in the Upper EastRegion of Ghana Opportunities and Constraints for Conserva-tion and Commercialisation Working Document Series 102ICRACBUD Kumasi Ghana 2002

[16] F I Smith and P Eyzaguirre ldquoAfrican leafy vegetables their rolein the World Health Organizationrsquos global fruit and vegetablesinitiativerdquo African Journal of Food Agriculture Nutrition andDevelopment vol 7 no 3 pp 1ndash17 2007

[17] E Lyatuu and L Lebotse Eds Marketing of Indigenous LeafyVegetables and How Small-Scale Farmers Can Improve TheirIncomes Agricultural Research Council Dar es Salaam Tanza-nia 2010

[18] C M Shackleton MW Pasquini and AW Drescher ldquoAfricanindigenous vegetables in urban agriculture recurring themesand policyrdquo in African Indigenous Vegetables in Urban Agricul-ture C M Shackleton M W Pasquini and A W DrescherEds pp 271ndash283 Earthscan Routledge UK 2009

[19] Council for Scientific and Industrial Research GhanaGlobalFacilitation Unit for Underutilized Species ldquoUnderutilizedplant species strategies and policies Analysis of existingnational policies and legislation that enable or inhibit thewider use of underutilized plant species for food and agri-culture in Ghanardquo Report 2007 httpwwwunderutilizedspe-ciesorgrecord details id 836html

[20] P M Etwire I D K Atokple S S J Buah A L Abdulai A SKarikari and PAsungre ldquoAnalysis of the seed system inGhanardquoInternational Journal of AdvanceAgricultural Research vol 1 pp17ndash13 2013

[21] M O Abukutsa-Onyango ldquoSeed production and support sys-tems for African leafy vegetables in three communities inwestern Kenyardquo African Journal of Food Agriculture Nutritionand Development vol 7 no 3 pp 1ndash16 2007

[22] M O Oluoch G N Pichop D Silue M O Abukutsa-Onyango M Diouf and C M Shackleton ldquoProduction andharvesting systems for African indigenous leafy vegetablesrdquoin African Indigenous Vegetables in Urban Agriculture C MShackleton M W Pasquini and A W Drescher Eds pp 145ndash170 Earthscan London UK 2009

[23] G J H Grubben The Cultivation of Amaranths as a Trop-ical Leaf Vegetable with Special Reference to South-DahomeyCommunication 67 of theDepartment of Agricultural ResearchKoninklijk Instituut voor de Tropen Amsterdam NetherlandsRoyal Tropical Instistute 1976

[24] J E Knott and J Deanon Vegetable production in South-East Asia University of the Philippines Press Metro ManilaPhilippines 1967

[25] Production Guidelines ldquoAmaranthusrdquo Department of Agri-culture Forestry and Fisheries 2010 httpwwwndaagriczadocsBrochuresAmaranthuspdf

[26] WFLO ldquoIdentification of appropriate postharvest technologiesfor improving market access and incomes for small hor-ticultural farmers in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asiardquo

International Journal of Agronomy 5

motorcycle trailers (65) During transport fresh produce isstressed by packing them tightly so as to have more room formore produce Nevertheless the atmospheric conditions (eghigh temperature and low relative humidity) during transportalso increases the respiration rates which result in weight lossof the produce as tissues lose turgor and succulence [30]

Delay in transporting produce to marketing centers canbe at least 2 hours (43) and a maximum of 6 hours(36) Fifty-eight percent (58) of middlemen registereddelay in transportation Delays were attributed to vehicularbreakdown (30) heavy rains (16) and sheer delay bydrivers retailers and producers (54) Because harvestedproduce are transported under high ambient temperaturesand also piled such delays are to be avoided

Retailers were very particular about grading and sortingin the market for better pricing This indicates that theconsumers are not only particular about price but alsosome standard for quality produce [7] Thirty-two percentof retailers stated the inadequacy of labour for grading andsorting when they have large volumes of produce while68 did not see that as a problem because they are sortedand graded by themselves Few (6) of handlers (6) arewell trained in sorting and grading but the retailers firstdemonstrate how their hired labour should do the activity

There was no processing method for harvested produceother than the drying and grinding of dried leaves in thestudy area Drying is not mostly done because consumershave preference for fresh produce for their soups and saucesAll actors emphasized the urgent need for simple innovativeagroprocessing methods during the glut period Traditionaldrying in the sun can be improved by using affordablesolar drying methods which avoid possible incomplete oruneven drying that allows microbial growth and preventsloss of nutritional quality (vitamins and minerals) [30 31]Processing freshly harvested vegetable amaranths can reducepostharvest losses of about 20ndash50 within the value chain[31] Processing methods such as solar drying and freezedrying are recommended for the upgrading of vegetableamaranths into supermarkets in Tamale

Twenty percent of retailers indicated that they are able tohandle produce for 2 days while the majority (80) can doso in a day because of the perishable nature of the amaranthleaves Vegetable amaranths displayed in the market havea short postharvest shelf life due to the hot environmentalconditions and no cooling facilities

Packaging materials for transport and storage of produceare basins (30) baskets (28) polyethylene bags (26) andsacks (16) which are not highly conducive for the purposeTherefore the need for an appropriate packagingmaterial willprotect the produce from damage preserve the quality andenable good ventilation to avoid the accumulation of heatandor unwanted gases in the produce [29]

34 Marketing Seventy-six percent of retailers indicated thatproducers set prices at the beginning of the production periodto ensure that price per unit weight is similar throughoutthe production area This implies that producers are wellorganized and take decisions that make them benefit fromtheir produce Producers do not have any formal means of

getting market information other than visiting the marketsthemselves However they are mostly informed on trendsand consumer demand in the market by the retailers andmiddlemen who mostly come to their farms to harvestpurchased plots or harvestable produce Retailers also decideon market prices from the prevailing farm gate price

Retailers (64) indicated that consumers preferred theproduce bundled while 36 desired loosely packed portionsOut of the retailers who indicated consumer preference forbundled produce 52 observed that consumers normallylike smaller bundle sizes compared to 48 who like biggerbundles Fresh dark green leaves were much preferredThe smaller bundle sized produce is mostly for home orhousehold use while the bigger bundle sized produce is forcommercial cooking purposes Bigger bundle sized produceis more prone to postharvest losses as there is less aircirculation within the produce because it is mostly piled inbasins or baskets during sales

Almost all retailers (98) expressed unmet demand andoversupply of produce in some occasions Unmet demandsoccurred during the dry seasonwhen produce is scarce due towater shortage (33) and pest and diseases (35)Thirty-twopercent of retailers had excess supply of the produce in thewetseason resulting in cheaper farm gate prices but maintainedtheir prices and rather increased the size of the bundles forthe same price This suggests the need to process into otherforms to avoid losses in the wet season Consumers ratherlooked out for high quality produce (undamaged and darkgreen) during the wet seasonal glut Producers confirmedthat amaranth leaves are not exported as such there is noexisting regulation on its trade Producers marketers andconsumers of vegetable amaranths wished that there could besimple postharvest treatments Nevertheless they preferrednonchemical and inexpensive treatments

4 Conclusion

The study assessed the contribution of current practices onpostharvest losses of vegetables amaranths using a commod-ity systemassessmentmethodology in theTamalemetropolisGhana Our investigation revealed absence of laws regu-lation and incentives for vegetable amaranth productionThere is also deficiency in quality seed for production sinceseeds are mostly obtained from the producerrsquos field and openmarkets and not subjected to any standard quality criteriaProducers had a fair understanding of the influence of somecultural practices (eg planting pattern and density weedpest and disease control irrigation and fertiliser use) onpostharvest losses Further produce is transported at ambienttemperature to market centers by cars or motorcycle trailersRetailers are particular in grading and sorting of the produceto enhance pricing

There are observed challenges at all stages of the productchain and the potential of vegetable amaranths as a com-modity in the study area can be enhanced by providing thenecessary institutional support and incentives This workprovides first-hand information for development plannersand government and nongovernment institutions that areseeking to improve a popular indigenous leafy vegetable in

6 International Journal of Agronomy

urban communities such as the Tamale metropolitan areaFinally the quantification of losses at each level of the chainis recommended

Conflicts of Interest

Theauthors declare no conflicts of interest for this publicationand that data used are from their own investigation

Acknowledgments

The authors are grateful to Dr Lisa Kitinoja and her Posthar-vest Education Foundation team for the revision of the firstdraft of the manuscript

References

[1] Y S Gonzalez Y Dijkxhoorn I Koomen et al ldquoVegetable busi-ness opportunities in Ghanardquo The GhanaVeg Sector Reports2016 httpghanavegorg

[2] I K Arah H Amaglo E K Kumah and H Ofori ldquoPreharvestand postharvest factors affecting the quality and shelf life ofharvested tomatoes a mini reviewrdquo International Journal ofAgronomy vol 2015 Article ID 478041 6 pages 2015

[3] H Affognon C Mutungi P Sanginga and C BorgemeisterldquoUnpacking postharvest losses in sub-Saharan Africa a meta-analysisrdquoWorld Development vol 66 pp 49ndash68 2015

[4] L Kitinoja ldquoIdentification of appropriate postharvest tech-nologies for improving market access and incomes for smallhorticultural farmers in sub-Saharan Africa and south AsiardquoWFLO Grant Final Report 2010

[5] J A Nyaura D N Sila and W O Owino ldquoPostharveststability of vegetable amaranths (Amaranthus dubius) combinedlow temperature and modified atmospheric packagingrdquo FoodScience and Quality Management vol 30 pp 66ndash72 2014

[6] J La Gra A Commodity Systems Assessment Methodology forProblem and Project Identification Postharvest Institute forPerishables University of Idaho IICA AFHB Moscow IdahoUSA 1990

[7] J La Gra L Kitinoja and K Alpizar Commodity SystemsAssessment Methodology for Value Chain Problem and ProjectIdentification A First Step in Food Loss Reduction Inter-American Institute for Cooperation on Agriculture San IsidroCosta Rica 2016

[8] A L Acedo Jr Postharvest Technology for VegetablesAVDRCmdashADBPostharvest Projects RETA 62086376 AVDRCPublication no 10-733 AVDRCmdashTheWorld Vegetable CenterTainan Taiwan 2010

[9] J Norman Tropical Vegetable Crops Arthur H Stockwell LtdDevon UK 1992

[10] G J H Grubben and O A Denton Eds Plant Resources ofTropical Africa 2 Vegetables PROTA Foundation WageningenThe Netherlands Backhuys Publishers Leiden The Nether-lands CTA Wageningen The Netherlands 2004

[11] E G Achigan-Dako O E D Sogbohossou and P MaunduldquoCurrent knowledge on Amaranthus spp research avenues forimproved nutritional value and yield in leafy amaranths in sub-Saharan Africardquo Euphytica vol 197 no 3 pp 303ndash317 2014

[12] M Osei-Kwarteng G K Mahunu and E Yeboah ldquoBaselinesurvey on the seasonal market share of exotic and indigenous

leafy vegetables produced sold and consumed in TamaleGhanardquoGhana Journal of Horticulture vol 10 pp 119ndash129 2012

[13] J W Creswell Educational Research Planning Conducting andEvaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research (4th edn)Pearson Education Inc Boston Mass USA 2012

[14] I K Ngugi R Gitau and J NyoroAccess to High ValueMarketsby Smallholder Farmers of African Indigenous Vegetables inKenya Regoverning Markets Innovative Practice Series IIEDLondon UK 2007

[15] ICRACBUD Indigenous Leafy Vegetables in the Upper EastRegion of Ghana Opportunities and Constraints for Conserva-tion and Commercialisation Working Document Series 102ICRACBUD Kumasi Ghana 2002

[16] F I Smith and P Eyzaguirre ldquoAfrican leafy vegetables their rolein the World Health Organizationrsquos global fruit and vegetablesinitiativerdquo African Journal of Food Agriculture Nutrition andDevelopment vol 7 no 3 pp 1ndash17 2007

[17] E Lyatuu and L Lebotse Eds Marketing of Indigenous LeafyVegetables and How Small-Scale Farmers Can Improve TheirIncomes Agricultural Research Council Dar es Salaam Tanza-nia 2010

[18] C M Shackleton MW Pasquini and AW Drescher ldquoAfricanindigenous vegetables in urban agriculture recurring themesand policyrdquo in African Indigenous Vegetables in Urban Agricul-ture C M Shackleton M W Pasquini and A W DrescherEds pp 271ndash283 Earthscan Routledge UK 2009

[19] Council for Scientific and Industrial Research GhanaGlobalFacilitation Unit for Underutilized Species ldquoUnderutilizedplant species strategies and policies Analysis of existingnational policies and legislation that enable or inhibit thewider use of underutilized plant species for food and agri-culture in Ghanardquo Report 2007 httpwwwunderutilizedspe-ciesorgrecord details id 836html

[20] P M Etwire I D K Atokple S S J Buah A L Abdulai A SKarikari and PAsungre ldquoAnalysis of the seed system inGhanardquoInternational Journal of AdvanceAgricultural Research vol 1 pp17ndash13 2013

[21] M O Abukutsa-Onyango ldquoSeed production and support sys-tems for African leafy vegetables in three communities inwestern Kenyardquo African Journal of Food Agriculture Nutritionand Development vol 7 no 3 pp 1ndash16 2007

[22] M O Oluoch G N Pichop D Silue M O Abukutsa-Onyango M Diouf and C M Shackleton ldquoProduction andharvesting systems for African indigenous leafy vegetablesrdquoin African Indigenous Vegetables in Urban Agriculture C MShackleton M W Pasquini and A W Drescher Eds pp 145ndash170 Earthscan London UK 2009

[23] G J H Grubben The Cultivation of Amaranths as a Trop-ical Leaf Vegetable with Special Reference to South-DahomeyCommunication 67 of theDepartment of Agricultural ResearchKoninklijk Instituut voor de Tropen Amsterdam NetherlandsRoyal Tropical Instistute 1976

[24] J E Knott and J Deanon Vegetable production in South-East Asia University of the Philippines Press Metro ManilaPhilippines 1967

[25] Production Guidelines ldquoAmaranthusrdquo Department of Agri-culture Forestry and Fisheries 2010 httpwwwndaagriczadocsBrochuresAmaranthuspdf

[26] WFLO ldquoIdentification of appropriate postharvest technologiesfor improving market access and incomes for small hor-ticultural farmers in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asiardquo

6 International Journal of Agronomy

urban communities such as the Tamale metropolitan areaFinally the quantification of losses at each level of the chainis recommended

Conflicts of Interest

Theauthors declare no conflicts of interest for this publicationand that data used are from their own investigation

Acknowledgments

The authors are grateful to Dr Lisa Kitinoja and her Posthar-vest Education Foundation team for the revision of the firstdraft of the manuscript

References

[1] Y S Gonzalez Y Dijkxhoorn I Koomen et al ldquoVegetable busi-ness opportunities in Ghanardquo The GhanaVeg Sector Reports2016 httpghanavegorg

[2] I K Arah H Amaglo E K Kumah and H Ofori ldquoPreharvestand postharvest factors affecting the quality and shelf life ofharvested tomatoes a mini reviewrdquo International Journal ofAgronomy vol 2015 Article ID 478041 6 pages 2015

[3] H Affognon C Mutungi P Sanginga and C BorgemeisterldquoUnpacking postharvest losses in sub-Saharan Africa a meta-analysisrdquoWorld Development vol 66 pp 49ndash68 2015

[4] L Kitinoja ldquoIdentification of appropriate postharvest tech-nologies for improving market access and incomes for smallhorticultural farmers in sub-Saharan Africa and south AsiardquoWFLO Grant Final Report 2010

[5] J A Nyaura D N Sila and W O Owino ldquoPostharveststability of vegetable amaranths (Amaranthus dubius) combinedlow temperature and modified atmospheric packagingrdquo FoodScience and Quality Management vol 30 pp 66ndash72 2014

[6] J La Gra A Commodity Systems Assessment Methodology forProblem and Project Identification Postharvest Institute forPerishables University of Idaho IICA AFHB Moscow IdahoUSA 1990

[7] J La Gra L Kitinoja and K Alpizar Commodity SystemsAssessment Methodology for Value Chain Problem and ProjectIdentification A First Step in Food Loss Reduction Inter-American Institute for Cooperation on Agriculture San IsidroCosta Rica 2016

[8] A L Acedo Jr Postharvest Technology for VegetablesAVDRCmdashADBPostharvest Projects RETA 62086376 AVDRCPublication no 10-733 AVDRCmdashTheWorld Vegetable CenterTainan Taiwan 2010

[9] J Norman Tropical Vegetable Crops Arthur H Stockwell LtdDevon UK 1992

[10] G J H Grubben and O A Denton Eds Plant Resources ofTropical Africa 2 Vegetables PROTA Foundation WageningenThe Netherlands Backhuys Publishers Leiden The Nether-lands CTA Wageningen The Netherlands 2004

[11] E G Achigan-Dako O E D Sogbohossou and P MaunduldquoCurrent knowledge on Amaranthus spp research avenues forimproved nutritional value and yield in leafy amaranths in sub-Saharan Africardquo Euphytica vol 197 no 3 pp 303ndash317 2014

[12] M Osei-Kwarteng G K Mahunu and E Yeboah ldquoBaselinesurvey on the seasonal market share of exotic and indigenous

leafy vegetables produced sold and consumed in TamaleGhanardquoGhana Journal of Horticulture vol 10 pp 119ndash129 2012

[13] J W Creswell Educational Research Planning Conducting andEvaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research (4th edn)Pearson Education Inc Boston Mass USA 2012

[14] I K Ngugi R Gitau and J NyoroAccess to High ValueMarketsby Smallholder Farmers of African Indigenous Vegetables inKenya Regoverning Markets Innovative Practice Series IIEDLondon UK 2007

[15] ICRACBUD Indigenous Leafy Vegetables in the Upper EastRegion of Ghana Opportunities and Constraints for Conserva-tion and Commercialisation Working Document Series 102ICRACBUD Kumasi Ghana 2002

[16] F I Smith and P Eyzaguirre ldquoAfrican leafy vegetables their rolein the World Health Organizationrsquos global fruit and vegetablesinitiativerdquo African Journal of Food Agriculture Nutrition andDevelopment vol 7 no 3 pp 1ndash17 2007

[17] E Lyatuu and L Lebotse Eds Marketing of Indigenous LeafyVegetables and How Small-Scale Farmers Can Improve TheirIncomes Agricultural Research Council Dar es Salaam Tanza-nia 2010

[18] C M Shackleton MW Pasquini and AW Drescher ldquoAfricanindigenous vegetables in urban agriculture recurring themesand policyrdquo in African Indigenous Vegetables in Urban Agricul-ture C M Shackleton M W Pasquini and A W DrescherEds pp 271ndash283 Earthscan Routledge UK 2009

[19] Council for Scientific and Industrial Research GhanaGlobalFacilitation Unit for Underutilized Species ldquoUnderutilizedplant species strategies and policies Analysis of existingnational policies and legislation that enable or inhibit thewider use of underutilized plant species for food and agri-culture in Ghanardquo Report 2007 httpwwwunderutilizedspe-ciesorgrecord details id 836html

[20] P M Etwire I D K Atokple S S J Buah A L Abdulai A SKarikari and PAsungre ldquoAnalysis of the seed system inGhanardquoInternational Journal of AdvanceAgricultural Research vol 1 pp17ndash13 2013

[21] M O Abukutsa-Onyango ldquoSeed production and support sys-tems for African leafy vegetables in three communities inwestern Kenyardquo African Journal of Food Agriculture Nutritionand Development vol 7 no 3 pp 1ndash16 2007

[22] M O Oluoch G N Pichop D Silue M O Abukutsa-Onyango M Diouf and C M Shackleton ldquoProduction andharvesting systems for African indigenous leafy vegetablesrdquoin African Indigenous Vegetables in Urban Agriculture C MShackleton M W Pasquini and A W Drescher Eds pp 145ndash170 Earthscan London UK 2009

[23] G J H Grubben The Cultivation of Amaranths as a Trop-ical Leaf Vegetable with Special Reference to South-DahomeyCommunication 67 of theDepartment of Agricultural ResearchKoninklijk Instituut voor de Tropen Amsterdam NetherlandsRoyal Tropical Instistute 1976

[24] J E Knott and J Deanon Vegetable production in South-East Asia University of the Philippines Press Metro ManilaPhilippines 1967

[25] Production Guidelines ldquoAmaranthusrdquo Department of Agri-culture Forestry and Fisheries 2010 httpwwwndaagriczadocsBrochuresAmaranthuspdf

[26] WFLO ldquoIdentification of appropriate postharvest technologiesfor improving market access and incomes for small hor-ticultural farmers in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asiardquo

International Journal of Agronomy 7

World Food Logistics Organisation (WFLO) AppropriatePostharvest Technology Planning Project 2010 httpwwwucceucdavisedufilesdatastore234-1848pdf

[27] G J H Grubben ldquoAmaranthus cruentus Lrdquo in Record fromPROTA4U PROTA (Plant Resources of Tropical Africa) G J HGrubben and O A Denton Eds PROTA Wageningen TheNetherlands 2004 httpwwwprota4uorgsearchasp

[28] Klimatafel von TamalesGhana ldquoBaseline climate means(1961ndash1990) from stations all over the world (in German)rdquoDeutscher Wetterdienst

[29] L Kitinoja and A A Kader Small-Scale Postharvest Han-dling Practices A Manual for Horticultural Crops PostharvestHorticulture Series No 8E University of California DavisPostharvest Technology and Information Center 4th edition2003

[30] K M Maquire H T Sabarez and D J Tanner ldquoPostharvestpreservation and storagerdquo in Handbook of Vegetable Preserva-tion and Processing Y H Hui S Ghazala D M Graham K DMurrell andW-KNip EdsMarcel Dekker Inc NewYorkNYUSA 2004

[31] S Gupta B S Gowri A J Lakshmi and J Prakash ldquoRetentionof nutrients in green leafy vegetables on dehydrationrdquo Journalof Food Science and Technology vol 50 no 5 pp 918ndash925 2013

Submit your manuscripts athttpswwwhindawicom

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