Prof. David AlexanderD.Alexander@alice.it

Command Systemsin Emergency

Operations

Command Systemsin Emergency

Operations

In the context of emergencies,'co-ordination' means conductingprocesses and operations so thattheir functionality is guaranteed.

In the context of emergencies,'co-ordination' means conductingprocesses and operations so thattheir functionality is guaranteed.

'Command' means giving formal ordersand instructions to people and groups so

that they will take particular actions.

'Command' means giving formal ordersand instructions to people and groups so

that they will take particular actions.

Locus ofcontrol

Locus ofcollaborati

on(support)

Tension ofopposites

Command

function

principle

Support

function

principle

Spectrum ofalternatives

Locus ofcontrol

Locus ofcollaborati

on(support)

Directed.......Ungovernable

Control.......Loss of control

Order..................Chaos

Initiative.......Obey orders

Collaboration.."Freelancing"

Autonomy.........Constraint

The command and control model assumesthat the responses of the many

organisations that participate in emergencyoperations need to be centralised and

formally directed by authoritative people.

The command and control model assumesthat the responses of the many

organisations that participate in emergencyoperations need to be centralised and

formally directed by authoritative people.

In general, everyone wants to commandand control but few people are happy

to be commanded and controlled.

In general, everyone wants to commandand control but few people are happy

to be commanded and controlled.

In the modern world,emergency management means

co-ordinating more than controlling.

In the modern world,emergency management means

co-ordinating more than controlling.

At the lowest levels of the organisation ofrelief efforts, decision-making processestend to be pluralistic and decentralised.

At the lowest levels of the organisation ofrelief efforts, decision-making processestend to be pluralistic and decentralised.

Emergency conditions favour:-• uncertainty• diversity• informality• decentralisation.

Emergency conditions favour:-• uncertainty• diversity• informality• decentralisation.

Divisionand

integration

Hierarchicaldivisions

National,regional,

local, etc.

Geographicaldivisions

Catchments,

jurisdictions,

areas, etc.

Organisationaldivisions

Police,Ambulanc

e,Fire, etc.

Functionaldivisions

Government,healthcare,commerce,

etc.

Incident command system (ICS)Incident command system (ICS)

Incident command system (ICS)see: California Firescope

<www.firescope.org>

Incident command system (ICS)see: California Firescope

<www.firescope.org>

• born in the summer of 1970 in California as an alternative response to forest fires• born in the summer of 1970 in California as an alternative response to forest fires

• various versions have been devised.• various versions have been devised.

ICS is a modular system with commandinstituted at the site of the incident.

ICS is a modular system with commandinstituted at the site of the incident.

Emergency operations grow with:-• continuing assessments of needs • forces and resources available on site.

Emergency operations grow with:-• continuing assessments of needs • forces and resources available on site.

Incident command system (ICS)a strategy for the management

of field personnel

Definition: "a complex whole of operators,strategies, procedures, equipment and

materials integrated into a commonorganisational structure designed toimprove emergency operations of alltypes and at all levels of compexity."

The incident command system offers astructure designed to co-ordinate the

work of different organisations which seekto reach common objectives (stabilisation

of the incident and the protection oflives, property and the environment).

It offers an integrated organisationalstructure that can cope with complexityand the need to avoid barriers betweeninstitutions in the management process.

Emergenzainiziale

Recovery

Consolidation

Investigation

Demobilization

Resp

on

se

Resp

on

se

TimeTime

FuneralsDebriefings

Revision of plansInquestsTribunals

TrialsMemorials

PrizesAnniversaries

Training

Return tonormality

FuneralsDebriefings

Revision of plansInquestsTribunals

TrialsMemorials

PrizesAnniversaries

Training

Return tonormality

Phases of a major incidentPhases of a major incident

ICS is a management strategy.

ICS was born in southern Californiain the summer and fall of 1970:-• 13 major incidents• 200.000 hectares burnt in 13 days• 16 deaths• 800 structures destroyed by fire.

It was difficult to integrate more than 100organisatoins into the response system.

Communications were inadequate:-• radio channels were insufficient• radio frequencies were not integrated• message terminology was not sufficiently standardised.

The diffusion of information andforecasts was late and incomplete.

Experts were not always available tointerpret the information received.

The organisations did not plan together.

Resource management was inadequate:personnel and resources were lacking in

some places and excessive in others.

Conclusion: emergency operationsneed to be based on

standardised criteria.

The rapid spread of wildfire neededa multi-agency response,

namely:Firefighting Resources of California

Organized for Potential Emergencies(FIRESCOPE).

The operational procedures had tobe able to function for:• a single agency in a single area• multiple agencies in an single area• multiple agencies in multile areas.

The organisational structure must be:-

• adaptable to all types of emergency

• able to assimilate new technologies

• expandable from a simple incident to a major emergency

• made up of common elements of organisation, terminology and procedures

• compatible, as far as possible, with existing procedures

• simple enough to be learned rapidly by new recruits.

Incident command system:• incident commander(s)• information, safety and planning officers• four support sections: planning, operations, logistics, accountability/administration.

Incidentcommander

Incidentcommander's

staff

Timekeepingunit

Acquisitionsunit

Salariesunits

Compensationunit

Costestimation

unit

Resupplyunit

Buildingsunit

Fieldsupport unit

Communicationsunit

Medicalunit

Cateringunit

Aerialoperations

unit

Helicopterco-ordinator

Landingsmanagement

Helicoptermanagement

Airbase

Assembly areamanagement

Groupsdivision

Operationsunits

Singleresources

Resourcesunit

Situationsunit

Documentationunit

Demobilisationunit

Specialisttechnicians

Financesection

Logisticssection

Planningsection

Aerialsupportdirection

Operationssupport units

direction

Serviceunits

direction

Aerialoperationsdirection

Fieldoperationsdirection

Operationssection

The incident commander providesleadership at the site of the incident.

The incident commander retains responsibility for co-ordinating

operations at the scene of the emergency.

The incident commander may be thefirst person to arrive at the scene.

Command passes to the most appropriateperson (experience, training, rank, etc.).

The information officer releasesinformation to the public and works

with the mass media.

The safety officer monitors risksassociated with operations at the site

and ensures that emergency respondersare properly protected.

The planning officer is the point of contactbetween the incident commander and the

organisations that respond to the incident.

The planning section:• collects and evaluates information on the incident• defines operational priorities (together with the incident commander)• disseminates information on the incident and the response plan.

The operations section:• puts the plan of action into effect according to the plan made by the incident commander and planning section.

The logistics section:• acquires and supplies materials, equipment and services to support the emergency responders according to the instructions of the incident commander and operations section.

The accountability and admin. section:• monitors and registers expenditures• manages administrative processes.

Principles of ICS:-• common terminology• modular organisation• ability to add modules according to how the situation develops• common communications plan• integrated communications system.

Principles of ICS:-• command units• each member of personnel responds to a single commander• expandable structure of command• common decision-making processes among organisation• consolidated plan of action.

Principles of ICS:-• manageable span of control• comprehensive resource management• clear structure for command post, assembly areas, base camps, helicopter landing pads, first aid post, etc.

An example

A fire occurs:-• the fire chief is first to arrive• he assesses the situation and decides how large the fire is• he established the command post (in the opposite direction to that in which the fire is travelling)• he determines the first priorities for action.

The incident commander decideswhere to put the command post• gives his first instructions to his team• advises the team not to go too close to the fire before its nature can be investigated• appoints the security officer, who must estimate the risks.

On the basis of the type of fire, thefiremen may need to use oxygen and extinguish it with foam• the commander notes the presence of houses nearby and decides to order immediate evacuation• he notes the need to create an exclusion zone• he appoints the management officer, who contacts the police to start the evacuation• the management officer informs the police of the need for road blocks.

Some journalists arrive and approach thecommand post in search of information• the incident commander appoints the information officer, who explains the situation to the media• the commander tells the safety officer to monitor the safety of the journalists.

The fire gets worse and moreresources are needed to fight it• the incident commander asks for help from the operations centre• he tells the information officer to inform arriving units where to go and what to do to fight the fire• the commander informs the management officer to look for a reception centre for evacuees.

• the commander tells the safety officer to inform the newly-arrived units of any risks they may run.

The fire gets worse:-• the incident commander reassesses the state of emergency operations• and asks the planning officer to produce a new plan of action.

• supplies of foam start to run out, and the firemen are tired• the commander asks the logistics section to find him new sources of foam and activate a mutual assistance agreement• the commander estabilshes the administrative section, which asks the Red Cross to supply food to the fire fighters... and in the end the fire is extinguished.

Positive aspects of ICS:-• a logical system of organisation• improved safety and security for emergency responders• improved information sharing• participating organisations have plans in common• reduced span of control: realistic management• improved communications• resources acquired and used efficiently.

Negative aspects of theincident command system:-• 'command' could signify authoritarianism• it does not necessarily work well in big disasters.

ICS works well whenits objectives are:• well defined• reasonable• consistent• clear• prioritised.

ICS works well whenits objectives are:• well defined• reasonable• consistent• clear• prioritised.

The best conditions for the useof ICS are those in which:-

The best conditions for the useof ICS are those in which:-

• there is no lack of trust or leadership• there is no lack of trust or leadership• partecipants know each other and work well together• partecipants know each other and work well together• the tactics to be used are established before the incident• the tactics to be used are established before the incident• all participants are well aware of the nature and magnitude of the incident• all participants are well aware of the nature and magnitude of the incident• planning, exercising and experience have created a good consensus among all the emergency responders.

• planning, exercising and experience have created a good consensus among all the emergency responders.

The main criticisms of ICS:-The main criticisms of ICS:-

• it is difficult for the system to absorb groups of responders who are independent or poorly organised

• it is difficult for the system to absorb groups of responders who are independent or poorly organised

• it can create inflexibility when conditions change rapidly and uexpectedly

• it can create inflexibility when conditions change rapidly and uexpectedly

• its weakest point lies in the co-ordination between organisations.• its weakest point lies in the co-ordination between organisations.

• it can cause a large convergence reaction of emergency personnel, equipment and resources

• it can cause a large convergence reaction of emergency personnel, equipment and resources

• the emergency response of multiple organisations needs multiple models of command and organisation

• the emergency response of multiple organisations needs multiple models of command and organisation

• ICS is too simplistic to manage the medium- to long-term emergency.• ICS is too simplistic to manage the medium- to long-term emergency.

The main criticisms of ICS:-The main criticisms of ICS:-

Some critics argue that ICS isunable to manage situations in which:-

Some critics argue that ICS isunable to manage situations in which:-

• there are multiple impacts in a short time and a limited geographical area• there are multiple impacts in a short time and a limited geographical area

• many organisation seek to achieve many things• many organisation seek to achieve many things

• the varied objectives of emergency operations conflict with one another.• the varied objectives of emergency operations conflict with one another.

The protagonists of ICS say that manyof its inefficiencies result from failure

to train and exercise participants.

The protagonists of ICS say that manyof its inefficiencies result from failure

to train and exercise participants.

ICS:ICS:

• means rational bureaucratic organisation

• means rational bureaucratic organisation

• offers rules and protocols to enable organisations to work together• offers rules and protocols to enable organisations to work together

• favouris the apportionment of tasks• favouris the apportionment of tasks

• introduces co-ordination tasks.• introduces co-ordination tasks.

In the full development of ICS:-In the full development of ICS:-

• the main areas of concentration are operations, planning and logistics• the main areas of concentration are operations, planning and logistics

• standardised description of roles• standardised description of roles

• each role has its own programme of training• each role has its own programme of training

• there are standardised descriptions for equipment and supplies• there are standardised descriptions for equipment and supplies

• the chain of command is modern and well structured.• the chain of command is modern and well structured.

• each participant in the emergency depend son a single commander• each participant in the emergency depend son a single commander

• the span of control is limited to the number of people a single commander can effectively work with

• the span of control is limited to the number of people a single commander can effectively work with

• the level of authority is commensurate with that of responsibility• the level of authority is commensurate with that of responsibility

• emergency tasks are assigned to responders rationally irrespective of their ranks.

• emergency tasks are assigned to responders rationally irrespective of their ranks.

In the most developed form of ICS:-In the most developed form of ICS:-

• work is divided by sector• work is divided by sector

• emphasis is given to efficiency, efficacy and safety• emphasis is given to efficiency, efficacy and safety

• the "principle of scale": the dimensions and compexity of ICS depend on those of the event that miust be managed

• the "principle of scale": the dimensions and compexity of ICS depend on those of the event that miust be managed

• ICS consists of a network of responses to the event that incorporate both internal and external resources.

• ICS consists of a network of responses to the event that incorporate both internal and external resources.

In the most developed form of ICS:-In the most developed form of ICS:-

ICS uses:-• a unified command• command at the site (area command)• a multi-agency command.

ICS uses:-• a unified command• command at the site (area command)• a multi-agency command.

Resorces:-(structures - things - tasks)• manpower (personnel)• vehicles (light and heavy)• equipment• materials and supplies• buildings and structures.

Resorces:-(structures - things - tasks)• manpower (personnel)• vehicles (light and heavy)• equipment• materials and supplies• buildings and structures.

The logistics section bringsresources to the assembly area

(or point of distribution)

The logistics section bringsresources to the assembly area

(or point of distribution)

The operations section sends resourcesto their final destinations and directsall activities at the site by means of:-• a strategic plan (of action)• a tactical plan, which supplies objectives for each period of operations (the plan of action for the incident).

The operations section sends resourcesto their final destinations and directsall activities at the site by means of:-• a strategic plan (of action)• a tactical plan, which supplies objectives for each period of operations (the plan of action for the incident).

A task force(for example, of firefighters):-• operations section• planning and information section• logistics section.

A task force(for example, of firefighters):-• operations section• planning and information section• logistics section.

In synthesis, ICS:-In synthesis, ICS:-

• clarifies command processes• clarifies command processes

• assigns all the responsibilities• assigns all the responsibilities

• favours collaboration between rescuers, including mutual assistance between diverse organisations and areas of competence.

• favours collaboration between rescuers, including mutual assistance between diverse organisations and areas of competence.

• can be used at various geographical scales• can be used at various geographical scales

• sends scarce resources immediately where they are needed• sends scarce resources immediately where they are needed

• is generally flexible• is generally flexible

• creates comparable standardised components in all organisations that participate in the system.

• creates comparable standardised components in all organisations that participate in the system.

In synthesis, ICS:-In synthesis, ICS:-

The bronze-silver-goldThe bronze-silver-gold

Bronze - operations

Silver - tactics

Gold - strategies

[Diamond - policies]

UK: 3 commands, 4 levelsPolice - Fire Services - Medical Services

LEAD GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTLEAD GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENT

MediaCentreMediaCentre

MediaLiaisonPoint

MediaLiaisonPoint

TemporaryMortuary

TemporaryMortuary

SurvivorReception

Centre

SurvivorReception

Centre

ReceivingHospitalsReceivingHospitals

Relatives’Reception

Centre

Relatives’Reception

Centre

Local AuthorityEmergency Centre

Local AuthorityEmergency Centre

Strategic Co-ordinating GroupPolice Local authorityFire Military forcesAmbulance Government advisorsOther agencies

Strategic Co-ordinating GroupPolice Local authorityFire Military forcesAmbulance Government advisorsOther agencies

Strategiclevel

Strategiclevel

VoluntaryAgenciesVoluntaryAgencies

CasualtyBureau

CasualtyBureau

Publicenquiries

Publicenquiries

OUTERCORDON

BodyHolding

Area

BodyHolding

AreaAmbulance

LoadingPoint

AmbulanceLoading

Point

CasualtyClearingStation

CasualtyClearingStation

VehicleMarshalling

Area

VehicleMarshalling

Area

Incident Control PointPolice

FireAmbulance

Liaison

Incident Control PointPolice

FireAmbulance

Liaison

Tacticallevel

Tacticallevel

INNER CORDON

Site of DisasterPoliceFireAmbulanceSpecialist advisors

Operationallevel

Operationallevel

Pedestrians only

Cordon III for traffic control

Cordon III for traffic control Multi-agency

operationscommand.

Multi-agencyoperationscommand.

Publicassembly areaPublicassembly area

Rescuers'assembly pointRescuers'assembly pointPoints of

access tocordonedoff areas

Points ofaccess tocordonedoff areas

Onlyrescuers

Cordon ICordon I

Only authorisedpersonnel Cordon IICordon II

Incident

ResultsResults Operations Operations

Procedures Procedures

Plans Plans

Policies PoliciesCommandsystems:• operations centres• task forces• communications• chains of command

Commandsystems:• operations centres• task forces• communications• chains of command

Bronze command (operations) must:-Bronze command (operations) must:-

• estimate the geographical size and seriousness of the problem• estimate the geographical size and seriousness of the problem

• assign control of a specific geographical area to a particular commander

• assign control of a specific geographical area to a particular commander

• begin the process of co-ordination for organisations working at the site.• begin the process of co-ordination for organisations working at the site.

Silver command (tactical) must:-Silver command (tactical) must:-

• determine priorities in the allocation of resources• determine priorities in the allocation of resources

• plan and co-ordinate tasks• plan and co-ordinate tasks

• establish general command over all operatons, not merely at specific sites associated with the incident

• establish general command over all operatons, not merely at specific sites associated with the incident

• mantain a register of decisions and actions taken.• mantain a register of decisions and actions taken.

Gold command (strategic) must:-Gold command (strategic) must:-

• establish the strategic matrix in which tactical commanders work• establish the strategic matrix in which tactical commanders work

• supply adequate resource support to tactical commands• supply adequate resource support to tactical commands

• form a strategic co-ordination group to ensure multi-agency response.• form a strategic co-ordination group to ensure multi-agency response.

In an emergency the bronze level(operations) is activated before

the silver and gold levels.

In an emergency the bronze level(operations) is activated before

the silver and gold levels.

The operations centre (silver) decideswhether to activate the emergency

plan and puts into action themeasures needed to tackle the incident.

The operations centre (silver) decideswhether to activate the emergency

plan and puts into action themeasures needed to tackle the incident.

Emergency responseplanning

Contingency planning inthe pre-emergency phase (days)

Permanent emergency plan

Incident

Operational planning

Short-term strategicplanning (hours -> days)

Short-term tacticalplanning (hours)

Recovery andreconstruction

planning

Strategic,tactical & operationalplanning

Aftermath

Disaster

Monitoringprediction& warning

Permanent emergency plan

Business continuity plan

Information technologyand command

Information technologyand command

The use of information technologyenables the emergency coordinator to:-

The use of information technologyenables the emergency coordinator to:-

• manage data banks of the available resources• manage data banks of the available resources

• maintain a record of events and decisions (for example regarding resource allocation) both for individual functions and all operations together

• maintain a record of events and decisions (for example regarding resource allocation) both for individual functions and all operations together

• follow up emergency operations.• follow up emergency operations.

• use compatible cartographic software to register the location of impacts, resources and effects

• use compatible cartographic software to register the location of impacts, resources and effects

• construct lists of decisions relating to actions that need to be taken• construct lists of decisions relating to actions that need to be taken

• make rapid reference to the emergency plan or other support documents• make rapid reference to the emergency plan or other support documents

• communicate from the operations operations centre with people outside it.• communicate from the operations operations centre with people outside it.

The use of information technologyenables the emergency coordinator to:-

The use of information technologyenables the emergency coordinator to:-

The concept of the "lead agency"The concept of the "lead agency"

• the reference organisation for basic command in the incident• the reference organisation for basic command in the incident• must assume a co-ordinating role and preside over decision processes, above all at the site of the incident

• must assume a co-ordinating role and preside over decision processes, above all at the site of the incident • could be any of the main emergency response organisations (e.g. fire service)• could be any of the main emergency response organisations (e.g. fire service)• in the UK it is the police, as the first issue is deemed to be the maintenance of public order.

• in the UK it is the police, as the first issue is deemed to be the maintenance of public order.

Some problems of command:Some problems of command:

• recognise rapidly the magnitude of the event• recognise rapidly the magnitude of the event

• declare the emergency rapidly and in a synchronised way between participating organisations

• declare the emergency rapidly and in a synchronised way between participating organisations

• maintain lines of communication between organisations• maintain lines of communication between organisations

• ensure full sharing of information.• ensure full sharing of information.

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