COMING DOWN THE MOUNTAIN:

TRANSFORMATIONS OF CONTEMPLATIVE CULTURE

IN EASTERN TIBET

ELIZABETH A. McDOUGAL

A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts (Research)

Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences University of Sydney

March 2016

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TableofContents

ComingDowntheMountain:TransformationsofContemplativeCultureinEasternTibetTitlePage................................................................. 1TableofContents........................................................... 2Acknowledgements......................................................... 4Abstract.................................................................. 5 INTRODUCTION............................................................ 6Methodology.............................................................. 8Literaturereview........................................................... 10Anoteontermsandconventions............................................. 13Outlineofchapters......................................................... 14 CHAPTERONEGoingUptheMountain:TheLifeofContemplativeCultureinEasternTibet

TheoriginsofTibetancontemplativeculture................................... 16sGomsdeNangchen:‘TheLandofMeditators’................................. 19TheyoginasculturalheroinEasternTibet...................................... 24TheRismedmovement,andGadchagsdGonpaasanexampleofcontemplativeculture.......................................................

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Gadchags’spracticesystem.................................................. 28Tothepresent............................................................. 33Conclusion................................................................ 38 CHAPTERTWOComingDowntheMountain:FromtheCavetotheClassroom

Post-Maoreformsfromthe1980s:legalizedreligioninaMarxiststate............. 39‘DeveloptheWest’:forcefuleconomicdevelopmentoftheTibetanPlateau......... 41Theerosionofahighaltitudevaluesystem.................................... 43TibetanBuddhistresurgenceanddomestictourism............................. 46bLarungsGarmkhanpoandtheirmovementsforeducationalandethicalreforms............................................................

48

Theinfluxofmonasticcollegesandthe‘newintellect’(riggsar)inEasternTibet..............................................................

53

GadchagsdGonpaasavestigeofNangchen’sformercontemplativeculture........ 59Conclusion................................................................ 66 CHAPTERTHREEWhytheNewEmphasisonDegree-orientedScholasticStudyinthePracticeLineagesofEasternTibet?

Religionina‘SocialistSpiritualCivilization’:atheism,superstitionandthesurvivaloftherational......................................................

67

ThescientificdiscourseinBuddhismandparalleltransformationsinBurmaandSriLanka..............................................................

73

ModernityinChinaandtheglobalizinginfluenceofmodernBuddhism.............. 78Knowledgepassedthroughtexts,knowledgepassedorally........................ 81Conclusion................................................................ 87

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CHAPTERFOURTheYoginoftheFuture?PossibleFuturePathwaysforTibetanContemplativeCultureTantricBuddhismasanextensionofthestate?................................. 89Countercultureofthefuture?TheritualandsocialpoweroftheNangchenyogin...........................................................

92

TibetanBuddhismonthePlateauasatouchstoneforglobalizingTibetanBuddhism.................................................................

95

CONCLUSION.............................................................. 99 Glossary.................................................................. 106AppendixI................................................................. 109AppendixII................................................................ 109AppendixIII................................................................ 110REFERENCES.............................................................. 111

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Acknowledgements

TherearemanypeopletowhomIamgratefulfortheirguidanceand

encouragementduringthecourseofmyMaster’sresearchanddissertationwriting.

ThefirstpeopleIwouldliketothankaremyresearchsupervisors,Professor

GeoffreySamuelandDr.MarkAllon,whosededicationtobringingoutthebestin

theirstudentsbroughtanaddeddepthtomystudies.Iamsincerelythankfulaswell

todBangdragRinpoche,aGadchagslamawhoseembodimentoftheTibetanyogic

viewandsimplicityinexplainingittomeservedasabridgeacrossworlds,that

wouldhavebeenotherwisehardtocross.TheGadchagsnunsandotherteachers

andfriendsinNangchenhavesharedanabundanceofculturalknowledgeand

kindness,whichhelpedmeinthisresearchandinmanyotherways.

Iamindebtedaswelltoseveralindividualsfortheirfinancialsupportduringthe

courseofmyMaster’sresearch,particularlyFenyi-Lu,theTanfamilyofSingapore,

DeborahStevenson,theBoglesandtheMarshall-Roberts.Thesefriendsallowedme

totakeholdofanexcellentopportunitywhenitpresenteditself,andtoexpandmy

understandingofsubjectsthatinterestmethemost.

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Abstract

SinceTibet’sabruptmeetinginthe1980swiththemodernizingforcesofcapitalism,

scienceandtheChinesegovernment’ssocialistpoliciesonreligion,Buddhistculture

inEasternTibetisshiftingtowardsavaluingofscholasticknowledgeoveryogic,

experientialknowledge.ThisisevidentincontemporaryTibetandiscussionswhere

practitionersarecriticizedwhodonotmarrytheirmeditationandyogicpractices

within-depthtextualstudy.Itisalsoevidentinamoveofmonasticsfromretreat

centrestostudycentres.TheshiftisparticularlyapparentinNangchen(Ch.

Nangqian),aformerkingdominKhams,EasternTibet,whereorallineagesthat

engagedintantricsādhanāandyogaswithoutextensivedialecticalstudyusedtofill

theregion’smanyhermitages.ThisresearchtakesGadchagsdGonpa1inNangchen

asanexampleofTibet’searliercontemplativeculture,andjuxtaposesthenunnery’s

determinationtopreserveitsoriginalpracticetraditionswiththeshifttowards

scholasticismtakingplaceelsewhereintheregion.Theresearchinvestigatesfactors

andinfluencesbehindthetrendforincreasedscholasticism,whileconsideringfuture

pathwaysforTibetanyogiccultureandquestionsforfurtherresearch.

1IprefertousetheTibetantermdgonpathanitsoftentranslated‘monastery’attimesinthispaper.Thetermisbroaderandincludesnunneriesaswellassomelargehermitages,andthereforebetterdescribesthetypeofmonasticcommunitythatwascommoninNangchen,theparticularsettingofthisresearch.InthiscaseGadchagsdGonpaisanunnery.

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INTRODUCTION

Thisthesisisaboutanewtrendofdegree-orientedscholasticisminmanyEastern

Tibetandgonpathathasemergedoverthelastdecade.Overthesameperiodof

timeandforsomeofthesamereasonsanewtrendofethnographicalresearchhas

beenemerginginTibetanstudies.Variouspoliticalandlogisticalreasonsprecluded

ethnographiesfrombeingacommonmethodofforeignresearchonTibetan

BuddhisminChinapriortothe1980s.SinceDengXiaoping’sliberalizingreforms

grantedfreedomofreligiousbeliefforitscitizensandopenedChina’smarketto

tourism,aslowlygrowingbodyoffieldwork-basedresearchhasbeeninvestigating

questionsonthestatusofTibetanreligionandcultureinmodernChina.This

fieldwork-basedresearchisaddinganewdimensiontothe“ongoingwarof

representationsconcerningcontemporaryTibetanreligioninChina”remarkedonby

Kapstein(Kapstein2004:230).Contrarytotheearlier,prevailingperspectivein

WesterncountriesthatTibetanBuddhismisbeingsystematicallyeradicatedinChina

byitsCommunistgovernment2,theseethnographieshavediscoveredthatinmany

waysTibetanBuddhisminChinahasrevivedandthrives.

AsYüpointsout,theseethnographiesareastepawayfromtheprimarilytextual

basisthatuntilrecentlyhasbeenthemaininformantofTibetanstudiesfocusedon

KhamsandAmdo.Theyarealsoastepawayfromthecommonperceptionof

CentralTibetastheheartoftheTibetanBuddhistworld(Yü2006:6).Thefieldwork

researchofGermano,GoldsteinandKapstein,Gaerrang,Gayley,Makley,Schrempf,

Terrone,TurekandYüandothershasobservedaTibetanBuddhistrevivaltaking

placeinChinainwhichEasternTibetisthenewculturalandreligiouscentre.Han

ChinesearenowaconsiderabledemographicparticipatinginTibetanBuddhismin

China,andformalargepartofthereligion’swidersocialcontexttoday.

2SeeforexampleJohnPowersIntroductiontoTibetanBuddhism,p.18.

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Germano’s1998‘Re-memberingtheDismemberedBodyofTibet’describesthe

recoveryofinstitutionalpresenceandtheunearthingofsacredobjectsbyKhenpo

JigmePhuntsok(mKhanpo’JigsmedPhuntshogs,1933-2004)thatreconstitutedthe

rNyingmatraditioninpartsofEasternTibetaftertheCulturalRevolution(Germano

1998).IagreewithYü’sassessmentofGermanothatwhilewhatwas‘dismembered’

ofthebodyofTibetisclearandalmostuniversallyunderstood3,whatisbeing‘re-

membered’intheTibetanBuddhistrevivalrequirescontinuedethnographicand

theoreticalinvestigationthatgoesbeyonditslocalized,physicalsetting(Yü2006:6-

11).Thepresentresearchisapartoffurtherinvestigationsonthisandfindsthat

TibetanBuddhisminChinaiscontinuingtoreformulateitselfaccordingtorapidly

changingneedsofarapidlymodernizingsociety.Theoverwhelmingspeedand

spectrumofchangestolifeinEasternTibetoverthelasttwenty-fiveyearshave

resultedinaTibetanreligiousrevivalthatatsomepointbraceditself.Iseethis

expressedintheincreaseofscholarshipinthepracticelineagesofEasternTibetthat

isthetopicofthisthesis.WhatstartedinEasternTibetbetweenthe1980sandearly

2000sasarevivaloftantricpracticesandpracticecommunities–asobservedby

GermanoatgSerrta,TerroneinmGolog,TurekinNangchenandothers–hasinmy

observationsoverthelasttenyearstransformedintoamovementofinstitutionally

strengtheningcommunitiesthatemphasizedegree-orientedstudy.Thusthemonks

andnunsofseveralofGadchags’sbranchdgonpawhointhe1990sspenttheirdays

practisingacurriculumofritualandmeditationbasedonTshangsdbyangsrGya

mtsho’scommentaryonagterma(concealedtreasure),nowspendatleasthalfof

eachdaystudyingclassicaltextsofMahāyānaphilosophy.Inthemajorityofother

rNyingmaandbKa’brgyuddgonpainNangchenthesameshifttomorescholastic

activitieshasbeenoccurringoverthelastdecade.

DueinparttotherelativescarcityofrecentfieldresearchinTibetandtotherapidly

changingsceneoftheTibetanBuddhistrevival,thepresentresearchisthefirstto

addressthistrendtowardsintensifiedscholasticisminEasternTibetandgonpa.

3Namely,thesystematicdemolitionofTibetanBuddhismandallreligionsinChinafromthe1950sto1970s(includingtheCulturalRevolution),whichisattimesacknowledgedevenbyChinesestatesmen(Yü2006:7).

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ScholarshipandpracticearebothimportantcomponentsofallTibetanBuddhist

schools,whicharebasedonthephilosophicaltraditionsofancientIndia’sNalanda

UniversityandonthepracticemethodsofVajrayāna.Therecenttrendissignificant

inthatitappearstodivergefromearlierpatternsofscholasticrevivalinTibetan

history,particularlyinitsattitudesofskepticismandinthematerialismofitsdegree-

orientation4.ThenewemphasisonscholasticismisespeciallyvisibleinNangchen,a

formerkingdominnorthwestKhamsandtheparticularsettingofthisresearch.

Eighty-threepercentofthedgonpainpresent-dayNangchenaresub-lineagesof

thebKa’brgyudandrNyingmaschools5whosetraditionalemphasiswason

liturgical,contemplativetrainingandtheoralinstructionsofaqualifiedguru6asthe

highestinstructiveprinciple.

InaddressingthecontemplativecultureofNangchenthisresearchaddsto

discussionsonthesignificanceofKhamsinthetotalityofTibetanBuddhistculture

andhistory7,whichhasoftenbeenoverlookedbyTibetanstudiesrelativetoCentral

Tibetanperspectives.Theresearchisalsotimelyinthatthecontemplativetraditions

andtantricmastersthatcharacterizedmuchofEasternTibetancultureandmadeit

significantinTibet’shistoryareshowingsignsofwaninginChinaoverthelast

decade.

Methodology

Setastheyareinacomplexwebofforcesandrapidsocialchanges,myresearch

questionshaverequiredamulti-facetedapproachofparticipatoryobservation,

interviewsandtheoreticalanalysis.Mystartingoffpointforthisthesiswasthe

participatoryobservationsImadeofatrendtowardsincreasedscholasticismin

4IexpectthesamequalitiesareseeninthescholasticdGelugsandSaskyaschoolstodayaswell,thoughIhavenotfocusedontheseschoolsinthisresearch.5KarmaDon-grubPhun-tshogsshowsthat59%ofNangchendgonpaarebKa’brgyud,24%arerNyingma,13%areSaskyaand4%aredGelugs(Karma1999).6i.e.‘lama’(blama)inTibetan7SeediscussionsinOldmeadow(2012),Samuel(1993,2005),Smith(2012)andTurek(2013).

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Tibetanpracticelineages8overthelasttenyearsonannualvisitstoNangchenand

GadchagsdGonpa.IobservedasimilartrendinIndiawhilelivingasanuninTibetan

nunneriestherebetween2000and2014,thoughexiledTibetanBuddhist

communitiesarenotthefocusofthisresearch.Myobservationsincludedthe

markedphysicalchangesIsawyearbyyearinthedevelopmentoftowns,

infrastructure,technology,religiousstructuresandstudyprogramsinNangchen9.

TheyalsoincludedTibetanconversations,debatesandlecturesthatIheardand

participatedin,bothfirst-handandontheinternet.

Alongwithparticipatoryobservation,mymainsourceofdataformystudyofGad

chagsdGonpaconsistsofinterviewsthatIconductedanddigitallyrecordedwith

Gadchagsnunsandlamasin2006and2013.In2006IbeganworkingforGadchags

dGonpaasitsEnglishsecretaryandastranslatorfortheGadchagslamamostactive

inprovidingforthenuns’materialneeds.Thisallowedmetwo-monthvisitstoNang

chenalmosteveryyearasatranslatorforWesternvisitorstothenunnery(usually

sponsorsandstudentsofGadchagslamas),andtoengageinmyownshort

meditationretreatsatvarioushermitagesinNangchen.The2006interviewswere

conductedwiththeGadchagsnunsonmyfirstvisittothenunnerythatlastedone

month.TheinterviewsweredoneprimarilyformyowninterestasaBuddhistnun,

andrecordedbecauseIdeemedthemvaluableforsharingwithotherWestern

Buddhists.InmostinterviewsIwasalonewithanindividualnunandfocusedmy

questionsonhowsheviewedherBuddhistpracticesandlifeatGadchagsdGonpa.

The2013interviewswereconductedforthesakeofinterestedWesternstudents

andsupportersoftheGadchagstradition.dBangdragRinpoche,aseniorGadchags

lama,waspresentateachinterviewcoaxingthenunstorecalltheirstoriesfor

8Specificallysub-lineagesoftherNyingmaandbKa’brgyudschoolsthathavetraditionallyemphasizedaguru’soralinstructionsandpracticeexperienceasthemostimportantlearningprinciples.9OneexampleisthatthelastsectionofmyjourneytoGadchagsdGonpain2006wasonhorseback.Adirtroadreachedonlyhalfwaytothenunnery;afterthatwedroveforseveralhoursoverfieldsandhillsbeforesaddlinghorsesforthelastsection.By2015apavedroadhadbeenbuiltnearlyallthewaytoGadchagsdGonpaandtheremaining20kmisadirtroadregularlytravelledbylocalTibetanfamiliesintheirSUVs,transporttrucksandconstructionsworkers.

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posterityofthenunneryandforthebenefitofforeignBuddhists.Iformulatedthe

questions,alongwithtwootherWesternBuddhistvisitors,andposedthemtothe

nuns.ThemainthemeofourquestionswastheelderlyGadchagsnunswhosurvived

theCulturalRevolutionandre-establishedthenunneryanditstraditionsfromthe

early1980s.Wewantedtolearnaboutthesenunswhowereresponsibleforthe

continuationofGadchags’sfemalelineagetothepresent,andtorecordtheirstories

asnootherdocumentationoftheirliveshadeverbeenmade.Wewerealso

interestedtoheartheinterviewedGadchagsnuns’understandingoftheirBuddhist

practices.WhennecessaryduringtheinterviewsdBangdragRinpochetranslatedthe

nuns’NangchendialectintotheCentralTibetandialectthatIamcompetentin.I

transcribedandtranslatedthe2006and2013interviewsin2007and2014.dBang

dragRinpochehelpedagainduringthosetimes,alongwithaGadchagsnun,to

clarifyphrasesoftheNangchendialectthatIdidnotunderstand.

In2015duringtheyearIcomposedthisthesisIhadfurtherinformaldiscussionswith

severalEasternTibetanmonks,nunsandlaypeople.Thesediscussionsprovidedme

withlocalperspectivesaboutTibetancontemplativeculture,abouthowithasbeen

changinginthelastfewdecadesandpossiblecausesofthesechanges.

Iaugmentedandanalysedtheabove-mentioneddatausingliteraturefromvarious

researchfields.Whiletheseresearchfieldsaredisparate,eachonedirectlyrelatesto

thequestionsofmythesis.Theseresearchfieldscoverthefollowing:Chinesestudies

ontheChineseCommunistParty’s(CCP’s)policiesonreligion;Buddhisthistorical

studiesonBuddhism’sencounterwithscienceandmodernityinSriLanka,Burma

andglobally;oralityandliteracystudies;andTibetananthropologicalstudies,

especiallyfieldwork-basedresearchontherevivalofTibetanBuddhisminpost-Mao

China.Ihavegivenmoreattentiontothefieldworkofresearcherswhohavespent

extendedperiodsoftimeinChinaoverthelasttenyears.Thisisbecausethe

situationinTibetischangingsorapidlysincethe1980sthatitrequiressustained

observationtounderstandthemanyfactorsatplayinTibetanBuddhistculturein

Chinatoday.

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Literaturereview

Thefieldwork-basedstudiesofGaerrang,YüandTurekhaveprovidedthemost

relevantinformationforthisresearchandhaveshapedmythesisconsiderably.

Gaerrang10offersinsightsontheCCP’spoliciesandperceptionofTibetannomads,

andhowits‘DeveloptheWest’campaignisrestructuringtheirlivesandstrainingthe

materialcontextofTibetanculturalvalues(Gaerrang2012).Hisstudyalsoreveals

theself-perceptionofmanyTibetannomadstoday,andthetremendousinfluenceof

bLarungsGarmonk-scholars(andimplicitly,TibetanBuddhism)ontheEastern

Tibetanlaityviaananimalslaughterrenunciationmovementandotheraspectsof

ethicalreforms.Gayleyexploresthesameslaughterrenunciationmovementandthe

inherenttensioninTibetans’effortstofulfilbothBuddhistmoralandcultural

preservation,andthematerialdemandsofthemodernizingeconomy(Gayley2013).

Yü’sresearchlookstothepsychologyoftheTibetanBuddhistrevivalandthe

recoveryofhumanmindsfromthe“destructiveideologicalconsciousnesses”ofthe

pastcenturyinChina(Yü2006:10).Yü’sexplorationoftheinterfacebetween

ChineseandTibetansintheTibetanreligiousrevival,andoftheideologicalhistoryof

modernChina,providedvaluableinsightsintotheteachingstyleofTibetanBuddhist

teachersinChinatoday.

Turek’ssynthesisofTibetanhistoricalliteratureonNangchenandheranalysisofthe

significanceofyoginsandtheirlineagesinNangchenandwiderKhamssocietywere

invaluableformyresearch(Turek2013,inpress).Turekgivesadetailedhistoryof

Nangchen’sseminalyogin-kingsofthe’Ba’rombKa’brgyudlineage,andthat

lineage’srevivalintheRismederaandinapresent-dayinstanceofhermiticrevival

nearsKyobragmonasteryinNangchen.Turek’stheoreticalanalysisofreligious

revivalsandthepotentialofTibetanyoginstorevitalizeTibetanculturalidentity

providedseriousfoodforthought.Herresearchbasedonfieldworkfrom2007and

10GaerrangisanativeEasternTibetanfromHongyuanCounty(SichuanProvince).HespentfouryearscompletinghisPhDatUniversityofColoradoandpresentlyteachesatSichuanUniversityinChengdu.

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2008lendscredencetomyemphasisonthesignificanceofcontemplativeculturein

pre-modernEasternTibetansociety,thoughIhavenotobservedsince2006the‘vast

hermiticmovement’thatTurekspeaksof(Turek2013:100).Ahermiticmovementof

EasternTibetanpracticelineageswaspresentinthefirsthalfofthe20thcentury

duringtheRismedera(asTurekshows),andmusthavebeennascentinthefirst

stagesofthecurrentTibetanBuddhistrevival–asobservedalsobyGermano(1998)

andTerrone(2009).TurekadmitsthattantricspecializationisdeclininginTibetin

recentdecades(Turek2013:8-9).

Kapstein’sresearchbasedonfieldworkfrom1998and2000looksatthemonastic

revivalinEasternTibetandthecross-pollinationofvaluestakingplacebetween

TibetanandChineseparticipantsintoday’sTibetanBuddhism(Kapstein2004).Like

KolasandThowsen(2005),Kapsteinisinformativeonstateschoolcurriculataughtto

youthinTibetanethnicareasandhowtheexpansionofseculareducationisrevising

theroleofTibetanmonasteries,languageandculture.

FurtherethnographiesofreligiousrevivalinTibetanareasincludeWellen’sstudyof

thePremipeopleattheYunnan-Sichuanborder(Wellens2010),andtheworksof

bothMakleyandSchrempfthatfocusonethno-religiousmovementsandtheir

correlativestate-societyrelationsinAmdo(Makley2007,2010;Schrempf2002).As

theseareashaveverydifferentpastandpresentbackgroundsfromNangchenand

donothavemajoritypopulationsofbKa’brgyudandrNyingmapracticelineages,

theirstudiesonlyobliquelyrelatetothequestionsofmyresearch.

OutsidethefieldofEasternTibet,CookeandYangprovidekeyinformationonthe

CCP’sreligiouspoliciesandthepoliticalrealitythatnowhousesTibetanBuddhism

(Cooke2005,2009;Yang2012).McMahanandLopezbothpresentadetailed

backgroundofBuddhistmodernismanditsEast-Westorigins(McMahan2008,2012;

Lopez2002,2009).Samuel’sdiscussionsofpre-modernTibetansocietiesandthe

uniquelyTibetanrelationshipbetweenthe‘clerical’andthe‘shamanic’inTibetan

religionareanelevatedpointofreferenceforanalysis(Samuel1993,2005).Cole

andColegavemeanintroductiontotheideasofGoodyandA.R.Luria(Cole&Cole

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2006),andalongwithOngpresentastimulativediscussiononthementalmodes

thataccompanyorally-andtextually-transmittedknowledge(Ong1986).

Anoteontermsandconventions

InthispaperIusethename‘EasternTibet’torefertoTibetanethnicregionsoutside

oftheTibetAutonomousRegion(TAR)–traditionallyKhamsandAmdo,which

comprisetwothirdsoftheTibetanPlateau11.Inrecentyearstheseregionshavehad

amarkedlydifferentsocio-politicalatmospherethanthetightlycontrolledTARand

havebeenthegeneralsettingofmyinquiries12.‘Tibet’willbeusedoccasionallyto

refertoTibetanregionsofthePRC,notasanexpressionofpoliticalviewsbutto

avoidrepetitionofthelong-winded‘theTARandTibetanprefecturesinQinghai,

Sichuan,YunnanandGansu’.

TypicallyinTibetantextstheterm‘yogin’(rnal’byorpa)referstoanindividualwho

hasmasteredthemeditationand‘yogas’(rnal’byor)oftantricBuddhism,whichI

discussinmoredetailbelowinChapterOne.InthisdissertationIusetheterm

‘yogin’torefertolayandordainedTibetanswhoengageinprolongedperiodsof

focusedVajrayānapracticeatsomestageintheirlives,betheyeliteornovice.Thus

‘yogin’inthisdissertationreferstothetypeofpersonactiveinTibet’scontemplative

culture,particularlyinbKa’brgyudandrNyingmapracticelineages.Theseyogic

practicelineagespopulatedtheNangchenregionwhichisthefocusofthisresearch,

andhavetraditionallyemphasizedoralinstructionsandpracticeovertextualstudy.

InthescholasticGelukschoolwheremonksweregenerallydiscouragedfromtantric

practiceuntilcompletingadecades-longcurriculumofsūtrastudy13,yoginswerea

considerablysmallerpopulation.

11EasternTibetisknowninTibetanasmDoKhams(comprisingAmdoandKhams).12Onereasonforthedifferentsocio-politicalatmosphereisthattheTARiseffectivelyruledbyBeijing,whereasadministrationinTibetanprovincesoutsidetheTARisconductedmainlyatcountyandprefecturelevels,oftenwithTibetancivilservantsparticipating.ReligiousandculturalmattersthereforetendtoreflectmorelocaldiscretioninEasternTibet(Kapstein2004:249).13LifeindGelugspamonasteriesdoesentailafairamountoftantricritualindailypujas,butseriousyogicpracticeistypicallypursuedonlybyelite,seniormonks.

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Ialsousetheterm‘contemplative’interchangeablywith‘yogic’(theadjectivalform

of‘yoga’)inthisdissertation.BothtermsintheTibetancontextalsoimply‘tantric’as

theyrefertoengagementofVajrayānatantricmethods.Thecolloquialmeaningof

‘contemplate’,ortheTibetanbsamasinthosbsamsgom(‘hearing,contemplating,

meditating’),istothinkormentallyreflectuponsomething.Inthispaper

‘contemplative’insteadaccordswithitsreligioussenseofthemindinone-pointed

prayerormeditation.AprimaryintentofVajrayānapracticeisforthemindtorest

in,orcultivatethestateof,nondualconsciousnessthattranscendsbothsubjectivity

andobjectivity.Tibetancontemplativepracticeisthereforedifferentfromthe

ratiocinationofintellectualstudy,thoughthetwoprocessestraditionally

complementedandinformedeachotherinallTibetanBuddhistschools.Oneway

thatTibetanBuddhistschoolsdifferisintherelativeemphasistheyputoneach

process.

AllTibetan,ChineseandSanskritwordsinthispaperaretransliterated,exceptfor

namesandtermsthathavebeenassimilatedintoEnglish,likelama,yoga,etc.

TibetantransliterationsarewrittenaccordingtotheWyliescheme,andlistedagain

withtheirtranslationsintheglossary.ChinesetransliterationsarewritteninPinyin

withoutdiacriticsandprecededwith‘Ch.’Sanskrittermsaretransliteratedwith

diacriticsandprecededwith‘Skt.’

Outlineofchapters

ChapterOnebrieflyexplainstheoriginsofTibetancontemplative(oryogic)culture,

andhowitcharacterizedNangcheninEasternTibetbeforethe1950sinahigh

altitudesocietyinvolvingnomads,numerousmonastichermitagesandaloose

politicalstructurerunbyBuddhistkings.Adescriptionofthepracticecultureand

curriculumofGadchagsdGonpaactsasanexampleofNangchen’scontemplative

culture.

ChapterTwodescribesthesettingofTibetancontemplativecultureinpost-Mao

Chinasincethe1980s,particularlythepositionofTibet’straditionaleconomyand

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cultureunderthegovernment’sdoctrineofscientificatheismanditsforcefuldrive

tomodernizetheTibetanPlateauanditsinhabitants.Thechapterthenturnstothe

centralinterestofthisthesis:arecentandnewemphasisonrationalized,degree-

orientedstudyinEasternTibetandgonpa,andhowcommunitieslikeGadchags

dGonpawhoareretainingpurelypracticecurriculaarebecomingavestigeofthe

past.

ChapterThreeattemptstouncoverthereasonsbehindtheshifttorationalizedstudy

inEasternTibetandgonpa.Itconsidersgovernmentpoliciesonreligion;how

conditionsofcolonialismunderscientific-mindedregimesmayshapeascientific

discourseinBuddhism;worldwidetrendsinmodernBuddhismandtheirinfluence

onTibetandgonpa;andthedifferenceinmentalmodesassociatedwithtextually-

andorally-transmittedknowledge.Alsoexploredishowthisdifferenceinmental

modeshighlightsthechangingviewinthemindsofEasternTibetansastheirreligion

isforcedtomodernize.

ChapterFourroundsofftheconsiderationsofChapterThreebyventuring

suggestionsforthefutureofTibetancontemplativeculture.Itconsiderswhether

tantricBuddhismcansurviveundertheauthoritarian,atheistruleoftheChinese

CommunistParty;thesocialempowermentofTibetanyoginsandhowtheymay

continuewithinacountercultureofthefuture;andincentiveforTibetanyogins

offeredbyTibetanBuddhismexpandingasaninternationalreligion.

Thethesis’Conclusionconnectstheexplorationsofthisresearchtorecent

statementsmadebyTibetanlamasaboutthefutureofTibetanBuddhist

contemplativeculture.Itoverviewstheresultsofthestudyandthemethodological

challengesfacedtherein,whileidentifyingquestionsandavenuesforfurther

enquiry.

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CHAPTERONE

GoingUptheMountain:TheLifeofContemplativeCultureinEasternTibet

TheoriginsofTibetancontemplativeculture

Buddhismisfirstapracticalreligion14,andTibetanBuddhism–withitsnumberless

mountaincavesanditsfavouringofVajrayāna–hasforcenturiesspecializedin

contemplativeexperience.TheimportofBuddhismfromIndiatoTibetbeganunder

Tibetanroyalpatronageinthe7thcentury,atimethatcoincidedwiththelastperiod

ofBuddhisminIndiawhenVajrayāna(tantricBuddhism)wasascendant.Itwasthus

VajrayānathatcametoTibet,andwithitspracticalmethodsforattainingdirect

experienceofthephilosophicaltruthsofMahayāna,founditslong-termrefugeat

therooftopoftheworld.InthewildandvastnaturalenvironmentoftheTibetan

Plateau,isolatedbythemandateofaBuddhistgovernment15andsupportedbya

relativelysimpleherdingandagriculturaleconomy,dedicatedBuddhistpractitioners

–yogins–spentyearsifnotdecadesinmountaincavesandhermitages.Tibetan

yoginswerelayandmonastic,maleandfemale,peasantsandaristocrats,individual

andcollective.Inmanycasesaccomplishedyoginswerealsoprominentscholarswho

composedscripturesofauthoritythatbecamecentralinthefourmainschoolsof

TibetanBuddhism16.

AgenerictermforVajrayānamethodsis‘yoga’,whichcomprisessophisticated

methodsfortrainingtheenergeticmind-bodycomplexofpractitionerstoexpedite

therealizationofnondualwisdom(yeshe).Vajrayānayogicmethods,alongwith

14PālicanonicalliteraturepresentstheBuddhaasafirmcriticofmetaphysicalspeculationwhoprioritizedpracticeovertheory.IntheAṭṭhakavaggaoftheSutta-nipāta,theBuddhadeniestheabilityofreasonalonetocomprehendultimatetruth(Sn886;DI16;Premasiri2008).15ThoughasSamuel(2005)haspointedouttheisolationofTibettendstobeexaggerated.TheLhasagovernmentwasperhapsmoreselectivethanexclusiveofforeignvisitors,andTibetanswerealwaysincontactwiththeworldoutside.16Theideaofthe‘fourmainschools’hascrystallizedsince1959asTibetanshavehadtoorganizetheircommunitiesandmonasteriesinexile.Priortothisdifferentenumerationswerecommon,suchas’JammgonKongsprul’spresentationofthe‘eightpracticelineages’(sgrubbrgyudshingrtabrgyad)thatincludelineagesnotenumeratedinthefourmainschools,likeZhibyedandrDorjerNal’byor(Oldmeadow2012:72).Today,alongwiththefourmainschoolsTibet’sBontraditionisgivenequalstatusandrightsasareligioustraditionbytheCentralTibetanAdministrationinexile.

17

theircorollaryMahāmudrā(PhyagrgyaChenpo)andDzogchen(rDzogschen;Skt.

MahāsandiorMaha-ati)meditationsystems,arederivedfromIndianBuddhism.

ThroughoutmanycenturiesinTibettheyhavedevelopedadeepandsophisticated

scholarlyandtextualexpression.Theircore,however,hasalwaysbeenthe

continuityofcontemplativepracticeamongabodyofhighlyskilledandtrained

practitioners.Thecontemplative,oryogic,cultureofTibethasfunctionedto

cultivateapopulationofpractitionerswhohavedevelopedfarenoughwiththeir

ownpracticetomediatetheteachingseffectivelytothepopulationasawholeand

toassisttheminavarietyofotherways.

ThefourmainBuddhistschoolsofTibet–rNyingma,Saskya,bKa’brgyudanddGe

lugs–havevaryingapproachestotheBuddhistpath17.Generallyspeaking,dGelugs

andSaskyaemphasizephilosophicalstudyinordertoexhaustintellectualdoubts

aboutultimaterealitybeforemeditation;whilebKa’brgyudandrNyingma

emphasizemeditationexperiencetounderstandultimaterealityasthenatureof

mind.Overthecenturiesthesefourlineageshavebeendispersedindifferent

concentrationsthroughoutthethreetraditionalregionsofTibet:CentralTibet(dBus

gTsang),AmdoandKhams18.

SincetheChineseCommunistoccupationofTibetthatbeganinthe1950sunderthe

leadershipofMaoZedong,Tibetanregionshavebeenincludedunderthe

administrationofthePeople’sRepublicofChina(PRC).CentralTibetnowroughly

correspondstotheTibetAutonomousRegion(TAR),whileKhams19andAmdocover

largeareasofQinghaiandSichuanProvinces,andsmallerpartsofGansuandYunnan

Provinces.Sincethe17thcentury,whentheFifthDalaiLamaunifiedCentralTibet

withthebackingoftheMongolkingGushriKhan,CentralTibetandAmdohave

beenmajoritydGelugsregions,whileKhamshashadstrongerconcentrationsof

17TibetanBuddhistlineages–forexamplethe’BrugpabKa’brgyud,dPalyulrNyingmaand’Khonlineage–aresubsumedunderoneormoreoftheseschools.Oldmeadow(2012:18-19)pointsoutthat‘schools’inTibetanBuddhismareamatterofmonasticandinstitutionalorganization,whereas‘lineage’isalineofpracticetransmissionfromgurutodisciples,liketheNaroChosdrugorLam’bras.18PriortotheTibetanexileperiod,Tibet(Bod)wasmoreregularlysaidtocomprisefivetraditionalregions:Amdo,Khams,mNga’ri,dBusandgTsang.19SomepartsofwesternKhamsareintheTAR,includingRiwocheandChabmdo.

18

bKa’brgyud,SaskyaandrNyingmalineages.ThoughtheDalaiLamasandshrinesof

LhasawerespiritualandculturalfociforTibetansacrossthePlateau,theCentral

TibetangovernmentwasnotthepoliticalcentreformanypartsofAmdoand

Khams.Rather,manypartsofEasternTibethadmoreimmediatepoliticalallegiances

tolocalkingsandchieftainswithahighdegreeofautonomyundertheMongols,

ManchusandRepublicans(Kapstein2004:231-232).Kapsteinnotesthattribaland

clanaffiliationsformedthefundamentalorganizationalstructuresinEasternTibet,

andsocietythereforeenjoyedlessrigidlyhierarchicalrelationsthandidthatof

CentralTibet(Kapstein2012:232).Owingtothis,practicelineagesofthebKa’

brgyudandrNyingmaschoolsflourishedinKhamsaroundlocaltraditionsof

religiousandpoliticalauthority,awayfromthecentralizedstatepowerofLhasa

(Oldmeadow2012;Samuel1993;Turek2013:10).

‘EasternTibet’:TibetanethnicareastotheeastofCentralTibet(traditionallyKhamsandAmdo).Credit:Kolas&Thowsen2005:2.

19

sGomsdeNangchen:‘TheLandofMeditators’

NangchenissituatedinthesouthernpartofQinghaiProvincenearthesourceof

China’sthreemajorrivers–theYangtze,YellowandMekong–andispresently

administeredbytheChineseCommunistParty(CCP)asacountyinYushu

AutonomousPrefecture.AccordingtotheNangchenCountyofficeofReligious

Affairs,Nangchenpresentlyhas75registereddgonpa.Aswasthecasebeforethe

CulturalRevolution,Nangchenhashighestrelativepopulationofmonksandnunsin

anyethnicTibetancountyofChina20(Gruschke2004:249n.3;Lobzang2012).

NangchenoffersaconvenientwindowonTibetancontemplativecultureasitisa

regionwherelineagesofyogicpracticeflourishedunderthepatronageofsuccessive

Buddhistkings,someofwhomwerethemselvesrenownedyogins(Turek2013:118;

TulkuUrgyen2005).Anepithettracedtothe13thcenturycallsNangchenthe‘Land

ofMeditators’(sGomsdeNangchen21)(’Jamdbyangsetal.1995-1997,2:2-3)and

itsmanyhermitageshavebeenafertilesourceofTibetanculturalproductionover

thecenturies,givingrisetofamousyogins,gterston(‘treasurerevealer’)pilgrimage

sitesandincarnationlineages(sprulsku)(Turek2013:3).

Inthe13thcenturyNangchenwasgovernedbyasuccessionofeminentyoginsofthe

’Ba’rombKa’brgyudschool,whoseadeptnessingtummo(yogaofpsychicheat)

earnedthemthetitle‘Raspa’(‘Cotton-clad’)(Turek2013:115).RaspadKarpo

(1198-1262)andhis’Ba’rombKa’brgyuddisciple-heirsconsolidatedreligiousand

temporalpoweroverNangchenattheirseatofsKu’bumdGonpathroughtheir

patron-priest(mchodyon)unionwiththeMongoladministration.Aroundthistime

Nangchenwasdividedintoeighteenhighlanddistricts(rikhagbcobrgyad),each20Lobzangestimatesapopulationof15,000ordainedsaṅghaoutofatotalestimatedTibetanpopulationof70,000inNangchen(Lobzang2012).21Thefullepithetis‘FamilyofCotton-cladOnes,LandofMeditators’(RastshangsGomsde).Khams-stodlogyusexplainsthattheepithetisfromthereignofthe’Ba’rombKa’brgyudmastersinNangchenfromthe13thcentury,whosewidespreadactivitiesinfluencedallmenandwomentobemeditators(’Jamdbyangs,etal.1995-1997,2:2-3).Cotton-cladmeditatorswerefollowersoftheearlybKa’brgyudlineagewhowereabletowearonlyasinglecottongarmentinbothsummerandwinterbecauseoftheinnerheatgeneratedintheirgtummopractice.TheepithetisalsomentionedinTshangsgsar2005:237-238;’Brongpargyalpo2003:81-82.andTulkuUrgyen,etal.2005:13,373n.16.

20

surroundingaprincipalmonasterythatinsomecasessharedadministrative

authorityovertheirterritorieswiththeking.In1300Nangchenwaslegitimizedasa

kingdombytheSaskya-Mongoldiarchywhenasonofthe’BuTreboclanwas

enthronedasthefirstNangchenkingatNangsoChenmodGonpa(’Jamdbyangs,

etal.1995-1997,2:63).

ImageshowingthegenerallocationofNangchenandGadchagsdGonpainQinghaiProvince

Turek,forherforthcomingethno-historyofNangchen,reviewedrecentlypublished

localsourcesandoralhistoriesofNangchenandobservedintheirnarrativesa

commonidealisationoftheNangchenkingshipthatevolvedfromthelineof’BuTre

boclanrulers.Turekfindsinthenarrativescommonlegitimisingstrategiesofthe

Nangchenkingship,suchassociety’sbeliefsystemoftantricBuddhismandthe

powervestedinkingsthroughtheirprolongedperiodsofritualretreat(Turek,in

press).Tureknotestheardentinterestinmeditationretreatsexpressedbysomeof

theNangchenkings22,andthatwithitsde-centralizedpoliticalauthorityandits

concentrationofpracticelineagesNangchenwasanenvironmentthatencouraged

thedevelopmentofhermitagesandnumerousfamousyoginsoverthecenturies23

22TureknotesthatTulkuUrgyen’sBLazingSplendorandKarma’Phrinlas’HistoryofNangchenbothextolthespiritualaccomplishmentsoftheNangchenkingssomuchthattheyreadlikernamtharhagiographies(Turek2013:118,n.410).23 ExamplesofrenownedNangchenyogins:TishriRaspa(12thcentury),LusmedrDorje(13thcentury),SKyobragChosrje(14-15thcenturies),Dungdkarba(16thcentury),GrubdbangTshogsgnyis

21

(Turek2013:118).Withauthoritydistributedamonghighlanddistrictsandtheir

locally-runadministrativeandmilitaryunits,Nangchenkingsretainedpowernotas

activesovereigns,buttoalargeextentas‘moralandsocialinstitutions’.The

environmentwasoneinwhichdedicationtotantricpracticewasencouragedand

highlyvalued(Gruschke2004:107;Turek2013:118).

Inthe17thcenturytheNangchenkingdomwasgivenlegitimacybyGushriKhan,and

thenbytheQingdynastyambansinXininginthe18thcentury.Fromthe1950sthe

CCP’sappropriationofNangchenwascarriedoutthroughaprocessofabsorbingold

powerstructuresintoCCPadministration.ThusgreaterNangchenwasestablished

in1951as‘YushuTibetanAutonomousPrefecture’withtheincumbentNangchen

kingasitshead(Gruschke2004:33;’Jam-dyangs,etal.1995-1997;Turek2013:119).

NangchenasindicatedonpresentmapsofthePRCisafractionofthehistorical

territorybythesamename(Turek2013:120).Withitslargeconcentrationof

hermitages,andbeingnonalignedwiththeCentralTibetanpoliticalcentreofthe

TAR,NangchenhasseencomparativelyfewTibetanuprisingsanduntil2008was

littleaffectedbyCCP-imposedstricturesandthepresenceofthestate’sPeople’s

ArmedPolice.

Nangchenissetatanaveragealtitudeof3,645metre(11,968feet)andits

predominantlivelihoodhasbeenpastoralism,withmanyfamiliestendingherdsof

overathousandyakandsheep24.Untilthe1990stherewerenophonesor

televisionsandmosttransportationtookplaceonfoot,horsebackandyakcaravans.

Mostfamilieshadseveralchildrenwithatleastonesonordaughterinalocal

monasteryornunnery.Monksandnunsreturnedhomeduringharvestseasonsto

collectfoodsuppliesthatwouldlastthemforseveralmonthswhensharedamongst

themembersoftheirmonasticcommunity.

andTshangsdbyangsrGyammtsho(19thcentury).gNamchosMi’gyur,thegterstonofthegNamchoscycle,wasalsoactiveinNangcheninthe17thcentury. 24GruschkenotesthatlessthanonefifthofNangchen’spre-2008populationwasinvolvedinfieldcultivation(Gruschke2008).

22

MostofNangchen’sdgonpaarelocatedat4000metres(13,000feet)orhigherand

weretraditionallymodelledashermitagesratherthanmonasteries,withalifelong

courseofmeditation,yogaandextendedgroupsādhanācycles(sgrubchen)fortheir

residents.LittlemeditationtrainingisactuallyconductedinlargeTibetanBuddhist

monasteries,whicharebusycentresofclericaltraininginphilosophy,artsandritual.

Insteadmeditationtrainingiscarriedoutinretreatcentresannexedtoaparticular

monastery,orinindependenthermitageslikemanyofNangchen’sdgonpa.Aswas

thecaseinpre-CommunistTibet,atthetimeofwritingnearlyallbKa’brgyudand

rNyingmamonasteriesinNangchen(andEasternTibet)haveathree-yearretreat

centrewheremonasticstraditionallytrainedinVajrayānapractices,includinggtum

mo25,foratleastoneintensivethree-yearperiodintheirlives.

Broadlyspeaking,thecourseoftraininginaTibetanBuddhistthree-yearretreatisas

follows26:inthefirstyear,completionofsngon’gropreliminarypracticesalongwith

developmentofzhignas(śamatha)andlhagmthong(vipaśyanā)27intandemwith

guruyoga(blasgrub)sādhanā;inthesecondyear,emphasisonguruyogaonthe

basisofyidam(personalmeditationdeity)sadhanāandtheirmantraaccumulations,

alongwithcultivationoflhagmthongandMahāmudrāand/orDzogchenmeditation;

inthethirdyear,subtle-bodypracticesincludinggtummo,dreamyogaand

transferenceofconsciousness(asintheSixYogasofNaropaofbKa’brgyudanddGe

lugslineages),alongwithrefiningawarenessinMahāmudrāand/orDzogchen

meditation.Untilveryrecently,manyTibetanmonksandnunsofbKa’brgyudand

rNyingmalineageswouldstaytwoormoretimesinathree-yearretreat.InNang

chenIamtoldthatdoingathree-yearretreatwasaprincipalaimforthosewho

25gtummoisanadvancedtantricBuddhistyogabywhichapractitioner’spsychicenergy-windsaredissolvedinthecentralchanneloftheenergeticmind-bodycomplex,givingrisetoanexperienceofco-emergentblissandemptiness(bdestongzung’jug).Theincreasedbodytemperaturethatariseswithadvancedgtummopracticeisabyproductoftheyogaandnotitspurpose.26Thecourseoftrainingonathree-yearretreatvariesconsiderablybetweenlineages;thisisageneralizedexample.SeeJamgonKongtrul’sRetreatManualformoredetails.27Vipaśyanā(lhagmthong)inTibetanBuddhismispractiseddifferentlythanmodernThai-Burmesevipassanā.InTibetansūtrapresentations(liketheLamrimChenmo)vipaśyanāreferstoasubtleanalyticalmindofdiscernment,basedonsomedegreeofśamathacultivation,oftenanalyzingemptinessortheFourNobleTruths.Dzogchenpresentationsdescribevipaśyanāasself-reflexivewisdomthatclearlyseestheabsolutenatureofawarenessitself(rigpa)(Khang-sar2013).

23

ordainedasmonksandnuns,andalmostallmonasticsstayedinathree-yearretreat

atleastonceintheirlives.Itwasalsocommonforindividualswishingtodeepen

theirpracticeafteroneormorethree-yearretreatstomovetocavehermitages

connectedwiththemonastery,orevenfurtherawaytoremote,unpopulated

mountainvalleys.

AtypicalexampleofthisisthemonasticcommunityofRigsgsumdGonpainNang

chen,presentlywithamonasticpopulationofabout250andhavingannexedretreat

centresforbothmonksandnuns.Fifteentotwentynunsstaytogetherinthenuns’

three-yearretreatcentre,severalofthemparticipatingintwoorthreeretreatsina

row.Inthefemaleretreatinprogressin2010mostofthenunswereintheirlate

teensorearlytwenties.Afterathree-yearretreatahandfulofnunswishingto

deepentheirpracticeofsubtle-bodyyogas(particularlygtummo)andmeditation

movetoancientcavehermitagesoverlookingthemonasterywheretheycontinue

theirretreatsindependently.TheyoginbSodnamsChos’phel,fromwhomthenuns

receivethecrucialoraltransmissionandinstructionsfortheirretreatpractices,is

saidtobelivinginaremoteunmarkedcaveintheregionnearbyanelderlyyogin

whoishisguru.Theelderlyyoginisfamedfor“swimmingcomfortablyinfreezing

riversandmeltingthewintersnowaroundhiscave”duetohismasteryofthe

physicalelementsthroughgtummoandDzogchenrealization(bSamgtansGrolma,

personalcommunication,January2010).AsthisexampleoftheRigsgsum

communityshows,thelifeofayogininEasternTibetmovedupthemountainashe

orsheprogressedoveralifetimeofBuddhistpractice.

IndescribingNangchen,thereisariftbetweentheabovedescriptionandthe

presentstateofaffairs.Atthetimeofwritingarapidmodernisationandradical

restructuringofTibetansocietyistakingplaceundertheCommunistleadershipof

thePRC,sothatwithinthelasttwodecadestheabovedescriptionofNangchenis

ceasingtoholdtrue.TodayanetworkofhighwaysspanstheTibetanPlateauandthe

favouredvehicleonNangchenroadsisnolongerthehorse,butthemotorcycle–

literally‘motorhorse’(’phrulrta)inTibetan–oranSUV.Underdirectionfromthe

governmentthemajorityofNangchen’snomadshavemoveddownthemountainto

24

newlybuilturbansettlementsinordertosurviveintheswiftlymodernizing

economy,leavingtheiryaksandmountainhermitagesbehind.Significantnumbers

ofordainedsaṅghaarealsomovingawayfromremotehermitagestopursuenew,

systematizedstudyprogramsatmonasticcentres,leavingemptyplacesinNang

chen’sretreatcentres.

TheyoginasculturalheroinEasternTibet

AsTurekhasdiscussed,despitetheregion’simportanceinTibetanreligioushistory

NangchenhasreceivedsparseattentioninWesternscholarship–apartfromTurek’s

own2013compellingstudyofacontemporaryhermiticrevivalatNangchen’ssKyo

bragmonastery.TulkuUrgyenRinpoche’smemoirsof19thcenturyNangchen,

BlazingSplendor,hasbecomepopularamongWesternTibetanBuddhistssinceit

wasfirstpublishedin2005.Priortothis,however,Nangchenwaslittleknownto

Westernreaders,exceptperhapsthroughtheautobiographicalwritingsofNang

chenlamaswhosettledintheWest,likeChögyamTrungpaandKarmaThinley

Rinpoches28.

ThesamecanbesaidofTibetanyogiccultureingeneral.Despiteitscentralrolein

Tibetanreligionandbiography,littleWesternscholarshiphasdirectlyengagedwith

yogicpractice,asidefromdescriptiveaccountsoftantrictraditionsanddoctrine(like

Tucci’sReligionsofTibet)orbiographicalstudiesoffamousyoginslikeMilaraspa

(Turek2013:9-10)29.Thisisperhapsduetothesecrecyofpractices,theelusiveness

ofcontemplativepractitionerswillingtoparticipateinWesternresearch,andthe

lackofascientificframeworkcapableofengagingwithfirst-handyogicexperience.

AsKamalaTiyanavichandReginaldRayhavebothhighlighted,Westernscholarship’s

popularfocusondoctrine,historicalandtextualworktendstoreducetheintangible

28AtoRinpocheandChimeRinpoche,bothofwhomarrivedinEnglandinthe1960s,arealsofromNangchen.KarmaThinleypublishedhishistoryofNangchen,ImportantEventsandPlacesintheHistoryofNangchen,in1965.29SomeearlyexceptionstothisareGarmaC.C.Chang’sworkontheSixYogas,Guenther’sTheLifeandTeachingofNaropa,CrookandLow’sTheYoginsofLadakhandGoldsteinandTsarong’s1985articleoncontemplativemonasteries.AlexandraDavid-NeelandW.Y.Evans-Wentz’saccountsalsodeservemention.

25

individualdetailsofyogins’livedexperiencetotheperipheryofBuddhisttraditions

(Ray1994:1-10;Tiyanavich1997:2).Regardlessofthismethodologicalbiasin

academia,yoginshavebeentheparagonofreligiouscultureinTibetsinceatleast

the12thor13thcenturyandTibet’sfourmajorBuddhistschoolsandnumeroussub-

schoolswereeachspawnedfromamasterwhohadbecomerealizedthroughtantric

practice30.ToagreatextentsocialdistinctionacrosstheTibetanPlateauwas

affordedtothedegreeofrenunciation,andyoginswereheldinhighesteeminboth

socialandpoliticalspheres(Samuel1993:556-557;Turek2013).

ThewildlandscapeandnomadiclifestyleoftheEasternTibetanhighlandsformeda

tough,resilientspiritinitspeoplethatequippedthemforsurvival.Whenchannelled

towardstheirBuddhistspiritualitythesametoughnesscreatedanardentreligious

devotionandmanyhighlyaccomplishedyoginsamongthepopulation.AsSamuel

andTurekhavebothdiscussed,itismistakentounderstandKhamsasperipheralto

CentralTibet,whichhasbeenatendencyinscholarshipfollowingtextualand

politicalportrayalsrelativetoCentralTibetanperspectives31.Khamshashardlybeen

peripheralinthehistoryofTibetanBuddhism.Insteaditiswherepracticelineages

flourishedunderroyalpatronageofkingdomslikesDedgeandNangchenandhas

thereforebeenthecradlefortheperpetuationofTibetantantrism(Turek2013:10).

Khamswasalsothebirthplaceofthe19thcenturynon-sectarianRismed(‘Unbiased’)

movement,whichcontinuestoshapeTibetanBuddhismtodaybothinsideand

outsideofChinawiththelegacyandteachingsofitsfamousmasters,gterstonand

scripturalcompilations.

TheRismedmovement,andGadchagsdGonpaasanexampleofcontemplative

culture

30Examples:Tsongkhapa(founderofthedGelugs),sGampopa(DwagspobKa’bryud),YumoMibskyodrDorje(JoNang),Virupa(Saskya),MagcigLabsgron(gCod)andgTsangparGyaras(’BrugpabKa’brgyud).31Asrecentlyas2004KapsteinwrotethatLhasawasthe“traditionalcenterofTibetanreligionandpolitics”(Kapstein2004:255).NotealsothatKolasandThowsentitletheir2005studybasedonfieldworkinTibetanethnicareasoutsidetheTAR(AmdoandKhams)OntheMarginsofTibet.

26

InthedecadespriortoGadchagsdGonpa’sfoundingin1892,aseriesof

developmentsnowadaysreferredtoastheRismedmovementsawagreat

invigorationofnon-sectarianthoughtandpracticethatstrengthenedandcentred

theculturalworldofKhams32.TrendsoftheRismedmovementunfoldedupuntil

the1950s,andcontinuetoinfluencemoderndevelopmentsinTibetanBuddhism

today.Theleaders’JammgonKongsprul(1813-1899),’JamdbyangsmKhyenbrtse

dByangpo(1820-1892)andthegter-stonmChoggyurgLingpa(1829-1870)initiated

arevivalofminoritylineagesandphilosophicalviewsthatwerenearingextinction

(partlyowingtotheGelugpadominationofthetime).Theselamasandtheir

associatesinitiatedasynthesisofpractices,doctrines,scripturalcollectionsand

hermitages33thatespeciallybolsteredpracticelineagesinKhams(Oldmeadow2012;

Turek2012).DzogchenandMahāmudrāsystemsofpractice-basedphilosophy,with

theiremphasesontheunconstrained,all-pervadingnatureofmind,founddirecting

rolesinthenon-sectarianRismedethos–althoughanopennesstoavarietyof

doctrinalpositionsiswhatcharacterizedthemovement(Oldmeadow2012:16;

Turek2012:433).Indeed,gtermarevealedduringtheRismedperiod,likethe

mChogglinggTergsar(‘NewTreasuresofChokling’),werenovelinbeingthefirst

totalpresentationsofallrNyingmaandDzogchenteachingseries(sde)(Oldmeadow

2012:84).

ThemovementoriginatedinthesDedgekingdomwheretheroyalfamilyhadalong-

establishedreputationforreligioustolerance(Oldmeadow2012:49).Nangchen,as

bDedge’scloseculturalneighbour,wasanotherimportantstageforRismed

developments34(Turek2013:36).Marginalgroupsofpractitionersflourishedinthe

RismedatmosphereanditwasattheheightofthemovementthatGadchagsdGon32SeveralresearchershavebeencarefultoplaceRismeddevelopmentsintheirwidercontext,anddrawnattentiontothemistakenreificationofanessential‘Rismedmovement’,whichwasneverdefinedassuchbytheleadingmastersofthetime.SeeGardner(2006),Oldmeadow(2012),Samuel(1993)andTurek(2012).33Hermitagesbuiltatthe25powerplacesofEasternTibet(mDoKhams),mappedinagtermarevealedbymChoggling,gavespatialreferentstothemovementandhelpedtomarkKhamsasaterritory(Turek2012:436).34mChoggyurgLingpawasborninNangchenandhadbeenamonkattheNangchenking’smonastery,TshebcusGar.AnotherimportantimpetusbehindtheRismedmovementwastheestablishmentofthesDedgeprintingpressanditseditionoftheTibetanBuddhistcanoninthe18thcentury(Oldmeadow2012:85:49).

27

pa,anunnerythatwoulddevelopauniquelineageoffemaleyogicpracticefollowing

Dzogchentenets,wasestablished.FollowingthemodelofaDharmaencampment

(chossgar)35,GadchagsdGonpabeganasacommunityofpractitionerslivinginfull-

timeretreataroundtheirguru,theyoginTshangsdbyangsrGyamtsho(1848-1909).

TshangsdbyangsrGyamtshoandhisguru,thefirstGrubdbangTshogsgnyis(b.circa

1828),sawthatwomenhadequalpotentialasmenforattainingenlightenment,yet

withavirtualabsenceofnunneriesintheregionweredeniedopportunitiesfor

Dharmalearningandpractice.FemalesinTibetweregenerallyregardedasunfit

vesselsforadvancedlearning.Religious-mindedgirlsandwomenwhodidordain

oftencontinuedlivingwiththeirfamiliesandcontributingtotheirhousehold’s

domesticworkload.AfterTshangsdbyangsrGyamtsho’sfoundingofGadchags

dGonpawomencamefromallpartsofEasternTibetandvariousTibetanBuddhist

schoolstojoinitsintensivepracticesystem.AlongwiththerevivedvaluesoftheRis

mederathatformedaculturalbackdropforGadchags’sfounding,thisdiversity

gavethenunneryanon-sectariancharacterthatremainstothisday.

GadchagsisaconvenientexampleofNangchen’straditionalcontemplativeculture

inthatitswayoflifehaslittlechangedfromitspre-1950sexistence,duetothe

nunnery’sisolatedsettingandself-determinationtopreserveitsoriginalpractice

tradition.GadchagsislocatedinsouthernNangcheninaremotevalleyatan

altitudeof4,500metres(14,700feet)surroundedbyhilltopsthataresaidtoreflect

sacredfeminineforms.Itscurriculumentailsarigoroustraininginsubtle-bodyyogas

andmeditation,withaspecializationinrtsalung(nāḍīandprāṇayoga,thegeneral

practicecategorythatincludesgtummo)asasupportfortheirmeditativeinsight.

TheGadchagsnunsupholdallreligiousleadershiproles,frombursarandprovostto

VajraMaster(rDorjesLobdpon)duringritualceremonies,andwearbrocadehatson

specialoccasionsthatmarkthemaslineageholders.Apartfromconductingtantric

35ChossgarwerecommoninEasternTibetfromthetimeofthefourthKarmapainthe14thcentury.Chossgararelargecommunitiesofmonasticandnon-monasticpractitioners(oftenmaleandfemale)usuallycentredaroundacharismaticrealizedmasterortertön.Somefamouschossgararepresent-daybLarungsGarandYachensGar,bothinGarzé(dKarmdzes)Prefecture,andShakyaShri’snineteenthcenturyencampmentatKhyi-puk.

28

empowerments(dbang),publicformalitiesandfundraising,forwhichtheyrelyon

thenunnery’sfourmalelamas,theseniornunsteachallcomponentsofGadchags’s

practicetraditiontotheyoungernuns,aswellastomonksatbranchdgonpa.Such

anautonomousfemalemonasticlineagewasunprecedentedinTibetanBuddhist

history.

GadchagsdGonpaat4,500metresinNangchen,EasternTibet.PhotographedbyJeromeRaphalen,2006.

Gadchags’spracticesystem

Afterfulfillingaoneyearobligationasnunneryyak-herder,anunofficiallyentersthe

nunneryandbeginsher400,000preliminarypractices(sngon’gro),whichtake

roughlyfourmonths.Thesearefollowedbyonehundredsetsofsmyunggnas,a

two-dayfastingpracticeofAvalokiteśvara,whichmaytakeuptoayeartocomplete.

NextisamantraaccumulationretreatoftheguardiandeityVajrakīlaya(Phursgrub)

whichlastsaboutsevenmonths.Alongwithcompletingthesepreliminaryretreatsa

newnuntrainsinritualinstruments,shrinepreparationandliturgicalchanting.Upon

completingallofthese,aGadchagsnunthenbeginsherthree-year,three-month

retreat.

29

Generally,fromthetimeofenteringthenunneryallGadchagsnunspracticeand

sleepinmeditationboxes(sgromkhri)aboutonesquaremetreinsize.Duringthe

three-yearretreatapproximatelyfifteennunsliveinmeditationboxesliningthe

wallsoftheretreatroom.Theyleavetheirboxesonlyformealtimes,bathroom

breaksandyogasessionsanddonotexittheretreathousefortheentiredurationof

theretreat.Uponcompletionofthethree-yearretreataGadchagsnunentersone

ofsixteenretreatdivisions(sgrubkhag)whereshecontinuespracticingheryidam

meditationdeityfortherestofherlife.Alongwithdailysessionsofyidampractice

andsubtle-bodyyogasarenineteenextensivesādhanāceremoniescalledsgrub

chen,lastingabouttendayseach.Thesefallthroughouttheyearandareperformed

byallthenunstogetherinthemaintemple.

Gadchagsnunsintheirmeditationboxesinoneofthesixteenretreatdivisions(sgrubkhag).PhotographedbyJeromeRaphalen,2006.In2006amiddle-agednunreportedherexperienceofGadchags’spracticesystem:

30

MymindtransformedwhileIwasin[three-year]retreat.Ididn’twanttocomeoutwhentheretreatwasfinished.Althoughthepracticeswerehardphysically,inmymindIwasveryjoyful.BeforeIdidmythree-yearretreatIhadalotofwildemotionsanddistractions.Butduringtheretreattheseemotionswerepacifiedandtransformedintothefivewisdoms36.

Everymorningfromsixuntileighto’clockeachretreatdivisionholdsapracticesessionofmeditationandprayers.Thereisabigroomdownstairsintheretreatdivisionbuildingwhereallthenunsdotheirdailypracticesofrtsalungand’khrul’khor[supportivehaṭhayoga].Wehavetodotheseyogicpracticeseverydayofourlives.

GadchagsdGonpa’spracticespecialtyisrtsalung,anditispracticedhereaccordingtotheuniqueteachingsofthefirstTshangsdbyangsrGyamtsho.TshangsdbyangsrGyamtshowasn’tascholar,butwrotethesepracticecommentariesfromhispurevisionandmeditativerealization.

sGrubchenareadefiningcomponentofGadchags’spracticeculture,andindeedof

thepracticecultureofrNyingmaandbKa’brgyuddgonpathroughoutpre-modern

EasternTibet37.Asgrubchenwasdescribedbyoneparticipantas:“aformof

intensivegroupritualpracticethatepitomizesthedepth,powerandprecisionof

Vajrayāna,drawingtogethertheentirerangeoftantricmethods–ritual,artisticand

yogic–tocreatetranscendentperceptionoftheenvironmentanditsinhabitantsas

apurefieldofthebuddha”(Lun-Sin2011).Usuallylastingtendays,asgrubchen’s

participantsengageintwenty-fourhourcontinuoussādhanāpracticeofaparticular

buddha(i.e.yidam)anditssurroundingmaṇḍala.Thesgrubchenceremonyemploys

visualization,mantra,prayersandmeditationandisstyledwithritualmusic,mudras

andcostumeddance.

AtGadchagsthenunsintegrateperiodsofrtsalungandmeditationinthesgrub

cheninordertoexperiencenon-conceptualconsciousnessbyunitingmindwiththe

psychicwindsinthesubtle-body’scentralchannel.ExamplesofGadchags’stwenty

36Yesheslnga(fivewisdoms):chosdbyingsyeshe(wisdomofdharmadhātu),melongyeshes(mirror-likewisdom),mnyamnyidyeshes(wisdomofequality),sosorrtogpa’iyeshes(wisdomofdiscernment)andbyagrubyeshes(all-accomplishingwisdom).37 Beingbasedonsādhanāofarevealedgtermacycle,sgrubchenaremostcommonlyconductedinrNyingmaandbKa’brgyuddgonpa.TheyareconductedwithlessfrequencyinSaskyaanddGelugsdgonpaonvariousholydaysthroughouttheyear.

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annualsgrubchencyclesareHayagrīva(rTamgrin),Tārā(sGrolma)and

Vajrabhairava(rDorje’jigsbyed).sGrubchenareregardedasapowerfulpracticeto

removenegativeforcesintheworldandtopromotepurification,harmonyand

spiritualpotency.

IncertainsgrubchentheGadchagsnunsproducesmansgrub(sacredmedicine)

composedoflocalherbsandinfusedwiththemantraandprayersoftheparticipants

duringtheten-dayceremony.Duringthesgrubchenthedriedherbsarerolledinto

smallpelletsandconsecratedasasacredsubstanceencapsulatingtheblessingsand

healingpoweroftheBuddha.Inthepast,beforeallopathicmedicalclinicswere

introducedbytheChinesegovernmentinTibetanareas,manyTibetansreliedsolely

onsmansgrubasacureforphysicalandmentalsicknesses.

TwofeaturesdistinguishGadchagsdGonpa’suniquepracticesystem:itssixteen

retreatdivisions(sgrubkhag)eachdedicatedtoadifferentyidam,andthenuns’

specializationinrtsalung.Whileinmostthree-yearretreatmodelsofTibetan

Buddhismsubtle-bodyyogas(includingrtsalung)arelearnedinthefinalyear,at

GadchagsdGonpartsalungand‘khrul’khor38arelearnedfromtheoutsetofthe

three-yearretreatandpracticeddailyasayogicsupportfortheirmeditativeinsight.

Thenuns’specializationinrtsalungisexhibitedinthenunnery’sannualChuras

(‘Wetsheet’)ceremonywhichtakesplaceonthefull-moondayofthetwelfthlunar

month(JanuaryorFebruary),withtemperaturesataround-25C(-13F).Duringthe

ceremonythenunsdryoffwetsheetsdrapedovertheirshouldersbytheinner

bodilyheatgeneratedasaby-productoftheirrtsalungpractice.Theparticipating

nunspreparefortheChurasceremonyontheeveofthefullmoonbybathingin

theirrespectiveretreatdivisionsandthendressinginashortskirt-likeundergarment

(angrag);nouppergarmentsorsocksarepermitteduntilaftertheceremonyis

finishedthefollowingmorning.TheparticipantsthengatherinGadchags’s38‘khrul’khorisseriesofrigorousbreathingandphysicalposturesthatsupportsitscorollaryrtsalunginpushingthemind,andtherebyconsciousness,beyonditsconventionalconceptualhabitsandconstraints(Baker2012).InTibetrtsalungand‘khrul’khorarepracticedtopreparetheenergeticmind-bodycomplexofthepractitionerforDzogchenorMahāmudrārealization.

32

designatedyogahallandbeginchantingdevotionalprayers,alongwithpreliminary

breathcontrolandhaṭhayoga(‘khrul’khor).By9pm,asthefervouroftheirprayers

andbreathingpracticesdevelopintofull-blowngtummo,individualnunsbeginto

dryoffwetsheetsbytheirbodilyheat.Thiscontinuesthroughoutthenightwith

supplicationprayersandsequencesofyogainterspersedwithperiodsofmeditative

absorption.dBangdragRinpoche,apresentabbotofGadchagsnunnery,was

presentamongthenunsintheyogahallduringthenightoftheChurasceremonyin

2010.Thoughhewasnotgeneratinginnerheatthroughrtsalungpracticehimself,

hedescribedthetemperatureoftheroomaswarmandhumidandwitnessedsome

ofthenunsdryuptoeightsheetsduringthenight(dBangdragRinpoche,personal

communication,January2010).

ThepublicChurasdemonstrationtakesplaceatthebreakofdawn.Theparticipants,

whohavenotsleptthepreviousnight,exittheyogahallinasolemnprocessionwith

wetsheetsdrapedaroundtheirshoulders.Singingdevotionalprayerstheyproceed

slowlyaroundtheentirenunnerycomplex,awalkthattakesaboutanhourand

crossesaslopewheremountainwindsblowfreezingair.Ateachofthefour

directionsanun’ssheetisre-soakedincoldwaterandplacedagainaroundher

shoulders.Fromadistanceobserversoftheceremonycanseevapourrisingupfrom

thenuns’procession.Thenunnery’slamaswhowalkattheheadoftheprocession

reportseeingsomeofthesheetsfullydriedbeforereachingthenextcorner.Only

nunsaccomplishedatraisinginnerheatthroughrtsalungyogaarecapableof

participatingintheChurasdemonstration;in2010thiswas85outof360nuns.No

otherdgonpainpresent-dayTibetupholdssucharegular,lifelongtraininginrtsa

lung,noranannualChurasceremony.SeveralNangchendgonpa,likesKyobrag

monastery,dohoweverholdaChurasceremonyoncompletionofathree-year

retreat,andtheceremonyasatraditiondatesbacktotheearliestbKa’brgyud

communitiesfollowingMilaraspa’sgtummolineage39.

39SeeToniHuber(1999:87-90)foradescriptionoftheChuras(or‘Rephu’)ceremonyperformedby’BrugpabKa’brgyudyoginsinthe1950satTsariMountaininsoutheasternTibet.HuberalsonotesanaccountoftheceremonyincontemporaryLadakhinCrook’sTheYoginsofLadakh(Huber1999:246,n.19).

33

Infreetimeamidstthepracticescheduledescribedabove,thenunsengageinshort

periodsofdarkness-retreat(munmtshams),‘extractingtheessence’(bcudlen)and

visionarythodrgal(‘leap-over’)practiceofDzogchen.Severalnunsintheirmid-

fortiesexplainedtomethattheydotheseextrapractices(andallpracticesoftheir

curriculum)oftheirownvolitionandnohigherauthoritiesencouragethem:“No

lamasmakeusdoourpractices,nodisciplinarian.Eachnunismotivatedtopractice

outofdevotion.Weneverwasteanytimeforpractice.Thatishowwelivehere”(47

year-oldGadchagsnun,personalcommunication,September2013).

Tothepresent

ThesecondincarnationofGadchags’sfounder(ChosgragsrGyamtsho,b.1911)was

bornasthesonoftheNangchenkingandtherebysecuredroyalsupportandstature

forthenunnery.WiththehelpofthisroyalpatronageanditsprestigiousChuras

ceremonyGadchagshadbecomerenownedthroughouttheregionforthenuns’

yogicaccomplishments,andbythe1950stherewereoversevenhundrednunsat

Gadchags(rDorje1997).Gadchagshadalsobecomethemothernunneryto

twenty-eightbranchdgonpafollowingitspracticesystem,twenty-threeofthem

nunneriesandfourofthemmonasteries.Havingbranchmonasterieswas

unprecedentedforanunneryinTibet,wherenunneriesareusuallyannexedtoa

monastery.

TheheightofGadchags’sflourishingcollidedwiththestartofMaoZedong’sGreat

LeapForward(1958-1961)andtheCulturalRevolution(1966-1976;GreatProletarian

CulturalRevolution).Thiswasaperiodreferredtobythenunsas‘whentimeturned

upsidedown’(duslogsgang).BasedonamilitantatheistinterpretationofMarxist

ideology,theeffortsoftheCCPduringthisradicalperiodassumedthatTibetan

religiousculturewasbackwardsandthattheTibetanmajoritywasfeudallyenslaved

tomonasticestates.TheTibetanpeoplewerethustobecivilisedand‘liberated’by

submittingtoadvancedHanCommunistleadershipandideology(Yang2012).

TibetanmonasteriesandreligiousleadersweretheprimarytargetsoftheCCP’s

effortstoliberatetheTibetans,andbytheendoftheCulturalRevolutiononly4of

34

722monasteriesinethnicTibetanareasofQinghaiProvinceremainedintact(Turek

2013:83).GadchagsdGonpawasamongthoseransackedanddemolishedbythe

RedArmyandseveralofitslamaswereexecuted.Thenunsthatsurvivedthe

deprivationsoftheera,includingaseverefamineinQinghaifrom1960-1962,were

assembledincommunesorfledasindividualstoCentralTibetwheretheyworkedas

householdservants.

When‘timebegantoturnuprightagain’(dustshodtshurbdeyongdus)inthelate

1970s,nearlyseventyGadchagsnunsreturnedtotheoriginallocationofthe

nunneryandresumedtheirprayersandpracticestogetherinayak-hairtent.Along

withtwosurvivingseniorGadchagslamastheyslowlybeganrebuildingtheirtemple

andretreatdivisionsusinglocallygatheredstonesandmud-bricks.Asthenuns’

memoriesandpracticespacesreassembled,itbecameapparentthatallthemajor

componentsoftheGadchagspracticetraditionhadbeenpreserved.Theirentire

scripturalcollection40wasintact,aswellasnunswithembodiedexperiencecapable

oftransmittinginstructionstonewnunsonthesubtle-bodyyogas,Dzogchen,

liturgies,retreatstylesandadministrativeprotocols.Toagreatextentitwasthe

nuns’courageanddedicationthatallowedforthesetobepreserved.Onenunatthe

riskofherlifecarriedthetwosetsofscripturestoCentralTibetandentrustedthem

toapoorfarmerwhoburiedthemunderground41.Anothernunfeigneddisabilityfor

nearlytenyearswhileshesilentlymaintainedhermeditationinsteadofperforming

communallabour.Thenuns’dedicationnotwithstanding,completepreservationwas

onlypossiblebecauseGadchagswasprimarilyanoraltraditionthatreliedonfew

scriptures,andintheshorthistorysinceGadchagshadbeenestablishedtherewere

onlyafewhand-writtencopiesmadeofitsmajortexts.Tofindthatallthe

componentsofalineagehadsurvivedtheCulturalRevolutionwasunusualinTibet.

Mostmonasterieslostatleastsomeoftheirtextsinthedestructionand/orteachers

whoembodiedtheonlylivingknowledgeofhowtoperformacertainpractice.With

thelossoftextsandteachers,continuityoftheparticularknowledgewaslost.40Gadchags’sprimaryscripturalcollectioncomprisesTshangsdbyangsrGyamtsho’ssixteenvolumesofcommentaryonRatnagLingpa’sThugssgrubyangsnying’duspa(referedtoatGadchagsas“Podsdebcudrug”),andRatnagLingpa’stwenty-fiverootgterma(Zabgternyishurtsalnga).41SuchstorieswerecommonduringtheCulturalRevolution.SeeGermano1998,p.177.

35

AGadchagsnunwhojoinedasayounggirlinthe1980sandwasraisedbythe

survivingelderlynunsexplainshowtheGadchagstraditionwaspreserved:

Question:WhentheCommunistinvasionstarted,howdidthelatenunTendronsave[Gadchags’s]texts?Didshecarrythemoffonyaks?Onhorses?Howdidshedoit?Nun:Idon’tknowhowshedidit!Shevaluedthetextsmorethanherlife,that’show.Byhidingsometextshere,somethere,shemanagedtopreserveallofTshangsdbyangsrGyamtsho’s16VolumesandRatnagLingpa’s25volumes.Shesavedallofthem.AftertheCulturalRevolutionwhennunsweregatheringatGadchagsagain,shereturnedwithallthetextsonayakandofferedthembacktothelamas.ThatoldnunTendronsavedallofourtexts.TheoldritualobjectsyouseeintheKangyurLhakang[nunnerytemple]werepreservedbythelateNgödrubChomtso.SheunearthedthemaftertheCulturalRevolution.Asbursarshedidalotofworktore-organizetheNunnerybackthen.ThelatenunShakyawastheritualandchant-master;shetaughtalltheritualsandprayerstothenewnuns.ThelatenunPalmorememberedalltheyogicpractices,likertsalungand‘khrul’khor,andtaughtthemtothenewnuns.AndthelateSherabZangmotaughttheviewandmeditation.Sheplacedtheminthehandsofthenewnuns.Shepassedthelineagetothenewnuns.Thoseoldnunspreservedtheentirelineage–thelineagethatTshangsdbyangsrGyamtshohadfirsttaughtthenunshimself,fromthebasicsoftorma-makingandconch-blowingtothehighestpractices.Itwashisdyingwishthatthefemalelineageheestablishedneverbescattered.Thoseoldnunsfulfilledthatwish.Theypreservedhislineageentirelyandpassedittoanewgenerationofnuns.

Todaythereare368nunsatGadchagsdGonpa.Thebulkofthemaremiddle-aged

womenwhojoinedthenunneryinthe1980sandweretrainedbythesurviving

elderlynunsinallaspectsofGadchags’spracticetradition.Accordingtothesenuns’

reports,oneofthekeyreasonsforthearrivalofnewnunssincethe1980sisthe

inspiringexampleoftheelderlynunswhodiewithanattitudeofcheerful

confidence.Gadchags’snunsandlamastellthatmanyoftheelderlynuns,having

spentdecadesinintensiveBuddhistpractice,stayseateduprightinthugsdam(post-

deathsamādhi)aftertheirvitalsignshavestopped,withwarmthattheheartandno

signsofbodilydecayforuptotendays.OnenuninSeptember2013describedthe

demeanouroftheelderlynunswhoraisedher:

36

Whentheoldnunswerereadytopassaway,therewasn’tasingleonewhodidn’tdieaspecialdeath.WhenIfirstcameIwastooyoungtoappreciatetheirqualities.NowlookingbackIreallyfeelfaith.Justbyuttering“Phet!”theoldnunSangdroncouldscareallthekidshoveringatthetempledoors–theywouldfalloverandrunaway!LookingbacknowIseetheyhadthatkindofforceaboutthem.TheywouldalwaystelluswehavetospendourwholelivesatGadchags,wehavetofantheflamesofpracticehereandnotgetscattered.Whenthoseoldnunsdiedtheydidn’tcomplainofanysuffering.They’dsay,“Look,todayI’mdying.Nopointinfussingaboutit.Ihavenoregrets!MybodyhasdiseasebutIamfine.I’mnotsuffering.”Mostofthemtalkedlikethatwhentheywerenearingdeath.Therewasn’tasingleonewhodidn’tdieanimpressivedeath.

AnotherGadchagsnuninSeptember2013reported:

Lastyearoneofthelastelderlynuns,Tamke,passedaway.…Beingsummer,wethoughtaftertwodaysherbodywouldsmell.Iexpectedtosmellacorpse,butinsideherretreatdivisionitsmelledlikeperfume–“thefragranceofmorality”.Steppingclosertoherbody,thefragrancebecamestronger.Thenmyeyesfilledwithtears.Wewerereallyamazed.Thenextmorningwhentheybroughtherbodytothehilltoptheysaidhercomplexionhadn’tfaded,itwaslightandradiant.

Younggirlsarenotforcedtojointhenunnery.Despitetheharshenvironmentand

famedrigourofGadchagsdGonpa’sdiscipline,nottomentionothereducational

opportunitiesandmorecomfortablenunneriesforyounggirlsinmodernTibet,

severalnoviceyoungnunscontinuetojoinGadchagseachyear.Astotheelderly

nunswhosurvivedtheCulturalRevolution,onlytworemainatGadchagsatthetime

ofwriting.

GadchagsdGonpa’sextremelyremote,highaltitudelocationissurelyacondition

allowingthecontinuationofitsintensivecontemplativetradition.Untiltodaythe

valleywhereGadchagsissituatedhasevadedthedevelopmentofroadsand

electricitypylonspervadingmanyothervalleysofEasternTibetoverthelasttwenty

years.Significantlyforthisresearch–andlikelydueatleastinparttothenunnery’s

seclusion–theseniornunsandlamasofGadchagsdGonpareportthattheir

37

practicecurriculumisbeingmaintainedtodayasitwasinthenunnery’searlydays42.

IhaveheardGadchags’slamas,nunsandassociatedmonksrepeatedlyexpresstheir

intentionthatthenunnery’sannualpracticesystemandsgrubchenschedulebe

preservedinitsoriginalformsandflourishwithoutdecline43.Manyotherdgonpain

Nangchenhave,asweshallsee,expandedtheirphilosophicalstudyprogramsand

reducedtheirformerretreatandsgrubchenschedules.

AtypicallookingKhamspanunwithherprayertextsandtaperecorderforlisteningtoBuddhistteachings.Credit:GettyImages.AstothecurrentmaterialconditionsofGadchagsdGonpa,themaintempleand

mostoftheretreatbuildingswererebuiltbetween2000and2015(asecondtime

sincetheCulturalRevolution,withmoredurablematerials).Thenunneryhassofar

refusedoffersfromChinesebusinessmentoinstallanearbycellphonetower

(thoughthiswasthelamas’decisionandnotthenuns’).Atpresenttheonlysource

42Whilethecurriculumisthesame,aGadchagsnuninherfiftiestoldmein2013thatthenuns’dedicationtopracticehasdeclined:“Inmyearlydaysherewewouldgetonwithourpracticewhetherteawasboiledornot.[…]Thesedays,noway!”43Oftenexpressedinthephrasemthongbabrgyudpa’iphyaglen:“tocarryforwardwhatwehaveseen”.

38

ofelectricityaresolarbatteriesthatpowerlampsforreadingandaudiorecorders

usedmainlytolistentoBuddhistteachings.

Conclusion

Thuscommunitiesofcontemplativepractitioners,alongwithsociety’svaluingof

tantricpracticeandyogins,havedistinguishedthesocio-culturalworldofEastern

Tibet,Nangcheninparticular,untiltherecentpresent.GadchagsdGonpamaynot

betypicalofNangchen’searliercontemplativecommunities,beinguniqueasa

femalelineagewithanespeciallyintensivefocusonyogicpractice.Itdoes,however,

exemplifythecomponentsofatypicalpracticelineagecurriculumandthereverence

givenbyTibetansocietytoindividualsandcommunitiesdedicatedtocultivationof

innerenlightenedqualities.EasternTibet’scontemplativeculturewasalso

characterizedbypredominantlyearth-basedlivelihoodsofnomadsand

agriculturalists.Nomadsandfarmerssupportedmonasteriesandretreatcentres

withmaterialprovisions,whiledependingonthemforspiritualandsocialguidance.

Theearth-basedEasternTibetanwayoflifealsoentailedamentalsimplicityand

experientialapproachtounderstandingthatallowedforeasyaccesstoattitudesof

faith(dad-pa)andpureperception(dag-snang)thatareessentialtoVajrayāna

practice44.WithextremealterationstoTibet’searth-basedeconomyoverthelast

twodecades,alongwithanewpoliticalsuperstructureadvocatingamaterialistic

worldview,Tibet’straditionalvaluesystemandcontemplativecultureare

undergoingtransformationinresponsetochangingmaterialandnonmaterialneeds

ofthetime.

44Pureperception(dagsnang)istoseeeverythingasanexpressionofultimatereality.ItisthecardinaltraininginVajrayānathatmaintainsasacredbondbetweenguruanddisciplesandopensthemindtounconditionedperception.Faith,orconfidence(dadpa),isanotherimportantVajrayānacardinalprinciplethatgoesalongwithpureperception.Ratherthanfaithinanexternalgodorprinciple,inVajrayānafaithisdirectedtoBuddhanatureastheultimaterealityofone’sownbeing,andthisissaidtobewithinthesphereofdirectexperiencethroughBuddhistpractice.

39

CHAPTERTWO

ComingDowntheMountain:FromtheCavetotheClassroom

Post-Maoreformsfromthe1980s:legalizedreligioninaMarxiststate

ThedeathofMaoZedonginSeptember1976markedamonumentalchangein

directionforChinaanditsCCPleadership.Inreactiontothecrippledeconomyand

societyleftbehindbyMaoZedong’scampaigns,boldlypragmaticnewpolicieswere

establishedunderthedirectionofDengXiaoping(1904-1997).TheseopenedChina

toforeigninvestment,privateownershipofsmallbusinessesandalongwiththesea

smallmeasureofpopularpoliticalparticipation45.Thesepolicies,self-styledas

‘capitalismwithChinesecharacteristics’(McCarthy2010:177),havetransformed

Chinafromeconomicdevastationintotheworld’ssecondlargesteconomywithin

thirtyyears46.

MillionsofChinesetodayhavethekindofwealththatpreviousgenerationscould

onlydreamof.Atthesametimesuchsheereconomicgrowthhasbeenaccompanied

bydrasticsocialupheaval–andwiththat,anexplosioninthenumberofreligious

followers.Suchalargereligiousdemographicpresentsconsiderablepolitical

implicationsforstate-societyrelations47.Asaresponse,theCCPhasadopteda

pragmatictoleranceofreligionthatallowsitsexistenceasaresourcetobemanaged

towardssocialharmony.ThisisaccordingtoMao’scategorizationofreligionasa

non-antagonisticcontradictionthatneednotbeeliminated,butcanbeunitedwitha

commonsocialistcause(Cooke2009:128;146,n1).Individualreligiousbeliefisnow

consideredbeyondstateintervention,with‘normalreligiousactivities’granted

45Chinaofficiallyendorsedaprogramof‘reformandopenness’attheThirdPlenumoftheEleventhCentralCommitteeoftheCCPinDecember1978(Jefreys&Sigley2009:8).46HuJintao,inhiskeynotespeechtotheFortuneGlobalForuminMay2005,statedthatbetween1978to2004China'sGDPincreasedfromUS$147.3billionto$1.6494trillionwithanaverageannualgrowthrateof9.4percent.Thenumberofruralpoordwindledfromsome250millionto26million.47In2007Shanghai’sEastChinaNormalUniversityfoundathirdof4,500peopleintervieweddescribedthemselvesasreligious.Thatextrapolatesto300millionofwholepopulation(Yardley2007inOakes&Sutton2010:8).

40

protectionbyArticle36ofthePRCConstitution48.Thisissolongasreligious

activitiespromotethestate’ssocialistaimsandeconomicdevelopmentanddo

nothingtodisruptthestate’seducationalsystem(Cooke2009:130;Yang2012:76).

Article36isbackedbythetenetsoftheParty’s1982circular‘Document19’,which

allowreligionasaprovisionalsocialphenomenonthatshouldbecarefullymanaged

andharnessedforitsrallyingpowerstowardsthestate’ssocialistaimsanditscentral

taskofeconomicconstruction(Yang2012:50).Buddhismisnowoneoffivereligions

grantedlegalexistenceinChina–alongwithDaoism,Islam,Protestantismand

Catholicism.Theseareincontrasttoreligionsthatfallintothegovernment’s

politicallydefinedcategoriesofsuperstition(Ch.mixin)andevilcult(Ch.xiejiao),and

arethereforeillegal(Gaerrang2012:113).SinceDocument19theParty’s

managementofreligionhasneverthelesscontinuedwithinaframeworkofMarxist

ideology.Thegovernmentregularlypropagatesatheismandascientificoutlook

amongthepeople,particularlyamongtheyouth,anditslong-termgoalremainsthe

fullrealizationofsocialistideals(Huang2003:9;Yang2012).

Religion–asatypeofsocialorganization49–isnowmanagedaccordingtoanewly

articulatedMarxisminwhichrevolutionaryvocabularylike‘communism’and‘class

struggle’havebeenreplacedwithphraseslike‘harmonioussocialistsociety’and‘the

advancednatureoftheChineseCommunistParty’(Yü2013:92).Religions,

particularlyBuddhismwithitsrationalandethicaltenors,areseenaspotential

civilizingagentstowardsthestate’sgoalofa‘SocialistSpiritualCivilization’(Ch.

shehuizhuyijingshenwenming)toparalleltherampant‘materialcivilization’

unfoldinginthepost-reformera50(Cooke2009:142,146,n1).

48ThoughaccordingtoYang,whatconstitutes‘normalreligiousactivities’isundefinedandoftendecidedbyincumbentadministrators(Yang2012:75).49InChinareligiousorganizationsareregisteredassocialorganizationswiththeMinistryofCivilAffairs(Cooke2009:138).50Formuchofthepost-Maoeratheideaof‘twocivilizations’(Ch.lianggewenming)–materialandspiritual–hasframedtheCCP’snarrativeinpromotingitsgoalofbalancedeconomicandmoraldevelopment(Dynon2008:84).

41

‘DeveloptheWest’:forcefuleconomicdevelopmentoftheTibetanPlateau

Aforcefuldriveforeconomicdevelopmentisthestate’sfirstprincipletowards

achievingaharmonioussocialistsociety,andoftenseemstobethestate’ssole

solutionforthevariousproblemsitfaces(Gaerrang2012:59).Thisisevidentinthe

outcomesofthreemajorgovernmentalforumsrelevanttoTibetanaffairsin2010

and2011thataddressedpoliticalstability,economicdisparityandecologicalsecurity

respectively51.Thoughtheissuesaddressedinthethreeforumsweredifferentand

distinct,thesolutiondeterminedbyeachforumwasthesame:intensifiedeconomic

reformsinChina’swesternregions(Gaerrang2012:60).ForTibetansasanethnic

minoritylivinginChina’sWest,thishasmeantassimilationalongacourseofrapid

economicmodernisationthroughChina’s‘DeveloptheWest’campaign(Ch.xibuda

kaifa).Thecampaignwaslaunchedin2000toreduceagrowingeconomicdivide

betweenChina’scoastalandwesternregions,andhasbeenpropelledbythewealth

ofnaturalresourcesontheTibetanPlateauandthetransnationalrailwayintoLhasa

thatwascompletedin2006.

AlargepartoftheDeveloptheWestcampaignhasbeentheresettlementofTibetan

nomadsinurbancentres,aswellasfencinginpastoralareaswhereTibetannomads

remain(Gaerrang2012;Harwood2009:70-71).IntheeyesoftheCCP’smodernist

vision,Tibetanfarmersandnomadswiththeirstoneandyakdunghousesare

backwardsandpitiable.In2005thePartychiefoftheTAR,ZhangQingli,touredthe

TibetanPlateauandreportedthatthehousesoflocalfarmersandherdsmenhad

shockedhimthemost.“Youcanseethestarsfrominsidemanyhouses,”saidZhang.

Hededicatedhimselftoimprovingthelivesoflocalpeoplebyintensifying

resettlementinitiativesthathadbeguninthe1990s.Thenomadiclifestyleis

generallydeemedathreattotheenvironmentandtothestate’splansforsocialand

economicdevelopment.ResettlementpolicieswerereinforcedinMarch2006with

theNationalPeople’sCongress’planstobuilda‘NewSocialistCountryside’(Ch.

shehuizhuyixinnong-cunjianshe),ainitiativeofinnovationsinruralsystemsto

51TheFifthForumonWorkinTibet,January2010;aforumontheOpenuptheWestCampaign,July2010;andtheNationalConferenceonPastoralRegions,August2011.

42

bringabouta“rapidandsignificantchangeintheoverallappearanceofthe

countryside”(Jiabao2006).

ReliablestatisticsonTibet’snomadsareelusiveandpoliciesconcerningthemseem

tovarybetweenregionsandlevelsofbureaucracy(Gaerrang,personal

communication,July2015).Oneindependentresearcherconcludedthatatleasttwo

millionTibetannomadswereresettledby2014(’Phrinlas2014).Thesame

researcherstatesthatinQinghaiProvince,wherepastoralismwasthepredominant

traditionallivelihooduntilthe1960s,uptoninetypercentofnomadicfamilieshad

beenresettledinpermanenthousingprojectsmodelledaccordingtoprecise

governmentstandardsby2014(’Phrinlas2014).InNangchen,eachconcretehouse

iseightysquarefeetandsharesawaterpumpwithseveralotherhousesinarow;

mostofthesettlementsareconcentratednearvillageortowncentresandhavea

primaryschool.Thegovernment’soverarchingexplanationforitsresettlement

policiesis‘helpingTibet’.Tibetansarepromisedbetterlivingconditions,education

andcooperativehealthcareinurbanizingsettlements,aswellasgovernment

supporttomakearapidtransitiontoChina’smarketeconomy(Gaerrang2012).

ThisbillboardinEasternTibetpromotinghousingresettlementsstates:“Buildabetterhome,enjoyahappylife”.Credit:TseringWoeser,2011.

43

Sincethe1980sthegovernmenthasalsoconsistentlyclaimedenvironmental

preservationasareasonforresettlingnomads,arguingthatover-grazinghas

degradedthegrasslands.Thoughthereisconsensusamongscientiststhat

environmentaldegradationofthegrasslandsisincreasing(Gruschke2008:8),some

ecologistsclaimthatdepletionofthegrasslandsisduetotherecenteffectsof

climatechangeandfencingpolicies,andthatpastoralismhasinfactpreservedthe

grasslands’healthoverthecenturies(Miller&Sheehy2008).

ItisdifficulttopredicttowhatextentTibetanpastoralismmightsurviveinthelong

run.IhaverecentlyheardofTibetanex-nomadsinQinghaiandSichuanreturningto

nomadiclifeafterfindingitinerantconstructionworkintownsmoredifficult,

insecureandlow-paying.Atthesametime,theCCP’sNationalConferenceon

PastoralRegionsin2011decidedthatecologicalstabilityofWesternChina’spastoral

areasistobeachievedbytransformingpastoralproductionintomoreintensified

livestockindustrialization,andpastoralistsintourbanizedmarketactors(Gaerrang

2012:60).Whatisclearisthatremaininganunwashedyakherderinunfixedareas

oftheTibetanPlateauisnotseenbytheCCPasaviablefuturelivelihoodfor

Tibetans.

Atypical-lookingTibetanhousingresettlementontheTibetanPlateau.Credit:www.rukor.org.

Theerosionofahigh-altitudevaluesystem

InaperfectexampleofJamesC.Scott’snotionofhighmodernism,theCCPisusing

itsstatepowerstoreshapesocietyinordertomaximizeproduction,confidentthat

thiswillimprovethehumancondition(Scott1998).Butthisdrastictransformation

oftheTibetaneconomy–fromhighaltitudepasturesandsustainableagricultureto

44

reservation-stylehousingblocksinSinicizedtownships–presentsTibetanswith

enormouschallengesofadaptingtoaneweconomyandvaluesysteminaveryshort

periodoftime.Withoutlivestock,landandwithlittleinnovativeflairforthe

capitalistmarketplace,manyresettlednomadsnowsurviveontheprofitsfrom

tradingCordycepssinensis(dByarrtsadGun’bu,‘Summergrass,Winterworm’).

Cordycepsisamountain-growncaterpillarfungusharvestedbyTibetansinMayand

JuneandsoldprimarilytoChinesecustomersasanenergytonic.Thehighdemand

andpriceofCordycepsfungushasmadeitstradeamainstayofruralTibetanfamily

incomes.FormanyTibetanfamiliesinQinghaiprovinceCordycepstradeisthesole

sourceoftheiryearlyincome(Winkler2008;Traga,personalcommunication,July

2016).

TheresettlementofTibetannomadsunderminestheirtraditionalearth-based

livelihoodsthatformillenniasupportedTibet’scontemplative,visionaryculture52.

ThenomadicwayoflifehasbeenadefiningfeatureofBuddhistlifeinEasternTibet

andallowedforthenomadicreligiousencampments(chossgar)ofgreatmasterslike

rTogsldanShakyaShriandAkhyugRinpoche,andthehigh-altitudeeconomy

supportingyogicpractitioners.PreviouslyTibetannomadsandfarmersoffered

regularfoodsupplieslikeroastedbarleyflour(tshampa),meatanddairyproducts

tomonasteriesandhermitagesasamatterofreligiousdevotion.Theseofferings

madecommitmenttolongtermyogicpracticeaviablewayoflifewithstrong

communitysupport.Highlandnomadsandfarmerswereinturnsustainedintheir

religiousandmundanelivesbytherituals,blessingsandcounselofthe

practitioners53.Today,asthetraditionalfoodsourceisnolongerforthcomingfrom

Tibetanfamilies,dgonpaareforcedtoformconnectionswithtownsandrelyon

alternativesourcesofsupportviathemodernmarket.Headlamasandmonksof

TibetandgonpanowtravelthroughoutChinaandabroadtofundraisefortheneeds

oftheirmonksandnuns.GadchagsdGonpaisoneexampleofthis:bytheyear2000

52Visionsofmountaingods,spiritsanddeitieswerenotuncommonamongordainedandlayTibetans(theyarenarratedinmostrnamthar).Moreover,suchvisionswereoftentakenseriouslybyTibetancommunitieswhenreported.53Religiouspractitionerscontributedtosocialwelfarethroughmentalandphysicalhealing,conflictresolutionandguidingethicalconduct.

45

manynunswerenolongerabletoprocureadequatefoodsuppliesfromtheir

parentsorsiblingsontheirseasonalalmsrounds,andsincethentheyhavereliedon

oneoftheirmalelamastofundraisefortheirdailymeals.

AnotherthrustoftheDeveloptheWestcampaign,andasalientfactorbehind

transformationsofTibet’scontemplativeculture,isnationwidecompulsorynine-

yeareducationforallschool-agechildren(Harwood2009:71;Zhang&Zhao2006:

262-63).Althoughthestatewasinitiallychallengedtoimplementthiseducational

systemwithunregisteredTibetanchildrenlivinginhard-to-reachpastoralareas,

todayithassucceededsothatnearlyninetypercentofchildreninNangchen

Countyattendimpressiveprimaryandsecondaryschoolfacilitiesintownsand

villages(Kolas&Thowsen2005:120).Chineseisthemainlanguageofinstructionin

stateschoolsandallsubjectsaresecular.Tibetanlanguageisabranchsubjectand

thereisverylittleinstructioninTibetanreligiouscultureorhistory54(Goldstein&

Kapstein1998:3).Thecoreeducationalgoalofthestatecurriculumistoconsolidate

TibetansasanethnicminoritywithinanationalunityofChina,andtoelevatethem

culturallythroughscientific,socialistvaluesandeconomicdevelopment(Kolas&

Thowsen2005:93).ThusthemajorityofTibetanyoutharenowstreamedinan

educationsystemthatservesthestate’sdevelopmentagenda:thatofshaping

Chinesecitizensasrationalmarketactorswhoprioritizematerialdevelopmentand

commodityproduction(Gaerrang2012).

Whetherornot,withthedeeplyingrainedBuddhistcultureoftheirhomelives,the

currentgenerationofchildrensubscribetothesentimentsofstateeducation,

Tibetanlanguageandreligionisseenashavinglittlepracticalusewhenitcomesto

survivinginthefastgrowingmarketeconomyofurbanChina.Themomentumofthe

country’seducationsystemandindustrial-strengthdevelopmentissteeringyoung

54AlthoughtherehavebeenperiodiceffortstostrengthenTibetanlanguageinprimaryandsecondaryschoolcurricula,theyhavenothelduptotheimmensedemandforChineseasthelanguageneededtosucceedeconomicallyintoday’sChina.InKapstein’spre-2004fieldworkhecommonlyheardBeijingofficialsexpressadevaluingofTibetanlanguageasbeingunsuitedforthetasksofmodernscience,technologyandbusiness.HeheardsimilarsentimentsfromTibetansintheTAR(Kapstein2004:248).

46

Tibetanstowardscitylifewithallthetechnologicaltrimmingsthataccompany

modernityanddistractthemind.

TibetanBuddhistresurgenceanddomestictourism

Despitestateregulationofreligion,includingaminimumageformonastic

ordination55andlimitationsonthepopulationsofmonasteries,aTibetanBuddhist

revivalhastakenplaceinEasternTibetsincethe1980s(Cabezon2008).A

surprisinglylargenumberofordainedTibetansarelivinginmonasticcentres

throughoutKhamsandAmdo,resumingtheirpositionasthecentralpillarofTibetan

religiouscultureandliteraryproduction(McMahan2012:95)Thisrevivalhas

unfoldedwithinanincreasinglyopenculturalsceneinChinasothatTibetan-

languagepublications,educationandpreservationofculturalrelicshavedeveloped

aspartofit(Kapstein2004:242).Kapsteinreportedin2004thatoveronehundred

thousandTibetanBuddhistmonksandnunshadordainedinChina,nearingthetotal

Tibetanpopulationinexile56(Kapstein2004:230).

Toagreatextentthisrevivalistestimonytotheresilienceanddevotionofthe

Tibetanpeoplewhohaverecoveredtheirreligiousculturedespitehavinglostnearly

allofitsphysicalrepresentationsandseveralgenerationsofqualifiedlamasduring

theMaoistera.Inthefirsttwodecadesofpost-MaoreformsmanyTibetans

contributedthelion’sshareoftheirincomeandlabourtoreconstructtheir

monasteriesandtemples.NowadaysthebulkoffinancialsupportforTibetan

religiousstructuresinChinacomefromHanChinese(mainlandanddiasporic),afast

growingnumberofwhomareparticipatinginTibetanBuddhismasstudentsand

patrons.WithChineseMahāyāna’sforemostprincipleofoffering(Ch.gongyang)to

55age1856OfficialfiguresonBuddhistmonasticpopulationsindicatethatamonasticrevivalhasoccurredfarmoreinTibetanBuddhismthaninChineseMahayānaandotherBuddhisttraditionsinChina(Kapstein2004:264,n.3).KaptseinalsonotesthatmonasticcollegeslikeŚriSinghaandrDzogscheninKhamshaveofferedclassesinChineseandmathematicstoyoungmonkswhosefamiliesnowvaluepubliceducation.Asthetraditionaleducators,monasteriespickeduptheslackuntilthenewstateschoolsystemreachedallTibetanareas(Kapstein2004:248-249).Thisexplainssomeofthenumbersofmonksfromthe1980stoearly2000s.

47

thesaṅghaasawayofamassingwealth-creatingmerit(Ch.fubao),Chinese

BuddhistsareavidpatronsofTibetanlamasanddgonpa.Inawaythisplaysoutthe

age-oldpatron-preceptorrelationshipbetweenChinaandTibetthathasexisted

sincetheYuandynasty–thoughnowthepatronisthepopulationandnotthe

government.

Atypical-lookingnewlyconstructedmonasticcollegeinEasternTibet.Credit:GuiLingGan,2015.

AsignificantnumberofmainlandChinesehaveordainedatmajorTibetan

monasteries,likebLarungsGarandYachensGarinSichuan,whilelayChinese

BuddhistsregularlyinviteTibetanlamas,doctorsandartisanstoChina’scoastal

citiestoshareteachingsandculturalpractices.TheTibetanBuddhistrevivalisinfact

partofamuchbroaderresurgenceofreligiousinclinationthroughoutChina.In

anomalouswaysthisresurgenceisinvigoratedbythestate’spromotionofdomestic

tourismasasourceofrevenueandasawaytoassertitscontroloverreligious

matters(Kolas2008;Makley2010;OakesandSutton2010:21).Colourfullyethnic

nationalities(Ch.minzu)57areadvertisedintheinterestsofdomestictourism,and

Tibet,withitssacredcultureandpristinenature,isoneofthemostalluring

destinations.

57Tibetansareoneoffifty-six‘nationalities’(Ch.minzu)thatconstitutethemulti-ethnicPRC.

48

ThousandsofnewlyrichHantouristsfromChina’ssprawlingcities–manywith

Tibetangurus–vacationtotheTibetanplateauinsummermonthsforrespitefrom

thepollutionandstressesofindustrialcitylife.Tibetanditsculturalparaphernalia

arebecomingcommodifiedontheChinesemarket,muchinthesamewaythat

IndianyogaandBuddhastatuesaresoldfortherapeuticvalueintheWest.Ashopat

theChengduairportinJuly2015calledPeaceofMindandstaffedbyfemaleHan

clerkswearingTibetantraditionaldressessellsallthingsTibetan–fromthangkas

andprayer-wheelstodriedyak-meat.Tibetanmineralwater‘bottledatthesource’

ismarketedasholyspringwater.Integratingreligionsintoeconomicdevelopmentis

oneofthestate’smainwaysofmanagingreligionasacontributingforcetowards

CCPgoals(Gaerrang2013:114).Commercializationofreligionsandethniccultures

throughthetourismindustrybringsveryhighreturns:domesticspendingontourism

in2007wasmorethan1.2billionyuan(Oakes&Sutton2010).

bLarungsGarmkhanpoandtheirmovementsforeducationalandethicalreforms

InthelasttenyearstheresurgenceofBuddhisminEasternTibetispredominantly

takingplacethroughthemediumofmonasticcolleges.Agrowingnumberofdgon

paareadoptingmoresystemizedscholasticcurricula,manyoftheminfluencedby

themonasticcollegeofbLarungsGarFiveSciencesBuddhistAcademy(bLarung

sGarlNgarigNangbstansLobgling,hereafterbLarungsGar),locatedingSerrta

CountyofdKarmdzesPrefecture,SichuanProvince(northernKhams)58.Witha

populationofwellover10,000monksandnuns59,bLarungsGaristhelargest

BuddhistinstitutionontheTibetanplateauandthefocalpointoftheTibetan

Buddhistrevival.Itsmagnitudeandhighintellectualandethicalstandardshave

58Anothermajormonasticcollegere-establishedsincethe1980sisbLabrangMonasteryinAmdo(GansuProvince).Foundedintheearly18thcentury,bLabranghasbeenknownasthegreatestcentreofdGelugspalearningandauthorityinnortheasternTibet.bLabranghasstronglyfiguredinrelationsbetweenTibetan,MongolandChinesegovernmentssincetheQingdynasty(Kapstein2004:250).59Reportsofthepopulationvaryconsiderably.On17October2015theSydneyMorningHeraldreportedanestimated50,000monasticslivingatbLarungsGar.

49

incrediblyfar-reachinginfluenceonthemindsofTibetansacrosstheTibetan

Plateau,fromdietandlivelihoodtoculturalidentity.

bLarungsGarwasformallyestablishedin1987byKhenpoJigmePhuntsokwiththe

assistanceoftheTenthPanchenLama,aspartoftheireffortstorehabilitatetheir

religionafterthecorruptionsundergoneduringtheMaoistera,andwiththevision

thatTibetanBuddhismshouldspreadtoHanareas(Germano1998;Osburg2013).

KhenpoJigmePhuntsok’slifelongemphasisonpuremonasticdisciplineandhis

revelationofnumerousgtermaplayedextremelyimportantrolesininspiring

Tibetansintherevitalizationoftheirreligion(Germano1998;Sodargye2015).

KhenpoJigmePhuntsokhadevadedcapturebyChineseauthoritiesduringthe

CulturalRevolutionandspentthatdecademeditatingandcomposingBuddhist

commentariesinremotevalleysofgSerrta.In1980bLarungsGarfirstformedasa

chossgar–aninformalcommunityofdisciplesgatheredaroundKhenpoJigme

PhuntsokforVajrayānateachingsandcontemplatepractice.(Thesitehadlongbeen

celebratedasthemountainhermitageofa19thcenturygterstonandasafavoured

retreatplaceformanyyogins.)AsthenumberofdisciplesresidingatbLarungsGar

quicklyswelled–by1986thereweremorethansixthousand–KhenpoJigme

PhuntsokdevelopedanintensiveBuddhistcurriculumofstudy,meditationand

debate.KhenpoJigmePhuntsokwasthefirstlamainmodernTibettosuccessfully

establishamajorcentreofTibetanBuddhistlearning,andbLarungsGaris

celebratedashismonumentalachievement(Terrone2013).TherolethatbLarung

sGarhasplayedintheTibetanBuddhistrevivalcannotbeoverstated.

Today,besidesbeinganecumenicalinstituteopentofollowersofallTibetan

Buddhistschools,bLarungsGarisunusualinthathalfofitsstudentsarenuns

studyingthesamecurriculumasmonks.Whileacademicstudieshavebeenoffered

innunneriesofIndiaandNepaloverthelastthreedecades,theseexilednunneries

havebeenexposedtomodernityandtothefeministinfluenceofparticipating

WesternandTaiwaneseBuddhistwomensincethe1960s.bLarungsGarwasa

trailblazerinTibetbyadmittingwomentoitscurriculumfromthe1980swhen

Tibet’sencounterwithmodernitywasstillnascent.ItisalsothefirstBuddhist

50

collegeinTibetanhistorytosystematicallygrantthetitleofmkhanmo(Buddhist

nun-scholar)tonunsoncompletionoftheirstudies.AnotherunusualelementofbLa

rungsGaristhelargenumberofethnicHanmonksandnunsattendingclasses

taughtinChineselanguage.

bLarungsGarFiveSciencesBuddhistAcademyindKarmdzesPrefecture,Sichuan(Khams).Credit:DailyMail,19April2015.

Furtherafield,tensofthousandsoflayChinesearoundtheworldstudyclassical

TibetanBuddhistteachingsviaonlinecoursestaughtinChinesebybLarungsGar’s

seniormkhanpo60.InteachingChineselaypeoplethemkhanpo’semphasisisnoton

chantingsūtrasandmakingofferings,butonstudyofclassicalMahāyānatreatises

likeBodhisattvacaryāvatāraandAbhisamayālaṅkāra.Otherpopularthemesinthe

mkhanpos’andotherTibetanlamas’teachingsandactivitieswithChinesefollowers

arevegetarianism,savingthelivesofanimals(tshethar;Ch.fang-sheng)andethical

precepts.ThesethemesaccordwiththevaluestraditionallyespousedinChinese

MahāyānaBuddhism,andinthepasthavenotbeenasstronglyemphasizedin

BuddhismamongTibetans.Itispossiblethatanemphasisonthesethemesis

60Seeforexamplehttp://www.zhibeifw.com/cn/

51

necessaryforTibetanlamastoestablishreputabilityandcommongroundwithnew

Chineseaudiences61.

AtbLarungsGarAcademythemonasticcurriculumcomprisesclassicBuddhisttexts

ofsūtraandtantra,specializingincommentariesoftherNyingmaandbKa’brgyud

schools,aswellassecularsubjectslikegrammar,medicine,artsandcomputer

science(Sodargye2015).TodatebLarungsGarhasproducedmorethanathousand

qualifiedmkhanpoandmkhanmo,manyofwhomnowteachatothermonasteries

andDharmacentresthroughoutTibet,China,IndiaandtheWest.(Thoughfemale

teachersaregenerallylesswellreceivedbywiderTibetanandChinesesociety.)

Perhapsthemostwell-knownofbLarungsGar’sleadingteacherstodayareKhenpo

Sodargye(mKhanpobSodDarrgyas)andKhenpoTsultrimLodrö(mKhanpoTshul

khrimsbLogros).BesideshavingmassivefollowingsofHanChinesestudents,these

twoteachershavebothtravelledtomajoruniversitiesinAsia,Europe,North

AmericaandAustraliagivinglecturesontheimportanceofBuddhiststudyto

worldwideaudiences.KhenpoSodargye’sbookAScientificTreatiseonBuddhismin

ChineselanguageisapopularhandbookofChineseBuddhists,asisKhenpoTsultrim

Lodrö’sFromBelieverstoBodhisattvas.Bothofthesebooksemphasizetheclose

bondsthatBuddhismshareswithscienceandexhortthelayBuddhistcommunityto

becomeeducatedinBuddhistphilosophy.

InTibetanpastoralareastheinfluenceofbLarungsGarmkhanpoiswidespread

throughreformmovementsaimingtostrengthenethicalconduct,educationand

purityofspokenTibetanlanguage(Gaerrang2012).In2000KhenpoJigmePhuntsok

launchedamovementagainsttheslaughterofanimalsamongEastTibetan

pastoralists.ThiswasinresponsetothemassslaughteringofTibetanlivestockthat

beganafterChina’smarketopenedtothecommercialsaleofTibetanyakmeat.This

movement,nowcarriedbyotherbLarungsGarmkhanpo,promotestheupholding

oftenBuddhistpreceptsthatprohibitsellinglivestockforslaughter,gambling,61OnemaywonderifKhenpoJigmePhuntsok’slifelongadherencetomonasticvows,despitebeingagterston,wastoaidhismissionofspreadingTibetanBuddhismamongHanChinese.gTermarevelationsareusuallysaidtorequiretheassemblageofparticularconditions,includingthegterston’srelianceonsexualyogawithaprophesizedconsort(Jacoby2007:85).

52

visitingprostitutesandothermisconductsthatspoiltheintegrityoftheTibetan

character(Gaerrang2012;Gayley2013).Alongwiththeseprecepts,which

incidentallywerenewlyformulatedatbLarungsGar,vegetarianismisstrongly

encouragedbythemkhanpoandarguedforonthebasisofBuddhistscriptures.

Wholetownsandvillageshavejoinedthismonastic-drivenethicalmovementand

takensomeorallofthetenpreceptsforaperiodofthreeyearsorlonger(Gaerrang

2012:4).Manypastoralists,however,findthetensionbetweeneconomicnecessity

andtheBuddhistanti-slaughterpreceptirreconcilableandchoosenottorenewthe

preceptsafterathree-yearperiod(Gaerrang2012;Gayley2013:281).

Hand-in-handwiththeseethicalreformsisanilliteracy-eradicationmovement

instigatedbybLarungsGar’smkhanpo.Monk-teachersaredispatchedto

communitiesthroughoutEasternTibettoteachTibetanlanguageandBuddhismto

schoolchildrenandilliterateherdersrequestingtheirinstruction(Gaerrang2012).

EducationisrecognizedbybLarungsGar’smkhanpoasatoppriorityforthefuture

ofTibetansinthe21stcentury,andTibetansareencouragedbythemtoavailthe

neweducationalandeconomicopportunitiesindevelopingurbancentres.Itis

noteworthythatuntilthe1980stheonlyTibetaneducationsystemexistedin

monasteries.ThemkhanpoarethereforeconcernedthattheTibetanlaityare

educatedintheirreligiousculturalheritageinordertoassistinitspreservation.At

thesametimethemkhanpoareconcernedthatTibetanyouthareequippedfor

survivalinaChinesecapitalistsocietythatismodernizingatbreakneckspeed.

KhenpoTsultrimLodröhassaid“educationisTibetanBuddhism…achangethat

mustbemadeintheTibetanherders’meansofmakingaliving”(Gaerrang2012:

248).

AsleadingspokespeopleinTibetansocietyonreligiousculture,Tibet’smkhanpo

andotherteachersaimtosteertheirsocietythroughthecurrentfluxofdrastic

socioeconomicchangesonapaththatensuresmaterialdevelopmentiscongruent

withBuddhistvalues(Gayley2013:282).Theyareridingthebullofstate-driven

modernisationbypresentingTibetanBuddhismasanethicallyexemplary,scientific

53

alternativetostringentideologicalbeliefinMarxismandtherampantmaterialism

thatthreatensChinesesociety(Yü2013:139).

Theinfluxofmonasticcollegesandthe‘newintellect’(riggsar)inEasternTibet

Insideandoutsideofthemonasteriesanewethosofliteracyandcriticalthoughtis

beingadvocatedbyyoungTibetanswhohaveaccesstoformal,secularized

educationforthefirsttime.Thisisespeciallypronouncedinthenumberoflay

Tibetanspublishingbooksonpolitics,sociologyandothersecularthemes,aswellas

writers’groups,websitesandblogsdedicatedtosharingviewsandliterary

compositions.AradicalexampleisacontemporarygroupoflayTibetanintellectuals

inChinacalledtheNewSchoolofThoughtwhowriteinTibetanandChinese

languageabouttheneedforinternalreformandchangeinTibetantraditions.

PerhapsthemostextremeofthesemodernTibetanintellectualsisZhogsdung

(a.k.a.bKrargyal),whoarguedina1999newsforumthatTibetansshould

disassociatefromtraditionalBuddhistlearninginordertoovercometheirpresent

colonisedcondition(JamyangKyi2010;Yü2013b;Zhogsdung2001).Thegeneral

moodamongTibetansseesthe21stcenturyasanageofreason,andcritical

intelligencehasbeenelevatedtonewprominenceinthelearningcultureof

contemporaryTibetansociety,bothinChinaandinexile.Thisisreflectedbythenew

prevalenceofwordsincolloquialTibetanlike‘reasonedunderstanding’(rtogssad),

whichissometimesjuxtaposedwith‘blindfaith’(rmongsdad),and‘newbrain’(klad

pagsarpa)whichreferstoeducated,scepticalthinkers.

Inmonasteriesandnunneries,themodernimportanceofrationalityisseenina

strongadvocacytomarrylearning(shespa)withpractice(sgrubpa)atalltimesin

Buddhisttraining.Leadingmastersofthe19thcenturyRismedmovement,

renownedas‘lamaspossessingknowledgeandyogicrealization’(shessgrubgnyi

ldangyiblama),arethedirectinspirationforbLarungsGarmkhanpoandother

lamasinEasternTibettoday.Theirstudy-with-practiceidealisbeingstrongly

advocatedbyteachersandbythegeneralpopulationofmonksandnunsengagedin

scholasticcurricula.Whilethisidealisbeingvoiced,theformitistakingunder

54

numerouspoliticalandsocio-economicinfluencesisapopulationshiftofmonksand

nunsfromlong-termretreatcentrestoclassrooms.

Interestingly,severaloftoday’smostpopulatedmonasticcentres,likebLarungsGar

andYachensGar,hadfirstestablishedthemselvesaschossgar(‘Dharma

encampment’)inthelate1980s.Chossgarweretraditionallymeditation

communitiesratherthanmonasticinstitutionsthatsometimesmigratedwiththe

seasonsorthemovementsofthecommunity’sguru.TurekandTerronehave

assertedthatanincreaseinchossgarandsgrubgrwa(retreatcentres)inthepost-

1980srevivalwasbecausetheirlessorganizedenrolmentandcurricularstructure

madethemlesssusceptibletostateinterventionandscrutinythanmonasteries

(Terrone2009:81-84;Turek2013:89-90).Whilethiswasthecasefromthelate

1980stoearly2000s,inthelasttenyearsseveralofthesecommunitieshave

evolvedintobshadgrwa(monasticcollege)orstudycentreswithlargebasesof

Chinesefollowersandpatrons.Theynolongerfitthetraditionaldescriptionofchos

sgarandsgrubgrwaascentresformeditationtraining.bLarungsGarisanobvious

exampleofthis,aswellasseveralofGadchags’slargerbranchdgonpainNangchen

likeRayaandBragnang.YachensGartodayremainsprimarilyacentrefor

Dzogchentrainingandisadestinationformonksandnunsofotherdgonpain

EasternTibettoobtainmeditationteachingsonaseasonalbasis(ontopofitssteady

populationofseveralthousandmonastics).InthelastfewyearsatYachen,

however,whatusedtobeasolecurriculumofcontemplativepracticehasdeveloped

apart-timestudyprogramtaughtbybLarungsGarmkhanpoandmkhanmo(dBang

dragRinpoche,personalcommunication,July2015).

ScholasticlearninghasalwaysbeenastrongstreaminTibetanBuddhisttraining,

whichisinlargepartbasedonthephilosophicalscripturaltraditionsofNālandā

University.ItiscentralinthedGelugsschool,whereadgebshesdegree(nominally

equivalenttomkhanpointheSaskya,bKa’brgyudandrNyingmaschools)entailsat

leastfifteenyearsofdialecticalstudy.TheSaskyalineagehasalsolongbeen

identifiedasascholastictraditionwithitsillustriousscholarsandhistorians,likeSa-

skyaPandita(1182-1251)andGoramspa(1429-1489).rNyingmaandbKa’brgyud

55

lineageshavealsohadtheirfairshareofmaster-scholars,notablyduringtheRismed

erainfigureslike’JamdbyangmKyenbrtsedBangpo(1820-1892)and’JuMipham

(1846-1912),andalsoinearliertimesinmasterslike’BrugchenPadmadKarpo

(1527-1592)andkLongchenpa(1308-1364).

Alongwithscholasticlearning,scholasticrevivalshavealsoplayeddefiningand

recurringrolesinthehistoryofTibetanBuddhism.Samuelhasdescribedtheseries

ofsynthesesandreactionsbetweenwhatheterms‘clerical’and‘shamanic’

approachesinTibetanBuddhism(whatIwouldlooselycomparetoscholasticand

yogicapproaches).ClericaldevelopmentssuchasaspectsoftheNewTranslation

period(gSarbsgyur,10th-12thcenturies)andthefoundingofthedGelugsschool

attemptedrationalizedsynthesesoftheBuddha’steachingsbasedongraduated

monasticcurricula(Samuel1993:504)62.Therecentincreaseofmonasticcollegesin

thedgonpaofEasternTibet(manyofwhichtraditionallyfavouredtheshamanic

approach)mayresemblesuchearlierpatternsofscholasticrevival.However,beyond

anincreaseofstudyprogramssomerecentdevelopmentsinthedgonpaofEastern

Tibetseemnewanddivergent.Inparticular,attitudesofscepticismandamore

systematic,degree-orientedapproachtostudyseemoutofstepwithtraditional

Tibetanpatternsofscholarshipanditsrelationtopractice.

Inpre-CommunistEasternTibetamkhanpodegreewasrarelybestowedandwas

considerablymoredifficulttoacquirethanitistoday63.Thedegreewasnottheend

resultofastandardcurriculum,butwasgiventoamonkwhooverdecadeshad

provenhisdeepknowledgeofBuddhistphilosophy,alongwithaltruisticmoral

conductandspiritualrealizationcultivatedthroughextendedperiodsofretreat.64

bShadgrwa(monasticcolleges)werebynomeansthestandardmodelofmost

62SamuelrepeatedlypointsoutthatclericalpatternsinTibetalsoinvolvedshamanicelements,asinthefigureofTsongkhapa(1357-1419)whoseacademicworkswereinspiredbyvisionsoftantricdeities(Samuel1993:499,507).63Thetitlemkhanpotraditionallyreferredtoapreceptorwhoimpartedmonks’vows.Onlymonkshighlyaccomplishedinscholarshipandconduct,i.e.mkhanpo,wouldbestowPrātimokṣavowstonewmonks.64Forexamples,mKhanpogZhandga’(1871-1927)andmKhanpoNgagga(1879-1941).SeealsoKhenpoNgawangPalzang’sautobiography,WondrousDanceofIllusion(Ngawang2013).

56

monasteriesinpre-CommunistEasternTibet.FamousbshadgrwalikerDzonggsar

andŚriSinghainsDedge,Khams,establishedduringtheRismedmovementinthe

19thcentury,werefewandfarbetweenandservedasmajorscholasticcentresfor

monkscomingfromallpartsoftheTibetanPlateau.Outsideofthesebshadgrwa

mostrNyingmaandbKa’brgyudmonkswhoengagedinstudiesdidsoinsmall

groupsaroundateacherwhospecializedinaparticularsubject,sometimesfor

years.Theywouldthenproceedtoanotherteacherorretreatareatodeepentheir

knowledge65(rDorDzongRinpoche,personalcommunication,2014).

Todayanine-yearbshadgrwacurriculumisstandardinalmostallbKa’brgyud,Sa

skyaandrNyingmamonasteriesinIndiaandNepal.Atypicaldailyscheduleofstudy

inabshadgrwastartswithamorningclassonthemaintexttaughtbyamkhanpo,

followedbyaclassonabranchsubjectoflanguageorintroductorytopics.After

lunchthereisarevisionclassonthemaintext,andthendebateintheevening

(Pearcey2015:452).ThemaintextsstudiedinabshadgrwaareTibetan

commentarialwritingsonthe‘thirteengreattexts’(gzhungchenbcugsum),which

areIndianśāstracommentariesonthesubjectsofVinaya,Abhidharmaand

Madhyamaka(Pearcey2015:453)66.Throughoutthecurriculummonasticstudents

areassessedinmemorization,debateandwrittenexamination.Uponsuccessful

completionofthecurriculumamonkornunisgiventhedegreeofslobdpon

(female:slobdponma;Skt.ācārya)ormkhanpo(female:mkhanmo)67,depending

onone’steachingexperienceandmoralconduct.

65AccountsarealsocommonofTibetanmasterswhohavingclearedkarmicblockagesintheirpsychicchannelsthroughyogicpracticewereabletowriteextensivecommentariesonarcaneBuddhistscriptures,withminimalformalstudyofthem.ThisissaidofthefounderofGadchagsdGonpa,TshangsdbyangsrGyamtsho,whocomposedlargevolumesofcommentaryontheGuhyagarbhaTantra(rGyudgSangbasNyingpo)andothertantrictexts(rDorje1997).Morerecentexamplesare’KhrulzhigAldeuRinpoche(1931-2007)andKhangsarbsTenpa’idBangphyug(1938-2014).66Foramoredetailedoverviewofnon-dGelugsbshadgrwacurriculaandtheirbackground,seePearcey(2015).67Thisisprimarilythecasefornun-scholarsatbLarungsGarinEasternTibet.InbshadgrwainIndianunsmaybecomeslobdponma,butnotmkhanmo.ThisisbecauseTibetantraditionsofardoesnotofferdgeslongma(Skt.bhikṣuṇī)ordinationfornuns,andwithoutitoneistechnicallynotpermittedtostudytheVinaya.WithoutfullstudyofVinaya,administratorsofbshadgrwainIndiaconsiderthatamkhanmodegreecannotbeissued.

57

Suchanine-yearbshadgrwacurriculumwasdevisedinTibetanmonasteriesinexile

after1960,perhapsshapedtosomedegreebytheinfluencesofseculareducation

modelsinIndiaandNepalandthemodern-worldimportanceofdegreesand

certificates68.Asachossgar,bLarungsGar’sstudyprogramdidnotinitiallyentaila

fixednumberofyears.Since2011,however,bLarungsGarhasdeterminedafifteen

yearcourseofstudyforamkhanpodegree,perhapsshapedundersimilarinfluences

inmodernChina(bLarungsGarmKhanpoGarab,personalcommunication,

November2015).

Thesestandardizedcurriculahaveallowedhundreds,ifnotthousands,ofrNyingma,

SaskyaandbKa’brgyudslobdponandmkhanpotograduatefromTibetanbshad

grwainChinaandinexileoverthelasttwodecades.AnelderlyNangchenlama

relayedhowinthepastmonkswhoattainedasgrubbla(‘lamaofpractice’)titleon

completionofathree-yearretreatweregiventhebestopportunitiesforperforming

ritualsandprayersinsociety,andthereforehadbetterlivelihoods.Todaythishas

changedsothatmonkswithscholarlytitlesaregivenmorepaidopportunitiesas

teachersandtutors,andasaresultmanymonksarepursuingstudyastheirmain

trainingcourse(LamadGa’ba,personalcommunication,January2016).Thisshift

towardsdegree-orientedsystematicstudy(inEasternTibetaswellasinIndiaand

Nepal)isaccompaniedbyashiftformanymonasticsawayfromextendedperiodsin

contemplativeretreat.Thechangeisnotlostoncontemporaryleadinglamaslike

DzongsarKhyentseRinpocheandKarmapaThayeDorje69whohavestrongly

exhortedtheTibetancommunitytosalvagetheirwaningmeditationtraditions.

DzongsarKhyentsesaidinearly2015:

ThesedaysinTibetthetraditionofmeditationisdeclining.[…]BeforethelineageofourlamaswascarriedbyIndianguruslikeDorjeChang,Tilopa,Virupa,Padmasambhava,Atisha,andTibetanslikeDrakpaGyaltsen,thegreat

68ThefactthatslobdponandmkhanpodegreesareoftencomparedtoMasterandDoctoratedegreesalludestothis.69IwastoldthatKarmapaThayeDorjehasrepeatedlystressedtheimportanceofpreservingTibetanBuddhistpracticetraditionsasthereligionspreadsthroughouttheworld.TheyogicaccomplishmentsofmanyTibetanpractitionershaveinspiredforeignerstopracticeTibetanBuddhism(LamadGa’ba,personalcommunication,January2016).

58

SakyamasterKungaNyingpoandsoon.Ifwe[Tibetans]continuenotmeditatingandnotpractisinglikewearenow,aftertwentyorthirtyyearsourspiritualguideswillbenamed‘Michelle’and‘David’because[Westerners]aretheonesmeditating.Weneedtobecareful!(Dzongsar2015)

AnothersymptomofmodernviewspermeatingTibetanmonasteriesisthat

nowadaysonemayencounterHimālayanmonkswhodonotbelieveinkarmaand

rebirth.In2014IencounteredthisinseveralmonksatShesrabgLing’scollegein

HimachalPradesh,India,andhaveheardthatsuchskepticismnowexists(though

rarely)inEasternTibetanmonasteries(dBangdragRinpoche,personal

communication,January2015).Inthepast,eveninthehighlydialectical

environmentof dGelugspamonasteries,rigorousphilosophicalstudywasbasedon

asecureunionoffaithandreasonandtheexistenceoftheThreeJewels,karmaand

rebirthwasrarely,ifever,questioned.70Suchskepticismisofcoursemorecommon

inmodernWesternBuddhistcircleswhere‘SecularBuddhism’hasemergedasa

fieldofitsownandpragmaticBuddhismisarguedforbyscholarslikeStephen

BatchelorandDavidKalupahana.

InNangchenbeforetheCulturalRevolutiontheonlybshadgrwawheremonks

engagedincontinuousyearsofsystematicstudyexistedatZurmangrNamrgyalrtse

monastery(A’phel,personalcommunication,July2015).Localnarrativesalsosay

thatthelastNangchenking,whoseseatwasthe’BrugpabKa’brgyudmonastery

TshesbcusGar,prohibitedextensivedialecticalstudyatthemonasteryinorderto

encourageyogicrealizationsinhismonks(dBangdragRinpoche,personal

communication,July2015).TodayinNangchentherearesixbshadgrwaand

approximatelytwentylower-levelmonasticcolleges,makingupthirty-fivepercent

ofthetotalnumberofmonasteriesandnunneriesintheregion(Traga,personal

communication,July2015).AmongGadchags’sbranchdgonpathathaveconverted

areRayadGonpa(nowabshadgrwa)andthesecondlargestnunneryafterGad

chags,bDechengLingNunnery,thatnowhasafull-timestudyprogramtaughtbya

70ForasenseofthedGelugspaintellectualatmosphere,seethePerfectionofWisdomsectionsofPabongkaRinpoche’sLiberationinthePalmofYourHandandTsongkhapa’sGreatTreatiseontheStagesofthePathtoEnlightenment(LamrimChenmo).SeealsoDreyfus’(2003)TheSoundofTwoHandsClapping.

59

residentmkhanpofrombLarungsGar.Gadchagsremainsoneofahandfulofdgon

painNangchenthathasnotdevelopedastudyprogram,anditislookeddownupon

forthisreasonbymoreprogressiveeducatedmonksandnuns.AnunfromsKyobrag

KhangnedGonpainNangchentoldme:

ThesedaysalldgonpainNangchenhavestudyandpracticejoinedtogether.ManynunmkhanmoaregraduatingwhoknowBuddhistlogic,psychologyandphilosophyverywell.NowadaysinsocietyDharmastudyisreallyimproving.Thereareafewnunnerieswhichhaveonlypracticeandnostudy.ButeverymonasteryinNangchennowhasbothbshadgrwaandpractice.Wearebettereducatedthanbefore.GadchagsisoneofthebiggestofNangchen’solddgonpa,buttheyhaveonlypractice,nostudyoflanguageorphilosophy.Itisaremotedgonpainanomadicarea;maybethatisthereason.BeforeGadchagswasconsideredanexcellentdgonpa.Whyaren’tthelamaspromotingstudyatGadchags?Somepeoplewonderthis.

GadchagsdGonpaasavestigeofNangchen’sformercontemplativeculture

WhatfollowsisanextractofaconversationbetweenaGadchagslamaandayoung

rtogsldan(‘realizedperson’,oryogin),ataremotehermitageinNangchenin

September2013.Theconversationhappenedinthepresenceoftheelderlyyogin,

PadmarDorje,whowasrespectedasthemosthighlyrealizedlivinglamaoftheGad

chagslineage,untilhisdeaththreemonthsafterthisconversation.PadmarDorje

hadmanagedtoavoidthelabourcampsoftheCulturalRevolutionandcontinuedhis

practiceinaremotecave,andwasthusarareembodimentofyogicaccomplishment

connectedtothecontemplativecultureofpre-Communistera.Theyoungrtogsldan

inthisconversationishisdiscipleandapractitioneroftheGadchagslineage.

Gadchagslama[GL]:PeoplesaythatBuddhismisgettingcleanedupinthiscountry,thatnowadaysthereshouldbenofaithwithoutstudying.rtogsldan[T]:Whatdoesitmeantopractice?Discursivethought–isitoutside,insideorinvisible?Whatistheessenceofourteachings?Wehavetounderstandthenatureofthemindandthenpractice,withtheguidanceofthelama.Whatistheessenceofmeditationexperience?Fromwheredoesrealizationarise?Weonlyfindthisoutfromthelama.Noblethoughts,negativethoughts…whatisthedifference?Ourpreviouslineagelamaswouldguideusdirectlylikethis.NowadayspeoplelearnDharmamostlyfrombooks.

60

Theydon’tunderstandtheessentialteachingofthelama,themanngag[pithoralinstructions;upadeśa].Thesedayspracticeisintrouble.GL:Nowadayssgrubchenarecriticized.Peoplesayit’smoreimportanttostudytexts.[…]Somemkhanpowhostudyemptinesstoanextremetellthelaypeoplethatdoingcircumambulations[skorba]isuseless.Circumambulationshelpthelaypeople’smindsbecauseintheirheartstheybelieveitisgood.Youmakethemdoubtthat,andthenwhatdotheyhave?Whatdoyouthink?T:Really,whatIthinkisthatweneedpractice!Thosewhosayritualpracticeisn’tnecessaryshouldlookin[Gadchags’s]scriptures,theycanseethatwithoutinnerpracticeandrelyingonayidam,it’simpossibletotakerealizationfromtheoutside.Ithinkweneedpractice-ifitistantrawe’retalkingabout.Whoeverheardoftantrawithoutpractice?Formethodofthefathertantras,wisdomofthemothertantras,thenonduallineageofessentialmeaning,thefortunatelineageofexperience…foralllevelsoftantraIthinkyouneedpractice.I’vemetafewpeoplewhosayyoudon’tneedritualpractice,thatthemainthingisstudy.Onemonksaidtome,“Whatkindofdgonpadoyouhavewithoutstudy?”Iturneditbackonhim,“Youhavestudybutnodgonpa!”...AtGadchagsdGonpapracticeisstillgood,withnunslikeJamtsenChödron71.GL:AllnearbybranchdgonpalearnfromJamtsenChödron.T:Yes,accomplishedpractitionerslikeJamtsenChödronarethewholepointofourtradition.GL:Thesedaysthisisthebiggestchallenge.[…]Youdoneedlearningandpractice.ButthosewhosaytheGadchagsnunsdon’thavelearningarewrong.Theylearnfromadirectlineageoforalteachings[nyebrgyud],theypracticetheexperientialinstructionsofpureawareness[rigpadmarkhrid].Peoplecriticizethem,saywhat’stheuseofdoingmeditationandritualpracticeifyouhaven’tstudied?It’struethatthe21stcenturyistheageofreasonandeducationisimproving.Butexperientialpracticeisdeclining,isn’tit.Inmanyplacesit’sdeclining.I’vetravelledaroundandheardfolkssayinghowtodaythereisa‘newintellect’[riggsar],andit’sthetimeforreasonandnomoreblindfaith.Theysaythenewintellectisbetterthantheoldone.Sonowwhoisfacingthechallenge?We’refacingthechallenge.IfyoulookthroughoutNangchen,thereisnobetterplacethanGadchagsdGonpa.Howisitbetter?Whenitcomestoyogicpractice.Asidefromthat,logic,analyticalreasoning,debate…theydon’thavetheseat

71Thenameofamiddle-agedGadchagsnunwhoholdsthelineage(i.e.hasmastery)ofrtsalungpractice.

61

Gadchags,tobehonest.Butwhattheydohaveisstrongfaithandpureperception,andonthebasisofthesesubtlechannelsareclearedandrealizationsarise.ThisyeartherewasadebateinNangchentownaboutBuddhistwomen.TheGadchagsnunswerethere.Someonetheresaid,“InthepastGadchagswasrenowned,butnowitisnotsogood,becausetheyhavenostudyprogram.Thosenunsenterthree-yearretreatnotknowinganything.It’sawasteoftime.”Thatkindofattitudeisourgreatestchallenge.Otherwise,alltheaspectsofthepracticelineagetaughtbyGadchags’sseniornuns-likertsalungand’khrul’khor-arestillbeingpractised,notjustformonthsbutfortheirwholelives.ThertsalunglineagewaspassedfromthelatenunPalmotoJamtsenChödron,andsheteachesatotherbranchdgonpa.RecentlyIaskedthenunsifthereareothernunsascapableofteachingasJamtsenChödron.TheyansweredthattherearemanyGadchagsnunswithherlevelofaccomplishment.Iwassohappytohearthis,IfeltthattheGadchagslineagemaybealright.

Theelderlyyogin,PadmarDorje,atthetimeoftheaboveconversation.InfrontofhimaGadchagsnunisreceivinginstructionsonthenatureofmind.PhotographedbyCaterinaDeRe,2013.WhatisnoteworthyintheserecentcriticismsofGadchagsdGonpaisthatbefore

thenunnerywasrenowned,andnowitiscriticized,yetlittlehaschangedinGad

chags’sdailylifeandpracticecurriculum.Insteadtheattitudesandprioritiesin

TibetansocietyoutsideofGadchagsdGonpahavechanged.NotsolongagoGad

chagswasreputedasahighqualitynunnery.Onenunexplainshowsheandher

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parentsdecidedshewouldjoinGadchagsinthelate1980s:“Wediscussedhow

therearemanynewnunneriesaround,butGadchagsdGonpaisthebestofthem

withalonghistoryandpracticetradition.MyparentsstressedthatIhavetoroot

myselfatGadchagsformywholelifeandnotgetdistracted.”

InKarmaDongrubPhuntshogs’1999AHistoryofGonpainKhamGom-de

Nangchen,Gadchagsisthefirstof69dgonpawhosehistoriesarecompiledandits

photosarefeaturedatthefrontofthebook.GadchagsisalsopraisedbyTulku

UrgyenRinpocheinhis20thcenturymemoirsBlazingSplendorinanentirechapter

aboutGadchagsdGonpatitled‘TheNunneryofYoginis’.TheGadchagsnuns’

dedicationtotheirtraditionalpracticesystemisacauseoftheirpreviousrenown,

andtheGadchagscommunitythereforehasreasontoremainproudofit.As

mentionedinChapterOne,IhaverepeatedlyheardGadchags’snunsandlamas

expresstheirintentiontopreservetheoriginalformsofthenunnery’spractice

systemwithoutalteration.Thisconsciousdeterminationhasemergedgraduallyover

thelasttenyears,however,asGadchagshasbeenexposedtovariousoutside

influencesurgingthenunnerytorestructuretheircurriculumandtraditions.

GadchagsdGonpapresentlyhasfourreincarnatelamas(sprulsku)livingnearthe

nunneryandregularlyinvolvedinitsrituallifeandadministrativeaffairs.Allfour

lamasaremale72andeachwasrecognizedasaGadchagssprulskuafter1990.The

twoseniorlamasareintheirlateforties(theaverageageofthemajorityofGad

chags’snuns,whojoinedthenunneryinthe1980s),approximatelytwentyyears

olderthanthetwoyoungerlamas.Byvirtueofsenioritythetwoolderlamashave

assumedleadershiprolesinmanyofthenunnery’saffairs,althoughdecisionsare

oftenmadeinconsultationwiththenuns’administrativecommittee73.TheGad

72mTshorgyalsPrulskuistheyoungestofthefour,andisconsideredthethirdreincarnationofmTshorgyalsGrolma,theGadchagsnun-lamamentionedbelowonpage64.73ItiscommonforgroupsofnunstovisitwiththelamasintheirroomsatGadchagsovercupsoftea,informallydiscussingcurrenteventsandissuesrelatedtospiritualrealization.Manyimportantdecisionsaboutthenunnery’slifeareresolvedinthissetting.Besidesthisaformaladministrativecommitteeiscomposedofsixteennuns(onerepresentingeachretreatdivision)andseniormonksofTshechusGar,themonasteryoftheerstwhileNangchenking.Committeemeetingsarecalledwhendeemednecessary.

63

chagsnunsareautonomousintheirreligiouslifeandself-sufficientintransmitting

practiceinstructions,butasisnormalthroughoutTibettheydefertomalelamasina

widersocialcontext,especiallyregardingthenunnery’smundaneaffairs.

WhenthetwoseniorlamasbeganfundraisingforGadchagsfromthelate1990s

bothinitiallyagreedtoestablishaschoolatthenunnery–whichwasinlinewiththe

generalmoodatthetimethatTibetandgonpacouldbeimprovedthrough

education.FundsraisedforGadchagswerefirstchannelledtomoreurgentneeds,

however,likerebuildingthenunnery’sretreathouses,templeandlivingquarters.In

theyearsittooktoaccomplishtheseotherbuildingsthelamasreassessedtheir

intentionsforthenunneryandchangedtheirmindsaboutbuildingaschool.In2006

thenunsandlamasIspokewithsoundedardentlydedicatedtopreservingGad

chags’spracticecurriculum.“Idon’twanttobeanywhereelsebuthere,spending

mytimepracticingtheseuniqueteachings.ImadeapromisetothepreviousNgag

bsamRinpoche74[…]thatIwillspendmyentirelifepractisinghereatGadchags

dGonpa.Tomethisisapureland,”saidaforty-sixyear-oldGadchagsnunin2006.

Severalmiddle-agednunsIspokewithtoldmeoftheirvowtodieatGadchagsdGon

pa.

Alongwiththesesentiments,itisalsosignificantthatGadchagsdGonpacontinues

tocultivateacloserelationshipwithTshesbcusGar,theroyalmonasteryofthe

erstwhileNangchenking.Severalofthemonastery’sseniormonksareincludedin

theGadchags’sadministrativecommitteeanddecision-makingrelatedtonunnery’s

organizationalstructure(seenote73).ThisrelationshipconnectsGadchagstoits

earliereraofprestigeandroyalpatronage,securedduringthetimeofthesecond

TshangsdbyangsrGyamtsho(b.1911)whowasthesonoftheNangchenking,as

wellastowiderdynamicsofculturalidentityinNangchen.

Intheearly2000samkhanpofrombLarungsGarwasinvitedbythenunsandlamas

toGadchagsdGonpaandspentseveralmonth-longperiodsteachingthenuns

74OneofGadchags’sfourmalesprulsku.

64

graduatedpath(lamrim)commentarieslikedPalsprulRinpoche’sKunbzangbLa

ma’izhallungfortwohourseachmorning.Aninterestingphysicalsignofthemkhan

po’sinfluenceatGadchagsisthatheencouragedthenunstoshavetheirheads.

Alongwiththisheencouragedthemtofocusmoreeffortsonphilosophicalstudies

andstricteradherencetotherulesoftheVinaya.Untilthemkhanpo’svisitsGad

chagsnunshadworntheirhairslightlygrownouttoabouttwoinches,which

markedthemasGadchagsnunswhentheytravelledoutsideofthenunneryand

identifiedthemastantricpractitioners.

Anearly1990sphotoofGadchagsnunswiththe’Brugpa‘Ka’brgyudmaster,Alde’uRinpoche,andhisnephew,SasprulRinpoche,whichshowsthenuns’traditionalshorthairstyle.Credit:GadchagsdGonpa.AccordingtoareveredseniorGadchagsnun,ShesrabbZangmo(whopassedaway

atage86in2008),thishairstylewasatraditionfollowingtheinstructionsofalate

19thcenturyGadchagsnun-lamanamedmTshorgyalsGrolma.mTshorgyalsGrol

mawasbelievedtobeanemanationofYeshesmTshorgyalandtookover

leadershipofthenunneryafterthepassingofthefirstTshangsdbyangsrGyamtsho

(ShesrabbZangmo,personalcommunication,July2006).ThebLarungsGarmkhan

poceasedteachingatGadchagsdGonpaafter200975.Accordingtooneofthetwo

seniorlamasthiscancellationwasthelamas’decisionandnotthenuns’,asGad75Thenunsstillcontinuetoshavetheirheads,perhapsself-consciouswhentravellingoutsideofthenunneryinanewsocialatmosphere.

65

chags’syoungernunsaremoredisposedtothepeerpressureofothernunneries

withimprovedstudyprograms.Theyaremoresusceptibletotheinfluenceofvisiting

mkhanpoanddonotnecessarilysharethedeterminationoftheolderlamasand

nunstopreserveGadchags’soriginaltraditions(dBangdragRinpoche,personal

communication,January2015).

AphotoshowingtheGadchagsnuns’shavenheadsafterthemkhanpo’svisitsintheearly2000s.PhotographedbyJeromeRaphalen,2006.

TshangsdbyangsrGyamtsho,thenunnery’srootguruandoneofitstwosenior

lamas,spokein2013abouthisthoughtsonpreservingGadchags’soriginalpractice

traditions:

From2003untilthepresentGadchagsdGonpahasdevelopedwithretreathouses,runningwater...Withalltheworkthat’sbeenhappeningthenunshaven’thadmuchtimetostudy.Planningforthefuture,themaintemplewasrebuiltthisyear.[…]GadchagsdGonpahas18sgrubcheninwinterandasmangrub76onceeverythreeyears.Thereisalsothe’Ja’dmarsMonlamforsixdaysat’Ja’dmareachyear(thatisarNyingmaprayerfestivalfromthe10thtothe15thofthe8thTibetanmonth).Insummeraswell,onemillionOmManiandBenzraGurumantraaccumulationsareperformedinthe10th[Tibetan]month.Theseextensiveritualtraditionsaremaintained.IhadbeenthinkingtobuildastudycentreatGadchags.[…]Ithoughtaboutthis,andhowtheteachingtraditionatGadchagsdGonpaisanorallineageinvolvingintensive

76Asgrubchenduringwhichsacredmedicine(smansgrub)isproduced.

66

sgrubchenandyogicpractice.Fromthebeginning,GadchagsdGonpahashadbcudlen[‘takingtheessence’],munmtshams[‘darkretreat’]andmanypracticetraditionsthatarestillmaintained.Thesearecrucialtopreserve.Wehaveexperiencednunshere.Amongthenuns,abouttenarehighlyaccomplishedin’khrul’khorandyogicpractice.Thepracticesarepreservedlikewaterbeingfullypassedfromvesseltovessel–thelineagehasbeenunbroken.Thisismostimportant,thatGadchagsdGonpapreservesitsuniquepracticelineage.Thereareotherswhobuildgreatcollegesorstudythetextsindepth.ButI’mnotthinkingmuchaboutthosethings.Whoknowswhatthefuturewillbring?

Conclusion

Inmanywaystensionbetweenyogicandscholasticorientationsisnothingnewin

Buddhism.Itwaspresentbetweenforestmeditatorsandsettledmonasticsinearly

IndianBuddhism(Ray1994),whilefrictionbetweenthescholasticdGelugsschool

andbKa’brgyudandrNyingmapracticelineageshasexistedforcenturies.Insome

wayssuchtensionwasafactorinthe19thcenturyRismedperiod(Oldmeadow

2012:47-54;Samuel1993:525-543).Asapparentinthischapter’sdiscussions,the

patternreappearstodaybetweenscholasticandyogicapproachesinEasternTibetan

communities.YettherearedevelopmentsinTibetanBuddhismsincethe1980sthat

areredirectingthereligion’sgeneralorientationinunprecedentedways.InNang

chenthechangeindirectiontowardsdegree-oriented,rationalizedstudyisobvious,

formonksandnunsaswellasforlaypeople.Despitepeerpressuretoaddastudy

program,GadchagsdGonpaisoneofonlyafewcommunitieschoosingtomaintain

itsoriginalpracticecurriculumwithoutalterations.Gadchagsissupportedinits

determinationtodosobythenunnery’sremotelocation,itsrenownedhistoryand

theleadershipofitslamas.Atloweraltitudedgonpawheretheinfluencesofa

rapidlychangingsocialandeconomicenvironmentcannotbeevaded,anincreasein

scholasticlearningisapparent.

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CHAPTERTHREE

WhytheNewEmphasisonSystematicScholasticStudyinthePracticeLineagesofEasternTibet?

Religionina‘SocialistSpiritualCivilization’:atheism,superstitionandthesurvivaloftherationalThebuildingofa‘SocialistSpiritualCivilization’(SSC;Ch.shehuizhuyijingshen

wenming)hasbeenadoctrinalaimofthePartysinceitwasfirstconceptualizedby

DengXiaopingin1980.TheSSCgoalservestheParty’sneedtoredefineoldideals

andassertnewvaluesinthereform-era.Italsoseekstomaintainsocialstability

whiletemperingthenegativemoraltraitsarisingwithhigh-speedmaterial

development(Cooke2009:126-129).AsthePartytendereditsnewtoleranceof

religion,necessaryideologicaladjustmentsweremadetoitsMarxistdoctrine.In

Document19,theParty’spost-reformedictonreligionwrittenin1982,

enlightenmentatheismprevailsoverthemilitantatheismofMao’syears.That

meansthatreligionisnolongerconsideredadangerousnarcoticofthepeopletobe

controlledandeliminated,butadistortedconsciousnessofsocialrealitythatis

provisionallyallowedasasocialphenomenon.Moreover,religioncannowbe

harnessedintheinterestsofaSSCforitsmoralizinginfluenceonthepeople(Yang

2012:46,48).Document19acknowledgesthepastmistakesofmilitantatheism,yet

itclearlyaffirmsthatatheismmustcontinuallybepropagatedamongthepeople

(outsideofreligiousvenues).Religionisstillregardedasabackward,unscientific

outlookthatwillfadeawayassocietyevolves(Yang2012:50).AsJiangZeminurged

thePartyinastatementtotheUnitedFrontWorkDepartment(UFWD)in2003:

Alongwiththedevelopmentofsocialistmaterialandspiritualcivilizations,peoplewillcontinuallygraspthesecretofthenaturalworldandtheirdestiny,andleantowardscienceandrationalthinkingfortheunderstandingoftheobjectiveworld,themotionoflife,andtheessenceofreligion.Thiswillhelpreligionwalktoitsfinaldemise(UFWD2003citedinYü2006:93).

68

SuchastaunchatheistviewisreaffirmedamongPartymembersthroughmandatory

trainingperiodsinCCPschools,andincircularsandperiodicpropagandacampaigns

(Yang2012:58).ThusinChina’sSocialistSpiritualCivilization,whereBuddhismhas

itsrole,thedeterminingdoctrineremainsMarxist-Leninistatheism.Buddhismand

otherreligionscansurviveundersuchconditionsinChinabysubordinating

themselvestostateideologyandregulationsofpoliticalauthorities.

ThehighestCCPbodyinthemanagementofreligionistheUnitedFrontWork

Department,establishedwiththeinceptionoftheCommunistPartyinthe1920sas

theagenttounifynon-Partysocialresources.Sincethe1980sithasbeenprimarily

concernedwitheconomicdevelopment(Gaerrang2013:111).Atthelevelofthe

centralgovernment(i.e.thestatecouncil)theStateAdministrationofReligious

Affairs(SARA,whichreplacedtheReligiousAffairsBureauin1998)supervisesthe

operationofChina’sfiveofficiallysanctionedreligions.Atthelocalgovernmentlevel

eachreligionisfurthermanagedthroughitsstate-financedAssociation(likethe

ChineseBuddhistAssociation),usuallyheadedbyareligiousleader.Religious

Associationsfunctiontolinkreligiouscircleswithstatepowerthroughacademic

workandthedevelopmentofreligion,aswellastoprotecttheinterestsofreligious

communities(Cooke2009;Gaerrang2013:111-112).Theseadministrativebodies

are,inprinciple,primarilyconcernedwithmanagingareligion’ssocialexpression

andconductsothatitisadaptedtosocialistsociety.Theirpurviewcoversreligious

doctrine,texts,rituals,organizations,personsandplaces.Oneofthetenmain

functionsoftheSARAistoinvestigatereligiousdoctrineandensurethatitpromotes

nationalandpublicinterests.Thegovernment’srighttointerveneandcalibrate

religiousdoctrineanditsexpressionwasamajorpointintheadoptionofthe2004

RegulationsonReligiousAffairs(Cooke2009:130).

Asteppingoffpointforthegovernment’sreligiousworkisdemarcatingreligionfrom

superstition.“Religion”isregardedashavingalogicalsystemofthoughtorientedto

theafterlifeandbasedonscriptures,trainedclergyandfixedsitesofreligious

activity(Ashiwa2009:58).“Superstition”,incontrast,includesbeliefsandpractices

thatlackaphilosophicalfoundationandcontradictscientificknowledge,andare

69

thereforeconsideredharmfultosociety(Poon2011:31;Yang2012).TheCCPsees

superstitionasfundamentallyantagonistictoitsdoctrineandassomethingthat

mustbeeradicated.Anti-superstitionrhetorichashadalongandferventhistoryin

China,datinginthemodernperiodfromthelateQingdynastyattheturnofthe20th

century77.TheChinesewordforsuperstition,mixin(‘deludedfaith’),wasintroduced

intoChineselanguageatthattimeasthestatebegansuppressing‘superstitious’

beliefinfavourofasecular,moreenlightenedsociety.78Followinganedictbythe

Qingemperorin1898monasterieswereconvertedintoschoolsandthepeople’s

religiousritualswerecondemnedasamajorobstacletothecountry’ssocialhealth

andevolution(Lopez2002:xix;Poon2011:39).BytheRepublicanerainthe1920sa

growingpopulationofintellectualssawBuddhism(andallreligions)asprimitive

superstitionthatimpededChina’sentryintothemodernworld(Lopez2002:xix).Ina

popularpublicationbytheShanghaiCommercialPressin1931superstitionwas

definedasaresidueoftraditionleftoverfromthepre-scientificera(Poon2011:31).

DuringtheCulturalRevolutionfrom1967to1977therewasa‘Brigadeforthe

TerminationofReligions’andthenation’smissiontoeradicatesuperstitionwas

backedbyresearchinstitutesandthehighestmandateofthePRC.

SuchachargedstigmaofreligionhasevolvedintheCCP’spost-reformreligious

policiesasatrenchantdemarcationbetweensuperstitionandpermissiblereligion.

This,alongwiththemanagementapparatusmentionedabove,mustbeexerting

pressureontheself-consciousnessofTibetanBuddhistsinpublictalks,publications,

thoughtandconversationsinChinatoday.DanSmyerYü,basedonhisextensive

fieldworkontheTibetanBuddhistrevivalinChina,arguesthatthereadinessof

Tibetanlamastorepresenttheirreligionascongruentwithmodernscienceis“a

delayedcontentionwiththeantireligiousideologyofthestate”and“asignofpost-

traumaticdistressresultingfromtheattacksonTibetanBuddhism”duringtheanti-

religiousdrivesoftheMao-era(Yü2013a:127).Basedonhisinteractionswith

numerousTibetanBuddhistteachersandtheirHanChinesefollowers,Yüregardsthe

77InimperialChinapriestsandshamansweresometimescondemnedbylocalofficialsforperformingexorcismsanddeathrituals,andtemplesjudgedtobehousingpopularcultsfacedthethreatofdemolition(Lopez2002:xix;Poon2011:32).78TheChinesewordmixinwasborrowedfromJapaneseinthelate19thcentury(Poon2011:29).

70

rationaltenorofmodernTibetanBuddhistdiscoursesasaproject“forrescuing

religionfromsuperstition”.YüobservesthatintheirfrequentinteractionswithHan

ChineseBuddhists,theleadingfiguresoftheTibetanBuddhistrevivalareawareof

thesocialconditioninChinaandthemisconstruingofBuddhismaspessimisticand

superstitious(Yü2013:85-86).YüalsonotesthatmanyoftheTibetanteachers

leadingtheBuddhistrevivalinEasternTibet(likeKhenposSodargyeandTsultrim

Lodrö)arefluentinChineseandengagedwithbothTibetanandChineseaudiences.

Theyareacutelyawarethattheirreligiousactivitiesarecloselyregulatedbythe

ChinesestateandthatthereligiousandshamanicaspectsofTibetanBuddhismare

oftenperceivedassuperstitious.ThecrackdownagainstFalunGongloomsasan

exampleandwarning(Yü2006:84,89).

bLarungsGarKhenpoSodargyeinhisChineselanguagebookScientificTreatise

discussestheChinese-Marxistseparationofmaterialandidealasbeingtheoriginal

basisforthepoliticalcategoryof‘superstition’.Hegoesontoarguethattoaccuse

Buddhismofbeingsuperstitiousis“asludicrousastheaccusationofscienceas

superstition”(Sodargye2001inYü2006:86-87).Withasimilarapologyfor

Buddhism’srationalside,KhenpoTsultrimLodröinatalkatUniversityofSydneyin

2015introducedTibetanBuddhismas“apathonwhichoneneednothavefaithin

anydeityorreligiousprinciple;oneonlyneedsfaithinthenaturallawof

interdependenceandemptiness”(Lodrö2015).Withitsessentialthemeofguru

devotion,however,TibetanBuddhismisaconsummatereligion.Itisinfactreplete

withheavilyreligiouspracticesthatcouldeasilybecategorizedassuperstition:

dbangempowerments,bsangandgsursmokeofferingstolandspiritsandghosts,

modivinations,’phobatransferenceofconsciousnessandyidampracticesthat

visualizethehumanbodyasadeity.Atleastintheseinstances(andtonote,the

audienceatUniversityofSydneywasmainlyChinese),theKhenposappeartobe

selectivelyportrayingTibetanBuddhisminawaythatsatisfiesthegovernment’s

dictatesonreligiouscultureaswellastheneedsoftheaudience.Isthisteaching

styleintegraltomaintainingtheirlatitudeofmoralinfluenceoverhundredsof

thousandsofHanandTibetanfollowersinChina?

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OnequestionswhytheChinesegovernmenthasissuedpassportstothesetwo

Khenpostotravelandspeakatdozensofleadinguniversitiesandradioprograms

worldwide.Humanrightsgroupshavehighlightedthewidespreaddenialof

passportstoTibetansandUighursinChina.Veryfeweverobtainoneforforeign

travel,andevenwithinTibetanareasthemovementsofTibetansarerestricted

throughacomplicatedregistrationsystem79.OnemightinferthattheChinese

governmentisapproving,evensupportive,oftheKhenpos’teachingstyleas

appropriatelycontributingtothe‘SocialistSpiritualCivilization’thatistheParty’s

currentgoal.ThisisevenmoresowhenconsideringthatseveralotherTibetan

teachershavebeenrestrainedorimprisonedoverthelasttenyearsforthecontent

oftheirpublicspeech.

KhenpoSodargyeteachingatMasseyUniversity.NotethattheaudienceappearstobemainlyChinese.Credit:zhibeifw.org.OnemayfurthercontrasttheKhenpos’publicteachingstylewiththatofTibetan

lamaslivingintheWest,likeDzongsarKhyentseRinpoche,LamaZopaRinpocheand

thelateChagdudTulkuwhohaveemphasizedreligiousaspectsofdevotion,deity-

79Seehttp://www.savetibet.org/policy-alienating-tibetans-denial-passports-tibetans-china-intensifies-control/#sthash.DF60LEPN.dpuf

72

yogaandsgrubchenintheirstudents’practice.PerhapsinChinapeoplesubscribing

toarationaldoctrinethataccordswithsciencearelessdisruptivetothe

authoritarian,socialistgovernmentthanthosepracticingthe‘darkarts’(tousea

HarryPotterreference)ofsuperstition.

LookingtotheadaptedteachingstylesofthefirstTibetanlamasintheWestinthe

1960sand70s,likeChögyamTrungpaandTarthangTulku,apossiblecomparison

maybedrawnwiththeKhenpos’andotherlamas’teachingtocontemporary

audiencesinChinaandabroad.EarlyEnglishTibetanBuddhistbooks,likeTarthang

Tulku’sTime,Space,andKnowledgeandChögyamTrungpa’sTheMythofFreedom,

showarenouncingoftraditionaldoctrineanddeitydevotionfornew-age

discussionsofrealityandpsychology.FiftyyearsofTibetanBuddhismintheWest

later,withafoundationofbasicunderstandingestablished,oneseesareturnto

traditionalpresentationsofTibetanBuddhismbymanylamas80.WheretheKhenpos

andotherlamasareselectivelyportrayingBuddhismtocontemporaryChinese

Buddhists,towhatextentistheirteachingstyleintendedtoestablish

communicationandaffinitywiththeirnewaudience?

GaerranghaspointedoutthatformerdynastiesuntiltheRepublicangovernment

haveforcenturiesusedTibetanspiritualleaderstoassertpoliticalaffiliationwith

Tibetansociety.Now,withfullcontroloverTibetandcloselysupervisingreligions,

theCCPcontinuestouseTibetanBuddhistleaderstoachieveitsgoalofisolating

separatistsfromreligion(Gaerrang2013:117).Inpointoffact,inTibetanpopulated

areasthegovernmenthasdemonstratedlessconcernwithcircumscribing

superstitionandcultsoverthelastfewdecadesthanwithsuppressingseparatist

sentimentsconnectedtotheTibetanindependencemovementinexile.(The

government’spreoccupationwiththematerialgoalsofdevelopmentandtheyields

ofreligioninthedomestictourismindustryalsodistractsfromitscampaignsagainst

superstition.)Tibetandgonpa,particularlymonasticcolleges,mustdiligentlyavoid

80ThankyoutoGeoffreySamuelforpointingthisout.SeeforexamplethegraduatedteachingstyleandrequirementoftraditionalpracticecommitmentsbyThranguRinpocheandYongeyMingyurRinpoche.

73

allovertexpressionsofpoliticalrhetoricandactivisminordertoproceedwiththeir

Buddhistprograms.GermanoandYühavebothobservedintheirfieldworkthatthe

post-MaoBuddhistrevivalexpressingitselfinthemonasticcollegesofEasternTibet

(particularlyintherNyingmaschool)hasavoideddirectpoliticalresponsestothe

authorityoftheCCP.YetatthesametimeitistakingadvantageoftheCCP’s

liberalizingpoliciesonreligiontorevitalizeBuddhismwhereverandhowever

possible(Germano1998:71;Yü2006:7).TibetanBuddhistteachersandthinkers

mustnotonlyconform,butinnovate,strategizeandnegotiatethecontoursof

variousrestraintswhilegivingexpressiontotheirreligion.

ThescientificdiscourseinBuddhismandparalleltransformationsinBurmaandSri

Lanka

Inhis2008studyTheMakingofModernBuddhismMcMahanconcludesthatthe

survivalofBuddhismdependsonitresonatingwiththedominantcultureofasociety

throughselectiveinterpretationandself-presentation(McMahan2008:15-16).

Lopezinhis2002AModernBuddhistBibletalkssimilarlyofhow‘modern’Buddhism

hasreformulateditselfnotsimplybyconformingtoanewsociety,butby

negotiatingandreshapingitselfintermsoftheprevalentdiscoursesofthesociety

(Lopez2002:vii-xl).InexploringthereasonsandwaysinwhichTibetanBuddhismis

reformulatingitselfinmodernChina,severalparallelscanbedrawninthe

restructuringofBuddhistlifethatoccurredinSriLankaandBurmaunderEuropean

colonialismfromthe18thto20thcenturies.Theseparallelshelptosuggestpossible

purposesandachievementsofthenewexpressionsofBuddhisminEasternTibet

today.

UnlikeBuddhisminSriLankaandBurmathatmetwithmodernizingforcesofscience

andindustrializationinthe18thand19thcenturies(andBuddhismofJapan,Thailand

andothercountriesondifferentterms),TibetanBuddhismhasonlybegunits

modernizingjourneysincethe1980s.ThecircumstancesofBurmaandSriLankain

colonialtimesdifferfromthoseofpresent-dayTibetans.However,severalofthe

challengestothesurvivalofBuddhisminthesecountriesaresimilar,namelytheloss

74

ofautonomyandofaBuddhistgovernment,themonasteries’lossoftheirtraditional

positionaseducatorsanddeprecationofBuddhismbytherulingauthorities.InSri

LankaandBurmathethreattoBuddhismcamefromEuropeancolonialrulewithits

associatedChristianproselytizingandWesternhegemony(McMahan2008).For

TibetanBuddhistsinChinathethreatisfromanatheistgovernmentwitha

Communistagendaandagrowingpopulationofintellectualswhowereraisedto

rejectsuperstition.SeveralofthewaysinwhichthenativeBuddhistsofthese

countrieshaverespondedtothesechallengesfurtherparalleleachother:the

privilegingoftextsandacademicqualifications,standardizingmonasticcurriculaand

anurgentcallforethicsandeducationamongthelaity.

Amkhanpogivingapublicteachingatabshadgrwa.NotetheBuddhistflag.Credit:GuruChödron,2015.

JustastheBuddhistflagthattheAmerican,HenrySteelOlcott,helpedtodesignis

foundincontemporarymonasteriesinTibet81,soisthediscourseofscientific

Buddhismfirstarticulatedinthe19thcenturybynativeBuddhistmodernizersand

WesternBuddhistpromoterslikeAnagarikaDharmapala,Olcott,PaulCarus,Shaku

81TheBuddhistflagisseeninTibetespeciallyatteachingandscholasticevents.

75

Sōen,D.T.SuzukiandLediSayadaw.UndercolonialruleBuddhisminSriLankaand

BurmawasregularlycriticizedbyChristianmissionariesforbeingsuperstitious,

unscientificandnihilistic(andthereforeethicallyweak).Theleadingvoicesofwhat

wouldbecomeBuddhistreformmovementshadthereforetofocusintentlyon

explaininghowBuddhismwasinfactrational,scientificandethicallystrong(Harris

2006;Lopez2002;McMahan2008).

ThefamousPanaduradebateof1873inCeylonbetweenGunanandaandReverend

deSilvasetthetoneforBuddhism’srepresentationasatechnicaldoctrineand

philosophy,ratherthanasthebodyofreligiousmerit-makingpracticesandviews

thatconstitutedBuddhismforthebulkofitsnativefollowers(Lopez2002:xi).

TwentyyearslaterwhilevisitingtheUnitedStatesfortheWorld’sParliamentof

Religions,DharmapalaaddressedanaudienceatNewYork’sTownHallwiththe

following:

ThemessageoftheBuddhathatIbringtoyouisfreefromtheology,priestcraft,rituals,ceremonies,dogmas,heavens,hellsandothertheologicalshibboleths.TheBuddhataughttothecivilizedAryansofIndiatwenty-fivecenturiesagoascientificreligioncontainingthehighestindividualisticaltruisticethics,aphilosophyoflifebuiltonpsychologicalmysticismandacosmologywhichisinharmonywithgeology,astronomy,radioactivityandreality(Dharmapala1965citedinMcMahan2008:96).

McMahancommentsonDharmapala’sspeech,“Evenacursoryknowledgeof

SinhaleseBuddhismonthegroundbeliesthisportrayalofBuddhismasfreefrom

ritual,priests,ceremony,heavens,andhells;yetearlyapologistsrepeatedthis

sentimentoften”(McMahan2008:95).ItappearshereaswellthatDharmapalawas

selectivelyportrayingBuddhisminawaythatresonatedwiththeprevailingviewsof

hisWesternaudience,andbyextensionthoseofSriLanka’srulingBritish.Yetin

doingsohesucceededinunderminingthecriticismsmadebyChristianand

scientific-mindedWesternerswhileremainingdedicatedtoasingularlyBuddhist

visionoftheworld.

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AnneBlackburn(2001)explainshowacenturyearlierinSriLankatheSiyamNikāya

hadestablisheditselfasthedominantmonasticorderthroughanemphasisonPāli

textuallearningandanewlystandardizedmonasticcurriculum.Blackburnargues

thattheSiyamNikāya’sidentificationwithlearningiswhatgarnereditsprestigeand

influencetoattractpatronsandlargersocietalrespect,andtobecomethedominant

monasticorderinSriLankathattodayadministerssuchprincipalplacesofworship

astheTempleoftheToothRelic(DaḷadāMāligāva)andAdam’sPeak(Blackburn

2001:50-53;Malalgoda1976).

Theimportanceoftextuallearningasameansofgainingprestige,particularlywhen

socialstatusisdesperatelyneeded,isevidentalsoinLediSayadaw’seffortsfor

BuddhisminBurmaduringitsperiodunderBritishcolonialism.InTheBirthofInsight

ErikBraunexplainshowtheBurmesemovementtoreviveBuddhistmeditationwas

successfullargelybecauseofLediSayadaw(1846-1923),whomadeitpartofalarger

educationalprojectthatexpandedamongthelaity(Braun2013).WithBurma’s

Buddhistkingdeposed,LediassessedthatresponsibilityforupholdingBuddhism

belongedtothelaypopulation.Inresponsetothepoliticalrealitiesofthetime,Ledi

resortednottopoliticalactionbutinsteadcalledforindividualmoraldevelopment

andeducation(Braun2013:98).Hedeterminedthatinsightmeditationmustgo

hand-in-handwithdoctrinalstudy,withstudyservingasthebasisformeditation.

Throughhisteachingstyle,useofprintcultureandorganizationofself-directed

studygroups,LedimadeBuddhiststudyaccessibletothelaityasithadneverbeen

before,focusingoneducationofAbhidhammaforitsrationalappealto“scientific

menofotherreligions”andtheself-assuranceitinstilledinBuddhistswhostudiedit

(Braun2013:80-81).ThesereformsreinvigoratedBuddhismandalloweditto

surviveinaformthatcontinuestothepresent.EventodayinBurmamonastic

teachersareexpectedtohaveadhammacariyadegree(‘teacherofdhamma’)asa

minimumacademicqualificationtoteachmeditation(PatrickKearney,personal

communication,October2014).

ThoughBurmamayhavetakenaseeminglydifferentdirectiontowardsreviving

meditationpractice,itsvehiclesofeducation,outreachtothelaityanddegree-

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orientedstudyhavesalientparallelsinTibetanBuddhisminthePRCoverthelast

fewdecades.LikeLediSayadawmanypopularTibetanBuddhistteachersinthePRC,

mostprominentlybLarungsGar’smkhanpo,relynotonpoliticalactivismbuton

spreadingethicalandeducationalreforms.Thesereformsaredirectednotonlyin

monasteriesbutamongtheTibetanlaity,andemphasizeself-directedBuddhist

studyandunderstandingasanindispensablefoundationforpractice.The

attainmentofdegreeslikemkhanpo,rab’byamsandslobdponthroughmonastic

curriculahaslikewisetakenonnewimportanceintrainingalargerpopulationof

Buddhistteacherswithinaframeworkofsystematizedformaleducation.InTibetrab

’byamsandslobdpondegreeshaveonlybeensystematicallyawardedtograduates

sincethe1990s,whileasmentionedinChapterTwomkhanpodegreeswere

awardedtomonksfarmoresparselypriortotheexileperiod.Anotherimportant

similarityofbothBurmeseandTibetanBuddhistreformsisthattheyhavemade

extensivedoctrinalstudyaccessibletothewiderlaypopulation,includingwomen,

whileithadpreviouslybeenthepurviewofonlyasmallcoterieofmonks(Braun

2013:105).

Monks’classinabshadgrwainEasternTibet(notetheBuddhistflagshangingfromtheceiling).Credit:XinlingGanlu,2015.

78

ItmaybesaidthattheoverallachievementofthesereformsforBurmeseand

TibetanBuddhistsisafortifiedversionoftheirdoctrinaltraditionsthatcanbe

upheldbyawiderpopulationofindividualsandeducationalinstitutions,aswellas

credibilityandprestigeintheeyesofthedominatinggovernmentandworldview.

ThereformshaveenabledBuddhisminthesesocietiestosurviveandflourishunder

radicallynewcircumstances.

Anotherfactorbehindanewemphasisonrationalizedtextualstudymaybethat

whenthepreservationofareligioustraditionischallenged,concretetextsand

doctrinearemoreeasilyheldandexplainedthanintangibleyogicexperience.

DzongsarKhyentseRinpoche,whoseKhyentseFoundationinvestsinacademic

Buddhiststudiesatuniversitiesaroundtheworld,saidinJuly2014,“Academic

BuddhiststudyisgoingtobetheinsuranceforBuddhiststudyandpracticeinthe

future.Becauseifwefollowsuddeninspiration,temporaryinspiration,that’snot

goingtolast.Weneedtheacademicinstitutionbackground.It’ssoimportant”

(Dzongsar2014).DzongsarKhyentsemayhavebeenreferringtothetransient

inspirationsofWesternersastheymeetwithBuddhismforthefirsttime,butthe

pointisnotlostincircumstanceswhereatraditionischallengedbyanewsocial

context.Thewrittenword,aspositedbyWalterOng,“assuresitsenduranceand

potentialforbeingresurrectedintolimitlesslivingcontextsbyalimitlessnumberof

livingreaders.Thedead,thing-liketexthaspotentialsfaroutdistancingthoseofthe

simplyspokenword”(Ong1986:31).

ModernityinChinaandtheglobalizinginfluenceofmodernBuddhism

BrunoLatourtracestheconceptofmodernityinWeHaveNeverBeenModern:“The

adjective‘modern’designatesanewregime,anacceleration,arupture,arevolution

intime”(Latour1993:10).AccordingtoLatour,theunspokenconstitutionbywhich

theconceptofmodernityoperatesguaranteesaseparationbetweenhumansand

nature,betweenmodernandancient,withwinnersareonthemodernsideand

losersareontheother(Latour1993:31-32).Rejectionofthe‘old’andafearof

laggingbehind(intothechaosofChina’s19thcentury)havefuelledChina’sdrivefor

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drasticmodernisationsincethelateQingdynastyandthefoundingofthePRC(Saxer

2013:235).Tibetanindigenouscultureandlivelihoodsaretargetedbysucha

outlook:everynightonagovernment-sponsored‘TibetTV’channeltherearetwo

minutesofadvertisinginwhichthanksisgivenforthe‘newTibet’andinsultsare

giventothe‘oldTibet’,whichisrejectedasfeudalandbackwards(Woeser2015).

TacitinChina’shighmodernistdreams,whereinthingsareconceivableonlywhen

seenintermsofdevelopment,istheassumptionthatlessmateriallydeveloped

societiesarelessintellectuallydeveloped(Gaerrang2013:2).Intellectual

developmentisahoopthatTibetansmayfeelpressuredtojumpthroughinorderto

maintaintheirself-esteemandassertthemselvesinaswiftlychangingsociety.

BeyondtheCCP’sregulationsonreligioninChinaanditshyper-scientificcreed,there

isaglobalizationofmoderntrendsinBuddhismthatmaybeindirectlyinforming

changeswithinTibetanBuddhism.McMahanhasremarkedonmodernBuddhismas

an‘actualnewformofBuddhism’thathasbeenevolvingnotonlyintheWestbut

alsoinAsiancountriesforoveracentury,asareinterpretationcreatedby

interactionsofthetwo(McMahan2008:9;2012:3).Thefirstprolongedinteractions

betweenthetwointhe19thcenturyinvolvedaWestthatwasgoingthroughitsown

crisiswithJudeo-Christiantheologyandarupturebetweenfaithandreason,incited

bytheriseofmodernscience.WesternBuddhistconvertslikeOlcottwerequickto

rejectBuddhism’sapparentlyidolatrousdevotionalpractices,evenwhileembracing

thereligion(Lopez2002:17).ForCarus,OlcottandotherWesternBuddhistsofthe

timethemagicalelementsofthereligionweretobepurifiedthroughreasonand

science,leavingbehindtheessentialBuddhisttruth.Theyunderstoodtheessential

Buddhisttruthtobecongruentwithscience,andexpressibleinanevolved,rational

formofthereligion(Lopez2002:16;Verhoeven2001:77).Lopezremarksthat

Buddhismasasystemofrationalandethicalphilosophyisacommoncharacteristic

ofmodernBuddhismaroundtheworld,awayfromseeminglysuperstitiouspractices

likethevenerationofrelicsandmonkssocommonamongBuddhistmajoritiesin

pre-moderntimes(Lopez2002:xvii).

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HowsuchWesterninfluenceshavereachedthemindsofTibetansinChinatodayis

toocomplexaquestiontoinvestigatehere,butsomechannelsareobvious,likethe

DalaiLamawhohasopenlystatedthatBuddhistdoctrinescontradictedby

establishedscientificconclusionsshouldbeabandoned(McMahan2008:115).Along

withincreasingscholasticism,othersalientfeaturesofmodernBuddhismas

highlightedbyMcMahanandLopezareconspicuousinthedgonpaofEasternTibet

today,especiallygenderequality,egalitarianismandscepticism.InChapterTwoI

mentionedtheinclusionofwomeninbLarungsGar’sstudyprogramandtheirright

toattainthemkhanmodegree(theequivalentofthehighestmonks’degree).

Skepticismisalsoassertingitselfinanewtrendofpublicdebates(bgrogleng)that

takeplaceinmonasticsettings,towntemplesandinvariousforumsontheChinese-

ownedmobilemessagingservice,WeChat82.Thesedebatesinvolvemonasticsand

laypeople,andrevolvearoundcontemporaryissuesseenascrucialtothe

preservationofTibetancultureandidentity,suchastheTibetanlexicon,women’s

rightsandthetraditionofreincarnationlineages(sprulsku).InaWeChatforum

titledWomen’sSocietythequestionofwhetherornotfemalescanattain

enlightenmenthasbeendebatedbymenandwomen(mostlymonksandnuns)since

thechatgroupbeganin201383.AtbLarungsGaravociferousdebateonwhetheror

nottomaintainthesprulskutraditioninTibetanBuddhismreacheditsheightin

2007andspiraledoutintodgonpathroughoutChina,Nepal,Tibetandtheglobal

diasporaofTibetans.

Alongsidethesedebatesthedemocraticprincipleofegalitarianismisstrongly

pronouncedatbLarungsGar,andIhaveoftenhearditexpressedwhenspeaking

withbLarungsGarmonksandnunsinphraseslike“equalityamongallistheseedof

compassionandlove”and”evenstudentsandteachersareequal”(mChogdga’

Rinpoche,personalcommunication,July2015).Acaseinpointisthatlastyearthe

twoyoungerofGadchags’sfourreincarnatelamas,botheducatedatbLarungsGar,

arguedforarotationsystemwherebyeachofthefourlamastakesatwo-yearterm

asthenunnery’sheadlama,withnosinglelamaassupreme.GenerallyinTibetan82WeChatisthemaininternationalsocialmediaplatformaccessibletoTibetansinChina.83ChatgroupatWeChatIDBudmedmthuntshogs,accessedon19September2014.

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traditiontheheadlamaofadgonpaisveneratedbythemonksornunsofthat

communityasthe‘rootguru’(rtsaba’iblama)andthereforeasthehighest-ranking

lama84.Thetwoyoungerlamas’requestwasputtoGadchags’sadministrative

committeeanddecidedagainst,withtherootgurujudiciouslyrecommendingthat

theissueberevisitedinthefuture.

Knowledgepassedthroughtexts,knowledgepassedorally

Inhisstudyofthe20thcenturyBuddhistreformsinSriLanka,GeorgeBonddescribes

modernisationasa“revolutioninknowledge”broughtaboutbyrapidcontinualand

exhaustivechangesinscienceandtechnologyandtheirconsequencesinhuman

consciousnessandculture(Bond1992:11-12).RobertBellahpositsthat

modernisationentailsmorerationalizedsystemsofcommunicationand

understandingamonghumansandtheirorganizations(Bellah1965citedinBond

1992:12).Thewide-reachingfieldoforalityandliteracystudiestakesthequestion

ofmodernityalongtheselinestothelevelofhumanconsciousness.Modernisation

isseennotmerelyasmaterialandsocialdevelopments,butmorepivotallyasa

sweepingtransformationincognitiveprocessesandculturalthinking.Researchby

Goody&Watt,Luria,Ongandotherslookstohowthestructureoflanguage,

technologicaladvancementsandthegrowthofliteracydevelopintandemwith

transformationsofmentalactivity(Goody&Watt1963;Luria1976;Ong1986).

AlexanderLuria,basedonresearchcomparingthecognitiveperformancesof

literate/schooledandnonliterateCentralAsianpastoralists,proposedthat:

Asthebasicformsofactivitychange,asliteracyismastered,andanewstageofsocialandhistoricalpracticeisreached,majorshiftsoccurinhumanmentalactivity.Thesearenotlimitedsimplytoanexpandingofman’shorizons,butradicallyaffectthestructureofcognitiveprocesses”(Luria1976:161).

Luriasummarizedhisinterpretationoftheobservedchangesas“atransitionfrom

thesensorytotherational,”basedonashiftfrommodesofthinkingengagedwith

84Anexceptionarethefixed-termpositionsofmonasteryheadlamasinmajordGelugsmonasteries,likethedGa’ldanKhripa.

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practicalactivitytotheoretical,abstractmodesofdiscursivethought(Luria1976:

162-163).WalterOngpositsthatwritingenhancestheseparationbetweenthe

knowerandtheknown,andincreasesobjectivity(Ong1986:36-37).Followingthe

ideasofJackGoody’sDomesticationoftheSavageMind,Ongremarksthat

“technologiesarenotmereexterioraidsbutalsointeriortransformationsof

consciousness,andnevermorethanwhentheyaffecttheword”(Ong1986:36).

Knowledgebasedonthereadingandwritingoftextsallows“abstractcontext-free

thought”,accordingtoOng.Thespokenwordalsoobjectifiesthroughthenaming

function,butunliketextualspeechitdoessoinaconcretesituationalcontext

(Greenfield,Reich&Olver1966:288;Ong1986:37,41).Theseideasoforalityand

literacystudies,whilenotwithouttheircriticalopponents,allowforaresearch

contextthatquestionshowcognitiveactivitytransformsastechnologyand

knowledgemodernize.

PriortothearrivaloftheChineseCommunistsinthe1950sTibetwashardlyapre-

literatesociety.Tibet’smonasteriesasthemainstaysofliterateeducationwere

responsibleforaremarkableoutputofscholarlywritingsandphilosophical

sophistication.AccordingtoAndrewFischertheyproducedaliteracylevelinTibet

thatwascomparabletomostpartsofpre-modernEurasia(Fischer2013:47).

Outsideofthemonasteries,thoughprivateeducationexistedforsomechildren–

usuallyviaaprivatetutorinaristocraticfamiliesorinaschoolroomestablishedbya

wealthypatron–formaleducationwasgenerallynotsoughtbythemajorityofthe

populationwhosespiritualneedsweresatisfiedbytheteachingsofthesaṅgha

(Boyd2004:72).MostTibetanfarmersandnomadswerepartiallyliterateatbest.

Thosewhocouldreadwerelikelycapableofreadingdailyprayers,liturgiesoralife-

storyofaBuddhistsaint,butunabletowriteorcomprehendentirebooksacross

genres.CulturalhistoryandBuddhistteachingswerecommunicatedtothe

nonliterateorpartiallyliteratepopulationthroughoralmethodslikedramaand

danceperformances,publiclecturesatthelocaldgonpaandsometimesby

wanderingsaṅghawhotoldthelife-storiesofBuddhistsaints(rnamthar)withthe

aidofscrollpaintings(thangka)(Boyd2004:72-73).

83

Tibetansocietyisnottransitioningfrompre-literacytoliteracy,nor,onecouldeasily

argue,frombeingprimitivetocivilized(acategoricaldistinctionthatanthropology

haslongagodoneawaywith)(Goody&Watt1963:344;Halverson1992;Lévi

Strauss1962).WhatistakingplaceforTibetansociety,however,isadrasticchange

totheextentofliteracyandtothecontentofwhatisbeingreadandwritten.For

stateschool-goingchildrentheliteracylevelhasincreaseddramaticallycomparedto

thatofpre-CommunistTibet.Withthat,theschoolsystemisredirectingknowledge

contentfromaBuddhistworldviewtoascientific,market-orientedone.Inthedgon

pa,aswehaveseen,asignificantnumberofmonksandnunsareincreasingtheir

textualstudiesofBuddhistphilosophy,developingreadingandwritingskillsthey

wouldnothavehadbeforethisera.

OntopofallthechangesconfrontingthemindsofTibetanssincethe1980s(asif

theyweren’tenough),theirperiodofassimilationinurbanenvironmentsand

seculareducationhascoincidedwiththeadventofdigitalcommunicationandthe

internet,whichintensifythepaceofchange.Accordingtothefindingsofliteracy

studies,modernisationofaculture’smaterial,socialandliteracypracticesare

accompaniedbyashiftinmentalfunctioning:from“sensory”thoughtcentredin

practicalactivityto“rational”cognitiveprocessesthataremoreabstractand

context-free(Goody1977:109-110;Luria1976:163;Ong1986).Suchanexplanation

wouldaccountfor,amongmanychanges,the‘newintellect’(rig-gsar)being

proclaimedbyTibetans;thenewwaveofindependent,criticalthinking;thegrowth

ofnewliterarygenreslikefiction,blogsandfreestylepoetry;andtheTibetan

Buddhistscholasticreformsoutlinedinthisthesis.

Therapid,systematicchangesthatoccurthroughmodernisationpresentan

exceptionalproblemforreligion.Thoughreligioneludesprecisedefinition,Bellah

offersadescriptionofitsfunctionasidentifyingthecosmologicalcontextofthe

worldanditsultimatereality,andguidinghumanitytomakesenseofsuchaworldin

thoughtandaction(Bellah1965inBond1992:12).Butwhenthatcontext

significantlychanges,asitischangingforTibetansintheirnewworldorder,

traditionalreligiousritualsandsymbolsceasetoprovidethesameconnectionto

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meaningfulexistenceastheyoncedid(Bond1992:12).Asanexample,Tibetans

raisedandeducatedinurbansettlementsmaynolongerrequirethesamereligious

servicesofyoginstoappeasenaturespiritsanddeitiesastheirnomadicandfarming

parentsdid.Areligionmustofferanewinterpretationofmeaningandvaluesifitis

toadaptandcontinuethrivinginanew,modernizedcontext.Perhapsthisisthe

workbeingcarriedoutbythemkhanpoandotherslikethemwhoareusingtextual

studiestobolsterBuddhisminawaythatrelatestothemodernviewsand

motivationsofpeopleinthePRCtoday(andaroundtheworld).Communitieslike

GadchagsdGonpa,however,whoarechoosingtoevadescholasticeducationand

maintaintheirtraditionsofritualandyogicpractice,muststandincreasinglyalone.

Nangchen’soldwaysofhigh-altitudepractice,surroundedbynomadswhoprovided

foodanddependedfortheirownlivelihoodsonthespiritualofferingsofyogins,are

becominglessviableinthemonetisedeconomy.

InthemindsofnewgenerationsofTibetanswhoaremodern-educated,theold

attitudesofunquestioningfaithanddevotionarebecomingbygone.Thecriticisms

voicedagainsttheGadchagsnunsfornotbasingtheirpracticesonscholasticstudy

assumethatthenunsdonothavetheintellectualthoughtrequiredtoproperly

understandwhattheyaredoing.Theincongruitymaybeonceagainpointedoutthat

beforethe1950sGadchagsdGonpawaspraisedthroughoutNangchensocietyfor

thequalityofitstraining,andtodayitiscriticized,yetGadchagshasnotchangedits

trainingcurriculum.AfaintechoisheardhereoftheCCP’srhetoricofbackwards

‘old’Tibet,andtheoldassumptionsinanthropologythatpre-modern,simple

societieshaveinferiorcapacitiesforintellectualandrationalthought(Goody1977:

33).

ThepracticetraditionofGadchagsdGonpacouldnotproperlybecalledanoral

traditioninthatsometextsarepasseddownasmaterialsupportsoftheirtradition

alongwithritualobjects,reliquaries,buildingsandholyimages.Gadchags’scentral

textscomprisetwoscripturalcollections:TheCollectedTeachingsofTshangs

dbyangsrGyamtsho(insixteenvolumes),andTheEssentialCollectionofRatnagLing

85

pa’sgTerma(intwenty-fivevolumes)85.TheCollectedTeachingsofTshangsdbyangs

rGyamtshocomprisehislife-storyandcommentaryonRatnagLingpa’sThugssgrub

yangsnying’duspa,thesubstanceofwhichareinstructionsonfiveyogicpracticesin

thecontextofguruyoga(blama’irnal’byor)86.Alongwithshortersupplementary

prayersandteachingsthesescripturesarethetextualmemoryofthenuns’practice

tradition,andasmentionedinChapterOnetheyareacrucialcomponentforthe

preservationofGadchags’slineage.Thenunsindeedspendlonghourseachday

readingsādhanātextsintheirretreatsdivisionsandduringten-daylongsgrubchen.

Atypicalsādhanātextinthesixteenretreatdivisionsishundredsofpageslong;the

Hayagrīvasādhanāforexampleisnearly300pageslong,includingsupplication

prayerstothenunnery’sDharmaprotectors(gsolkha)whicharereciteddailyaspart

ofthesādhanā.Tosomeextentthenunshavethesetextsmemorizedastheyrecite

themeachday,orinthecaseofsgrubchenforaten-dayperiodeachyear.Thenuns

read,orchant,thesetextsinwhatcouldbecalledreligiousstatesofmind:thewords

areintendedtoevokefaith,compassion,aspirationandthecardinalprinciplein

Vajrayāna,pureperception(dagsnang)87.Thetextsarenotreaddiscursivelyor

critically,butratherasguidelinesforvisualisationandasreminderstointuitively

engagewiththepresenceoftheguruastheBuddhanatureofone’sownmind.

Integralelementsofthenuns’contemplativetraining(andofVajrayānaingeneral)

areritualempowerments(dbang),verbaltransmissions(lung),meditation

instructions(khridkha)thatindicatethenondualBuddhanatureofmindand

personalizedpithinstructions(manngag)fromaguru.Theseareallconveyedby

qualifiedGadchagsteachers.Empowermentsandverbaltransmissionsarebasedon

85KhyabbdagbLamaKhamsgsumchoskyirgyalpordorje’changTshangsdByangsrGyamTsho’igsung’bumbdudrtsi’irolmtshobzhugsso:TheNectarOceanofEnjoyment:TheCollectedTeachingsofTshangsdbyangrGyamtsho,VajradhāraDharmaSovereignoftheThreeRealms(TshangsdbyangsrGyamtsho2010);andZabgternyishurtsalnga:TheTwenty-FiveRootgTerma[ofRatnagLingpa](RatnagLingpa[n.d.]).86Thefiveyogicpracticesare:gtummo(psychicheat),rmilam(dreamyoga),bardo(‘intermediatestate’),’odgsal(‘clearlight’),sgyulus(‘illusorybody’).Theguruyogaintentbehindthesepracticesistounitethepractitionersbody,speechandmindwiththatofPadmasambhava.87Forexample,fromaGadchagsprayerbook:kungyigzhini’dusmabyas;rangbyungklongyangsbrjoddumed;’khor’dasgnyiska’imingmeddo;denyidrignasangsrgyaste:“Thefoundationofallisunconditioned;itsvast,self-arisingexpanseisinexpressible;neithersamsaranornirvanahaveanameforit;whenitisknown,itisBuddhahood.”(KesGadchags2004:155)

86

textualrecitations,whilepithinstructionsarespokenspontaneously,sometimesin

chargedperiodsofsilence.Theoverallpracticalknowledgeofhowtoapplythe

indicationsinthetexts,suchas‘unitemindandprāṇa’and‘restinthenatureof

mind’88,isembodiedbythenunsandsharedthroughformalteachingsandcasual

conversationsintheirdailylives.Furthermore,instructionsonritualmusic,mudrā

andvisualisationsofeachsādhanāpractisedintheretreatdivisionsandsgrubchen

areforthemostparttransmittedorally,asareinstructionsontheyogasandstages

ofDzogchenmeditation.Inthewholeofthenuns’learningtradition,textsare

thereforesecondarytooralteachings.Aforty-nineyear-oldGadchagsnunsaidin

2013:

Oursisanoralteachingtraditionfromourlamas.Wehavetheteachingsinourtexts,ofcourse.Butthroughapersonalisedstyleofpithinstructionsourlamasestablishedanorallineageforus.Theytaughtusthattheauthenticlineagewemustpreserveisthisorallineage.Itisaveryprofound,excellentwayofteaching.

TibetanBuddhistmanualsonyogicpracticeslikertsalungaretypicallyterse,

allowingfororalinstructionstofillinthegapsandcarrythe‘live’qualitythat

constituteshearing,orpractice,lineages(snyanbrgyud,sgrubbrgyud)ofBuddhist

tantra.Thetextsserveasanaccompanyingmaterialmemoryoftheteachingsand

thehistoryoftheirlineage.Theseniornunsimpartingoralinstructionsembody

thousandsofhoursofexperiencepractisingthemethodsbeingtaught,andwerein

turnguidedbyhighlyexperiencedpractitionerswhoseinstructionstheyhave

contemplatedandunderstood.Gadchags’snunssharefirst-person,verbal

indicationswitheachotherofthepitfallstoavoidinpractice,thesignsof

accomplishment,psychologyandthenatureofmind(bdegshegssnyingpo;Skt.

sugatagarbha).Judgingbytheproportionofnunswhoexhibitsignsofrealizationat

thetimeofdeath,theGadchagssystemoftrainingenablesthenunswitha

profoundunderstandingofthepracticestheyarecontinuallyengagedin.Thedirect

face-to-facecontactoforaltransmission–itsmaterialsound,personalised

88‘rlungsemsbyermedduzhogs’(fromahandwrittencopyofGadchags’sgTummoAspirationPrayer,gTummo’igsol’debs);and‘semsrangbabdugnas’(fromahandwrittencopyofaGadchagsmeditationinstructiontext,Nyamslenrganposmjugkhridbzhugsso).

87

intonationandexpression–hasaneffectonthecontentthatistransmitted,

allowingforakindofknowledgethatisqualitativelydifferentfromthatgained

throughtextualstudy(Goody&Watt1963:306).

Ongassertsthatacademiclearning(Greek:mathēsisandmathēma)allowsforthe

conveyanceoforganizedandabstractthoughtstructuresthatareindependentofa

practicalcontext;whileknowledgepassedorally,withoutwriting,iswisdom(Greek:

sophia)thatrelatesnottoabstractionsbuttoholisticengagementinthehumanlife-

world(Ong1986:41).Ongmaintainsthattheeffectofwritingonthoughtisto

separatebeingfromtime(Ong1986:43).InTibetanBuddhism’sprecarioussituation

ofthelastfewdecadesithasneededorganizedconveyanceofitsviewsinorderto

ensureitssurvivalasaninstitutionallyformidablereligionthathasmeaningand

valueinmodernChinaandelsewhere.PerhapsthishasbeentheintentionofEastern

Tibetanlamaswhoaredirectinganincreaseinrationalizedstudyprogramsindgon

pathroughoutEasternTibet.Suchconveyanceisachievedthroughacademic

learning,asOngasserts,whichbolstersatraditionandconfirmsitsknowledgein

doctrinalandmaterialforms(Halverson1992:314).

Conclusion

ThischapterhasexploredcausesanddynamicsbehindnewexpressionsofBuddhism

inthepracticelineagesofEasternTibet–orinotherwords,behindashiftfroma

highvaluingofyogicpractice(whetherornotitissupportedbyscholasticstudy)to

anemphasisonrationalunderstandingofBuddhistdoctrineandtheneedfor

prolongedtextualstudyasabasisforyogicpractice.Theswiftlychangingsituationin

EasternTibetansocialandreligiouslifeiscomplicated,withfactorsexertingtheir

influenceinmanydirections.Thischapterhasconsideredsomeofthemost

conspicuousofthese,andfoundthattheyofferexplanationsfornewformsof

TibetanBuddhisminEasternTibettoday.Theanalysishasrevealedthe

achievementsofthesenewscholasticformsinpreservingthereligionamidst

formidablechallengestoitssurvival.Furtherinvestigationofallthepossibilitiesin

thischapter,andmore,couldleadtodeeperunderstandingofthechangestaking

88

place.Amongthem,theinsightsofliteracystudiespointtoanespeciallysignificant

questiononthementalmodesofyogicpractice.Howdothesementalmodesand

theoraltraditionsthatinformthemincorporateadifferentqualityofknowledge

thanthatoftext-basedscholasticstudy?Thisquestionofdifferentqualitiesof

knowledgehighlightsthefocalinterestofthisresearch:howtheviewischangingin

themindsofTibetansinNangchenandEasternTibet,andwhatthischangingview

mightleadtointhefutureoftheirreligion.

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CHAPTERFOUR

TheYoginoftheFuture?PossibleFuturePathwaysforTibetanContemplative

Culture

TantricBuddhismasanextensionofthestate?

Tibetansarestrivingtocometotermswithanewidentityasmembersofthe

Chinesenation,whichisjarringlydissonantwithTibetanself-identitypriortothe

1950s.Actualpoliticalhistoryaside,untilthePRC’sappropriationofTibetanareasin

the1950sTibetanscholarshiphadregularlydescribedChinaasdistinctfromitselfas

India,AfricaandEurope(Cooke2005:126,134n30).Inthisdistinctnationalidentity

religionwascentralintheworldviewofTibetans.Evenbeforetheimportof

BuddhismfromIndiainthe6thcenturyorearlier(Snellgrove1987inCooke2005:

120)thepeopleoftheTibetanplateauconceiveditspowerstructuresandterritorial

realminthecontextofareligiousworldview.AsSusetteCookehasdiscussed,since

theTibetanempireofthe7thto9thcenturieseverymajorTibetanpolityhas

empowereditselftosomeextentthroughidentifyingwithareligiousworldview.

Fromatleastthe11thcentury,accordingtotheBookofKadam(abookof

conversationsattributedtoAtiśaandDromtönpa),Tibetwasperceivedasarealmof

spiritualsignificanceoverseenbysuccessivereincarnationsoftheBuddhaof

Compassion(sPyanrasgzigs)anddedicatedtopreservationoftheBuddhadharma

(Cooke2005:127).ThiscontinuestobetheviewoftheexiledCentralTibetan

AdministrationforwhomrecognitionoftheDalaiLamaasheadoftheTibetan

people(ratifiedbyglobalTibetsympathizers)continuestodefineitsnationalismand

politicalactioninthepresent(Cooke2005:127).

InChinatoday,asminzuminoritymembersofmodernChina,Tibetansareforcedto

findtheirwaywhere“religionisframedinpatriotictermsfromthefirstinstance”

(Cooke2005:124).ReligioniscodifiedbytheChineseconstitutionandCCPpolicies

asasocialforceforsupportingthestate.Suchadministrativecontrolofreligious

90

activityisnot,however,merelyanoutcomeofChina’smodernstateformation,but

partofamuchlongerprojectofChinesegovernmentalauthorityoverreligious

culture(Oakes&Sutton2010:14).Areligiousworldviewframedcivilandpolitical

lifeinChinaaswellpriortothe20thcentury.Byaffiliatingwithandco-optinga

religiousworldview,China’semperorsasSonsofHeavenandtheirofficialassistants

positionedtheirauthorityoverallthatexisted“underHeaven”(Ch.tianxia)–

includingreligion.State-approvedreligioustraditionsandinstitutionswereallowed

aslongastheydidnotdisturbsocialharmonyorchallengestateauthority(Oakes&

Sutton2010:14).FromtheYuandynastyinthe13thcenturytothe20thcentury

Republicanera,theimperialmetaphorplayedoutinthepatron-preceptor

relationshipbetweenChineseemperorsandTibetanincarnatelamas.This

relationshipfunctionedtosanctifyandextendtheChineseempire’spolitical

presenceoverTibetanandMongolianfrontierpopulationsandtobridgetheseareas

withinlandChina89(Gaerrang2013:112).

Inthe20thcenturytheRepublicanandsubsequentCommunistgovernmentsbrought

astarkdiscontinuitywithitspastreligiousaffiliations,andsetastringentseparation

betweenreligionandstatepoliticalaffairs.ButforChina,thiswasnotsomucha

secularizationofthestateandpublicasitwasareplacementofreligionbystate

ideology(Yü2010:95).TheCCPhascreatedanadministrativespaceforreligion

whereinthefreedomofindividualbeliefisgranted,butintheheartsandmindsof

thepeoplenationalismisproselytizedbythestateasitslegitimizingforce.Inplace

ofgodsanddivinerightthatsanctifiedstateruleinthepast,nationalismandstate

ideologyarethegovernment’snewcreedforChina(Oakes&Sutton2010:15)90.

Furthermore,asGaerrangremarks,theCCPrulesprohibitingmixin(‘superstition’)

89Thisrelationshipalsoamountedtothelamas’successfulassertionofTibetanBuddhistpoliticalpowerinChina’sdirection.Huber,Makley,YüandothershavepointedouttheroleofreincarnatelamasinthesuccessfulspreadofTibetanBuddhismacrossInnerAsia,reachingevenChina’simperialcourts(Huber1999;Makley2010;Yü2013a).AsdescribedbyMakley,theDalaiLama’sdGelugsschoolbestexemplifiesthefull-scalepolitiesthatwerebuiltupthroughthefigureofthesprulsku,whosetantricpoweroverlegionsofprotectordeitiesandcloseallianceswithlayleaderssoughtto“mandalize”Tibetasaregion(Makley2010:130).90Oakes&Suttondescribetourismasamainarenaforthisproselytizing:temples,godsandculturalpresentationsbyethnicgroupsarenotincelebrationofdifference,butoftheall-encompassingnatureofthePRC(Oakes&Sutton2010:15).

91

andxiejiao(‘evilcult’)stagnateexistingreligionsandhinderthedevelopmentof

mysticalformsofexpressionandpractice(Gaerrang2013:113-114).

SamuelinhisCivilizedShamansemploystheconceptsofshamanicBuddhismand

clericalBuddhismtobetterunderstandTibetansocietyandreligiousculture.Samuel

contraststhedifferentorientationsofthetwo,wheretheshamanicinvolvesdirect

contactwithdeitiesandtranscendentmodesofconsciousnessthroughVajrayāna

practice91(typicalfigure:thetantriclama);andtheclericaltakesagradualapproach

totheinnersourceofenlightenedauthoritythroughscholarshipandethical

discipline(typicalfigure:themonk-scholar)(Samuel1993:5-10).Thoughthetwoare

interwoveninculturalpractice,oneortheotherisfoundtobepredominantin

differentsocietiesandassociatedwithacertainpoliticalcontext.Typically,the

clericalisathomeunderastronglycentralizedstategovernmentasinTheravādin

countries(forexamplesThailandandSriLanka),whiletheshamaniciscommonin

small-scalepre-literatesocieties,andforthatreason,unusuallyinTibetwherethere

hasbeenasophisticatedliterateculture(Samuel1993:7-10).Thedominant

monasticschoolsofCentralTibetthatheldestatesandpoliticalpowerover

generations,likethedGelugssincethe17thcenturyorSaskyaofthe13thand14th

centuries,indeedhadstrongerleaningstotheclericalwithmonasterieslikeSera

and’Brasspungsfullofthousandsofmonk-scholars.Buteventhesedeferredtothe

shamanicintheirhereditarytantriclamaswhoheldtemporalpower,liketheDalai

LamasandChosrgyal’Phagspa.Tibetwasalsounusualinthatitslargenomadic

populationeludeddomesticationbyahierarchicalstatepower,andformedafree-

flowingsocialstructurethatinsomewaysallowedforTibet’sVajrayānaculture

(Samuel1993:572).

LookingbeyondLhasaandmorebroadlyattheBuddhistcultureoftheTibetan

Plateau,SamuelseesthestrongandautonomousroleoftheshamanicinTibetan

91Samueluses‘shamanic’asageneraltermforacategoryofpracticesthatmaybedescribedas“theregulationandtransformationofhumanlifeandhumansocietythroughtheuse(orpurporteduse)ofalternatestatesofconsciousnessbymeansofwhichspecialistpractitionersareheldtocommunicatewithamodeofrealityalternativeto,andmorefundamentalthan,theworldofeverydayexperience”(Samuel1993:8).Thesamedefinitionwouldlooselyapplytotheterm‘yogic’inthisdissertation.

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Buddhismandattributesthislargelytothelimitednatureofpoliticalcontrolin

Tibetansocieties92priortothe1950s(Samuel1993:10,33).AsTibet’spolitical

structureswere,theyweredominatedandconstitutedbyreligiousorders.Thisisas

truefortheclericaldGelugsschoolwithitsincarnateDalaiLamasasitwasforthe

formerNangchenkings,someofwhomwerebKa’brgyudpayogins93(Turek2003:

19).TheoppositeisthecaseinacountrylikeThailand,wheresincethe

establishmentofitscentralizedBangkokadministrationthesaṅghahasbeen

domesticatedandkeptfirmlysubordinatetostatepower,whiletheforest

meditatorshavebecomemarginalized94(Samuel1993:7;Tiyanavich1997).The

siddhi(Tib.dngosgrub)attainedthroughtantricpracticemakesanindividual

independentandcharismatic,apowerthatcaneasilyextendtothepoliticalsphere

–asindeedsooftenhappenedinTibet(Samuel1993:28).Looking,asSamueldoes,

attheconstantthemeinBuddhistcountrieswherestrongstatecontroloverthe

saṅghapurifiesitofshamanicelementstoformastate-supportingclericalBuddhist

majority,itiseasytoimagineasimilarpathwayforTibetanBuddhism(withits

nomadsdomesticated)asanextensionoftheauthoritarianChinesestate(Samuel

1993:28).

Countercultureofthefuture?TheritualandsocialpoweroftheNangchenyogin

Yetsuchaconformistpathwaywouldbegforacounterculture,anditishardto

imagineTibetansnotturninginthefuturetotheinspirationoftheirpast,filledasit

iswithcelebratedsgrubthob(Skt.siddha)recalledinnumerousrnamthar

hagiographies.Turek’s2013dissertationonLaphyihermitageatsKyobrag

92SamuelalsomakesclearthatTibetuntilthe1950swasnot,contrarytomuchofearlierWesternscholarship,acentralizedstateunderatheocraticgovernmentatLhasa,butratheracomplexofsocietiesacrossregionswithdisparateculturalcharacteristicsandpoliticalallegiances(Samuel1993:139-154).93ThatthestatewasanextensionofreligioninTibetisepitomizedandrepeatedlyinvokedinthelegendaryaccountofthefirstmeetingofKingKhrisronglDebtsanandGuruPadmasambhava(whotogetherestablishedTibet’sfirstBuddhistmonasteryinthe8thcentury).ItwastheKingwhoprostratedtotheGuruandnotviceversa(Samuel1993:35).94Attheendofthe19thcenturyMongkut’sThammayutnikaiwasthemodelchosenbyThailand’snewlycentralizedgovernmentforitsorthodoxBuddhism.Mongkut’sThammayutnikaisawmeditationasunnecessarymysticismforthesaṅghaandespousedstudyofthePālicanonwithanemphasisontheVinaya(Tiyanavich1997:6-8).

93

monasteryinNangchen–ahermitageofnunssurroundingacentralyogicmaster,

TshulkhrimsmTharphyin,–highlightsthesocialpowerandresolutionofparadox

achievedbyTibetanswhoinvestinyogicpracticeatthistimeofcollectiveidentity

crisis.AccordingtoTurek,thelifeofacontemporaryTibetanyogin,despiteits

apparentsocialinertia,performsadecidedlyactiverolethatembodiesuniquelocal

identitywhiletranscendingthenewsocialorderbeingimposed(Turek2013:259).

TurekremarksthattherobesofaTibetanyogin,whilebeingtoleratedbythe

Chineseauthorities,areaclearmarkerofrefusal,andshearguesthatmonastic

renunciationisoneofthemosteffectivewaysthatTibetansareconveying

resentmentandrejectionoftheCommunistoccupation95(2013:252).Tureklooks

specificallyatthefoundingyoginofNangchen’sLaphyihermitage,Tshulkhrims

mTharphyin.Sheseesinhispsychophysicaltransformationthroughyogic

techniqueslikegtummothereconciliationoftwocontradictions:thatofhuman

sufferingingeneral,andthespecificdilemmaofTibetansinthecurrentsocio-

politicalcrisis(Turek2013:II).

TurekcitesGavinFloodinarguingthatthepublicperformanceofasceticism

characterizesitasritual,andthusmotivatedbyayearningforpower.Floodwrites:

Asceticactsperformedwithintheprivacyofacellorforestareneverthelessstillpublicinthesensethattheyparticipateinandaregivensanctionbythewidercommunityandtradition.[…]Throughperformingasceticismtheasceticisperformingtradition,andtheperformanceoftraditionisapublicaffair(Flood2004inTurek2013:258).

AtLaphyiTurekobservedthatthelifeofayogindependson“ritualandsocial

empowerment”.Ritualempowermentcomesfromthemonasteryandlineage

memberswhobestowtheempowerments,transmissionsandinstructions(dbang,

lung,khridka)necessaryforpractice.Socialempowermentcomesfromthewider

laycommunitywhooffernecessarymaterialandmoralprovisionsassponsors,

disciplesandpilgrims(Turek2013:259-260).Theyogininturnempowersa

95TurekseeapopularrevoltinthelargenumbersofmonksandnunsordainingintherevivingmonasticcentresofEasternTibet.SherecallsthatduringthecrackdownofbLarungsGarin2001theChineseauthoritiesreferredtoitsresidentsas“thered-robedarmy”(Turek2013:252-253).

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connectiontotraditionandethnicidentitybyembodyingyogicpractice,whichin

interdependencewiththewidercommunityleadstotherestorationoftheir

traditionalculturalvaluesystem(Turek2013:260).Thus,inspiteofthedetachment

andisolationthatdefinesthelifeofayogin,hisorherrenunciationisapublic

performancethatcansuccessfullycounteracttheTibetanidentitycrisissuffered

bothindividuallyandcollectively(Turek2013:230).

TurekacknowledgesthatLaphyihermitagehasasignificantsettinginthesocio-

politicalhistoryofNangchen,whichgivesitanexceptionalbasisforsuchayogic

revivaltotakeplace(Turek2013:98,104-106).Laphyi’sparent’Ba’rombKa’brgyud

monasteryofsKyobragisoneoffoursemi-independentadministrativedistricts(be

hu)96presidedoverbyaNangchenkinguntilthe1950s.Itisthusconnectedto

earlierrevivalsofthe’Ba’rombKa’brgyud(thefoundingschooloftheNangchen

kingdom)andthepoliticalhistoryofNangchen(Turek2013:118).Today,whileLa

phyihermitageonChabstimountainremainsfilledwithnunsfollowingTshulkhrims

mTharphyininmeditationtraining,sKyobragmonasteryhasestablishedabshad

grwa(thefirstinitshistory)andnumbersaredwindlinginthemonastery’stwomain

retreatcentresasmonksturntheirattentioninsteadtostudies(sKyobragmonk

Ampel,personalcommunication,July2015)97.Nevertheless,theritualandsocial

empowermentoftheyogicpathwayashighlightedbyTurekisundoubtedlypotent,

andsuggestscompellingreasonsforpracticecommunitieslikeGadchagsandLaphyi

tocontinueinthefuture.Forthattohappenahermitageneedstoexistoutsideof

statecontrol,asLaphyidoesonthemostparttoday(Turek2013:258),andit

remainstobeseenwhetherornotthegovernmentwillimplementapost-2008

policytostationaCCPofficialmonitorineachmonasterythroughoutTibetan

areas98.

96TheotherthreewereLabdgon,rTarnaandZurmang.Asbehuthesemonasticestateshadtheirownterritories,serfsandprivileges(Gruschke2004:31).97ThoughasIwritethisthesisthereisdiscussionamongsKyodrag’ssaṅghathattheirfocusshouldreturntoyogicpractice,whichwasthemonastery’sfocusinpre-modernTibet(sKyobragmonkKarmaOrgyen,personalcommunication,December2015).rNyingmapamonksinNangchentoldmethatsKyobragisnowoneofthestrongestmonk-communitiesinNangchenforpreservingitsyogictraditions,whichmusthavesomethingtodowithitssocio-politicalbackgroundmentionedhere.98Thepolicy,whichwasaresultofwidespreadunrestinTibetanareasin2008,istitled“CompleteLong-termManagementMechanismforTibetanBuddhistMonasteries”.Officialdocumentsdescribe

95

Ithasbeenmyobservationthatinthecurrentcrisisperiodfamiliesarestrugglingto

surviveandadapttotheforcefulnewtrajectoryofmodernisation,andthis

overwhelmsthelaity’sabilitytofocusmoralandfinancialattentiononremote

communities.Butastimegoesbyandthedustsettles,partsofTibetansocietymay

wellturntotheculturalheroesoftheirpast–thetantricyogins,gterstonand

lineagepatriarchs–asawayofconnectingtoandassertingtheirethnoreligious

identity.Insomecasesthiscouldrestorethemoralandmaterialsustenanceneeded

bytantricpractitionersandtheircommunitiestosurviveascounterculturalcentres

ofinterestandaspossiblebasesforTibetanculturalrevival.

TibetanBuddhismonthePlateauasatouchstoneforglobalizingTibetanBuddhism

AnotherdimensionworthconsideringforitspotentialtoencourageTibetan

contemplativecultureistheroleofTibetanyoginsandtantriclamasinthe

internationalschemeofTibetanBuddhism,whichhasbeenexpandingasaglobal

religionsincetheTibetanexileperiodbeganinthe1960s.Thecharacterofthe

tantricyogin–likethefamousMilaraspa,whoselife-storywastranslatedinto

EnglishattheveryoutsetofTibetanlamasarrivinginexile–embodiesthepromise

oftranscendingsufferingandtherealizationofhumanpotential.Yoginsareasource

ofinspirationtoagrowingnumberofpeopleinternationallywhoaresearchingfor

meaninginsecular,money-drivensocieties(Turek2013:333).

Todaytherearedozensofretreatcentresaroundtheworldwherenon-Himalayan

participantsengageintraditionalTibetanVajrayānaritual,meditationandyogic

practiceforthree-yearperiods,andthereareTibetanBuddhistcentresonmost

continentsandinmanycitiesthroughouttheworld.InthewiderSydney/Blue

MountainsareathereareupwardsoffifteenTibetanBuddhistgroups,mostofthem

guidedbyaTibetanlamaatsomestageintheirestablishment.TantricBuddhismis

itsaimsas“enhancingsocialmanagement”andto“adaptTibetanBuddhismtosocialism”.Accordingtothepolicygovernmentofficesaretoprovidecooperativemonasterieswithpracticalserviceslikerunningwater,electricity,roadsandmoney(HumanRightsWatch2012).

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basedonlineage,andthegrowingnumberofTibetanVajrayānafollowersaround

theworldarelookingtotheTibetanPlateauasahistoricaltouchstoneandforthe

inspirationofitslineagemastersandpracticeculture.Thisisbringingmoreand

moreinternationalBuddhistvisitorstoEasternTibet,whichisnowadaysgenerally

accessibleonaChinesetouristvisa.

VincanneAdams’‘KaraokeasModernLhasa’,ThomasKauffmann’sTheAgendasof

TibetanRefugeesandDonaldLopez’sPrisonersofShangri-lahaveeachshownways

inwhichTibetanscarryouttheculturalstereotypesandexpectationsprojectedon

thembyforeignersasastrategyforgarneringmoralandfinancialsupport.Salient

examplesgivenbytheseresearchersareTibetans’enactingofWesternexpectations

intheTibetanindependencemovement99,andexiledTibetanlamas’invokingofthe

Shangri-lamyth100(Adams1996;Kauffmann2015;Lopez1999).Adamsshowsthat

withinthepolemicofChineseandWesterndiscoursesonauthenticTibetannessat

playinTibet’smodernisation,Tibetans’desiretobewhatWesternerswantthemto

be–politicalandreligiousclients–isastrategyforobtainingtheforeignsupport

neededtofulfilltheirpersonalandpoliticalgoals(Adams1996).Thesamehappens

withTibetansactingouttheChinesescriptforauthenticTibetanness.Byperforming

theiruniquecultureinthetourismarenaasethnicTibetan‘other’,andreformulating

TibetanBuddhismaccordingtothegovernment’sdirectivetorepackagereligion,

TibetansearnthepatronageofChinesefollowersandtheabilitytoflourishasa

religioninmodernChina101.

Thesamestrategycouldwork(maybeworking)forTibetancontemplativeculture,

too.TurekexplainsthateachyeargroupsofWesternersandAsiansvisitLaphyi

hermitage,manyofthembKa’brgyudpaBuddhistsinspiredbyLaphyi’slineageand

followingitspracticetradition.TshulkhrimsmTharphyinisanobjectofdevotionfor

99i.e.thatauthenticTibetansarereligiouslydevout,andtheirresistancetoChinesecolonialismisarticulatedintermsofreligiousdevotion(Adams1996:515).100i.e.thatTibetwasanunchanging,peacefullandruledbyabenevolentDalaiLama,whosepeopleweredevotedtotheDharma,totheenvironmentandegalitarianvalues.101SeeWoeser’s7June2015blogFromDemonizationof“Serfs”toShangri-laofthe“ThirdPole”fortheironyintheCCP’scurrentfull-fledgedactsoforientalisminarecentCCTVdocumentarycalled“TheThirdPole”(Woeser2015).

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manyofthesevisitors,thoughathisdiscretionsomearerefusedameetingiftheir

attitudeisjudgedtobeinsincere(Turek2013:228).GadchagsdGonpaalsohas

individualsandgroupsofChineseandWesternvisitorseachsummer,mostofwhom

makethedifficultjourneytotheremotenunnery(withitsgrass-stuffedpillowsand

unappetizingdiet)becausetheywanttomeettheyoginīnunsandseefirst-hand

theirwayoflife102.AsmentionedinChapterTwo,theGadchagsnuns’dailymeals

aresponsoredbyoneofnunnery’slamaswhofundraisesamongstaninternational

baseofChineseandWesternBuddhistssympathetictotheGadchagstradition.In

addition,constructionofanewmainshrine-hallwasrecentlycompletedatGad

chags–aUSDmillion-plusprojectalsomadepossiblebyinternationaldonors

wishingtocontributetothepreservationofGadchags’scontemplativeculture.This

kindofsponsorshipandenthusiasmextendedbyinternationalTibetanBuddhists

maybuoytheprideoftheGadchagsnunsandotheryogicpractitioners,andprovide

incentiveforthemtofulfiltheprojectedexpectationsoftheirsupporters.Ofcourse

repeatedvisitsofforeignersmayalsoposehazardstothenuns’commitmentto

renunciationbyexposingthemtoarichermateriallife,thelureoftechnologyand

broaderlifeexperience.

ThegrowingnumberofHanTibetanBuddhistsinChinaisamoreregularpresencein

thelivesofEasternTibetans,andmaybeplayingamoreimmediatehandinvaluing

Tibetantantricpractice.ManyHanChineseaccessTibetanBuddhismthrough

tourismandthemarketplaceandtraveltothePlateauinsummerforfreshairand

inspirationofgenuinespiritualculture,returningtotheirsmoggy,materialisticcities

feelingconnectedtoaBuddhistheritageandameaningfullife.WhileitisChinese

moneybuildingupmanypost-MaoTibetanmonasteriesandshrines,theChinese

tendencyforfaithandreadybeliefinmagicalpowersofaspiritualmasteris

underwritingTibetantantriclamas.ModernChina’srelationshipwithreligionis

couchedinitsrapideconomicexpansion,andoftentimesloveofmoneyand

religiousfaithgohand-in-hand,withHanbusinesspeoplepayinglamastoperform

102Gadchags’sretreatbuildingsareoff-limitstoallforeignandTibetanvisitors,includingthenuns’relatives,accordingtoarulelaiddownbythenunnerycommitteeintheearly2000swhenthenumberofvisitorsbeganincreasing.

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ritualsinordertomakethegoodkarmanecessaryformoremoney.AwealthyHan

businessmannamedSunKejiagaveaninterviewtotheBBClastyearexplaininghis

relianceonTibetanlamasforhis$100mfortuneandasawaytosharegoodkarma

withhisfriends103(Sudworth2015).

IhaveobservedthatChineseinShanghaiandBeijingaremoreskepticaland

scientificthantheirSingaporeancounterpartsinaskingquestionsofnewBuddhist

teachers,yetoncetheyareconvincedofalama’spowergostraighttorequestinghis

magicalabilitiestoremoveobstaclestotheirbusiness,healthandfamilylives.John

Osburg’s2013bookAnxiousWealth,basedonhisethnographyofChengdu’snewly

rich,talksofcompetitionamongwealthymainlandChineseoverwhopatronizesthe

mostpowerfulTibetanmonks.OsburgfoundthatmanyHanperceiveTibetan

Buddhismasmoremysterious,powerfulandefficaciousthanChineseBuddhism104.

Thisperceptionharksbacktothe1920swhenTaixuandhisdisciplesincorporated

esotericJapaneseandTibetanBuddhismintothecurriculaoftheirnewBuddhist

schools,valuingtheemphasisinthesetwotraditionsonpracticeandpersonal

contactwitharealizedmaster(Tuttle2005:79-97).TheTibetantantriclamamaybe

attheforefrontoftheTibetanBuddhistexchangewithmanymodernHanBuddhists,

butbehindhimishistraininganddgonpaofmonks,nunsandsngagspa(laytantric

yogins)thatformhisculturalbackdrop,andthesemayreapsomeofthereturns.

103SunKejia’sfriend,aformerCCPofficialandadevoutTibetanBuddhist,wasalsopresentattheinterview.104OsburgseesthatTibetanBuddhism’sriseinChinaisclearlylinkedtoitsglobalriseinpopularity.ManyChineselayBuddhistsreadChinesetranslationsofpopularEnglish-languageTibetanBuddhistbooks,andturntoBuddhism–asWesternersdo–asacureformodernity’sills(Johnson2014).

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CONCLUSION

Asevidencedinthisthesis,TibetanBuddhisminChinaisnotatriskofannihilationas

hasbeentheclaimofsomeWesternersandTibetanrefugees(Kapstein2004:263,n.

1).Onthecontrary,sincethe1980sitisflourishinginEasternTibetwithhigh

numbersofordainedsaṅghastudyinginmonasticcentres,moreengagementwith

BuddhiststudiesamongthelaityandtheconsiderablesupportofHanChinese

studentsandpatrons.ThisisapparentinthedevelopmentofbLarungsGaroverthe

lasttwentyyears,andinnumerousdgonpathroughoutEasternTibetthathave

improvedbuildingsandexpandingstudyprogramsbasedonbLarungsGar’s

exampleand/orthecurrenttrendofmoderneducationanddevelopment.Such

flourishingisanachievementofmanyparticipants,butparticularlyofTibetan

BuddhistleaderslikebLarungsGar’smkhanpo.Theirmovementsforeducational

andethicalreformshavebeenastrategicresponsetochallengestotheirreligion

posedbytheCCPgovernmentandmodernizingsociety.

Yetaslivelihoodsshiftfromdependenceonnaturetowardsarationalizedmarket,

andmodesoflearningshiftfromanemphasisoncontemplativeexperiencetowards

programsoftextuallearning,themindsofTibetansarechanging,asarethewaysin

whichtheyengageandderivemeaningfromtheirBuddhistreligion.Apractice-with-

studyethiccontinuestobeadvocatedbymanyTibetanlamasandtheirfollowers,

butthedemandsofarapidlymodernizingeconomycallfortheattainmentof

academicdegreesandanexpoundingofBuddhismthatsatisfiesmoderncritical

approachestoknowledge.Theresulthasbeenacourseofpurescholarshipformany

monasticsthatlacksasignificantpracticecomponent.

Thisneworientationhasledtoemptyingretreatcentresonthemountainsof

EasternTibetand,atthelevelofconsciousness,toaweakeningoftheattitudesof

faith(dadpa)andpureperceptionofBuddhanature(dagsnang)thataresaidtobe

essentialtotantricaccomplishment.Theweakeningoftheseattitudesthatusedto

becustomaryformanyTibetansisatthecruxofcurrenttransformationsof

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contemplativecultureinEasternTibet.dBangdragRinpoche,oneofGadchags’stwo

seniorlamas,voicedhisconcernin2015overtheissue:

ThereisadangerinthefutureofTibetandgonpabecominglikethedgonpainIndia where not a single Tibetan from the refugee settlements joins105; orChinese Buddhist monasteries wheremonks study and study, but there arefew yogic accomplishments; or like the fancy Buddhist temples for touristswithonly fiveor sixmonks inside.BecauseTibetans’ faith (dadpa)andpureperception (dag snang) are disappearing, so is our culture of yogicaccomplishments(dBangdragRinpoche,personalcommunication,July2015).

InastatementthatcomesfullcircletobLarungsGar’soriginsasachossgar,Khenpo

TsultrimLodröexpressedthefollowingwordsofwarningtoaconferenceofleading

TibetanBuddhistteachersinChengdulastOctober2015:

Buddhiststudy–liketheFiveMajorSubjects106–won’tdeclineinahundredyears.I’mnotconcernedaboutthat.WhatI’mconcernedaboutisourpracticetradition.Ifwecontinueaswearenow,intwentyyearsourpracticewillbelost.[…]AllschoolsofTibetanBuddhismarefacingtheproblemofdeclineintheirpractice.[…]Inthepast,ateacherintheirkindnesswouldtrainatulkuandputhimontherightpath.[...]Nowadaystulkusjustbuildtemples,stupas,statues–theyaremorelikesponsorsandsupervisors,notlikethegurusofthepast.[…]Inordertogiveempowerments[dbang]andinstructions[khridka]alamaneedspractice,havingreceivedthemfromanotherlama.Notanymore.Nowadaystulkus’activitiesaretooinvolvedwithmoney.[…]Today,duetothekindnessoftheoldlamaswhoholdthelivinglineagesofinstructionandempowerments,weareokay.ButwhenIthinkofthefutureI’mworriedthattheDharmawilldegenerate.[…]Nowadaysmanylamasarecapableofgivingteachings,theyhavethelungtransmissionsofthetexts.Butintwentyyears,wherewillthequalifiedlamasbewhocangiveempowermentsandpracticeinstructions?[…]IamnotworriedaboutthematerialwellbeingofTibetinthefuture.Butourpracticeisdeclining.[…]Thesedaysmanypeoplearestudyingtexts,ithelpsthemtohaveabetterlivelihood.[…]Butaftertwentyyearsifwecontinueonthis

105NowadaysveryfewTibetanrefugeeseducatedinIndiaarebecomingmonksandnuns.ThemajorityofmonksandnunsindgonpainIndiaarefromborderregionslikeNepal,Ladakh,Bhutan,SpitiandKinnaur.106TheFiveMajorSubjects(gZhungbKa’podlNga)studiedinamonasticcollege:Pramāṇa(logicandtheoryofperception);Pāramitā(theMahāyānasūtrateachingsingeneral),Madhyamaka(śūnyatāphilosophyaspropoundedbyNāgārjuna),Vinaya(theprinciplesofmonasticdiscipline)andAbhidharma(phenomenologyaccordingtothesūtras).

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course,practicewilldisappear.[…]Itisgoodtostayonamountaininpractice,butnowadaysonly2outofevery100peoplearedoingthis.Ourolderlamasaredying,andtheyoungermonksdon’tknowhowtopracticesomeoftheoldtraditions–theyarewrittenintextsbutthepracticalknowledgeislost.[…]Therearetwoextremes–thoselivingonthemountaindoingritualpracticecriticizethescholars,whilethescholarscriticizethepractitioners.[…]Ifweagreeaboutthis,weneedtoquicklydosomethingaboutit.[…]Allschoolsneedtomakeeffortstopreserveourpracticetraditions.[…]Forthefuture–whoeveryouare,monkorlayperson–whatisneededisdedicatedpractice(Lodrö2015b).

ThesewordsmayappearoutofstepwiththesameKhenpo’semphasison

scholarshipandscientificreasonthatIrelayedinChaptersTwoandThree.YetbLa

rungsGarfirstoriginatedasatraditionalEasternTibetanchossgar(‘Dharma

encampment’)foundedbyKhenpoJigmePhuntsok,whowasanaccomplished

tantricmasterandgterston.KhenpoTsultrimLodröhasbecomeoneofthemost

famousofKhenpoJigmePhuntsok’searlydisciples,andhisrNyingmaschool,asthe

oldestoftheTibetanBuddhistschools,hasprioritizedVajrayānapracticesinceit

originatedinthe8thcentury.

AlongwithotherbLarungsGarmkhanpo,KhenpoTsultrimLodröhaspresumably

beentryingtocarryforwardhisguru’svisionforbLarungsGarasanintegralcentre

forTibetanBuddhistlearning.ThemkhanpohavemanagedtonavigateBLarung

sGarthroughadangerouscomplexityofChinesemodernityoverthelasttwenty

years,includinga2001evictionbytheChineseauthoritiesofthousandsofbLarung

sGarmonastics.Perhapspromotingscholasticismandscientificreasonhasbeena

necessarytacticforthemtoworkeffectivelywiththestateandtoservetheneedsof

modernfollowers.Themkhanpohaveachievedworld-renownforbLarungsGarand

aformidablereligiouspresencethathaswithstoodtheturbulentpassageintopost-

MaoChina.Importantly,itappearsthatbLarungsGarhasskilfullysecuredthe

state’sapproval.Withthatsecured,perhapsitispossibleforthemkhanpoand

otherEasternTibetanBuddhistleaderstoreturntheirfocusonprolongedVajrayāna

practiceamongtheirordainedcommunities–astheKhenpo’sremarksabove

suggest.Ifthathappens,maybeitispossiblethatayogiccommunitylikeGadchags

dGonpawillagainbesupportedbyTibetansocietytosurviveinthefuture.Yetto

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whatextentwouldthestatepermitwidespreadcultivationoftantricpracticein

Tibet?Continuedfieldworkresearch,includingtheopportunitytointerviewTibet’s

leadingmkhanpo,isessentialtoobserveneweventsastheyunfoldandtoaddress

thesequestionsmorefully.

AnotherstrongstatementbyaprominentTibetanlamaontheimportanceof

practiceinVajrayānaisbythe7thYongeyMingyurRinpoche.In2011helefthisrole

asthefamousheadofaglobalnetworkofBuddhistmeditationcentrestoliveasa

wanderingyogininnorthernIndiaandNepalforoverfouryears.Whilesuchan

extendedretreatwouldhavebeencommoninthelivesofmanyTibetanlamas

beforethe1950s,itisunusualformostcontemporaryTibetanlamaswhoare

preoccupiedwiththebusinessofsustainingtheirTibetan,Himālayanand

internationalgroupsofdisciplesandcharitableprojects.YongeyMingyurRinpoche’s

renunciationforretreathasmadeastrongimpressionontheinternationalTibetan

Buddhistcommunity,ringingasafamiliarreminderofhowitusedtobe107(JetsunmaTenzinPalmo,personalcommunication,January2016).

ThefactthatconcernabouttheurgencyofrecoveringTibetanpracticetraditionsis

beingpublicallyvoicedbylamasacrosslineageshintsthatitissurfacingasa

consciousconcernwithinTibetansociety.TibetanBuddhistsandtheirleadersin

Chinahaveexercisedremarkableprowessandself-determinationinfortifyingtheir

religiondespitethestate’sultra-modernsocialistdevelopmentagendaandthe

radicaloverhaultolifeontheTibetanPlateauithasentailed.Althoughthe

observationsofthisthesisregardingthesurvivalofyogictraditionsinTibetmay

seemdiscouraging,itwillbeinterestingtoseewheretheself-awarenessandself-

determinationoftheTibetanBuddhistcommunityinChinadirectsitselfinthe

future.ProminentTibetanBuddhistlamashavebynowestablishedguru-disciple

relationshipswithmanythousandsofChinesestudents,andwiththistheauthority

todirecttheorientationofTibetanBuddhismamongtheirfollowers.

107Seehttp://www.lionsroar.com/yongey-mingyur-rinpoche-returns-from-four-years-of-retreat/

103

bLarungsGarKhenpoSodargye(frontcentre)withhisstudentsinHongKong,January2016.Credit:FenyiLu.

Consideringthespateofunprecedentedchangesoccurringatalllevelsoflifein

EasternTibetsincethe1980s–changingevenintheyearthisthesisiswritten–one

isreluctanttodrawanyconclusionatallonthesituationofTibetanreligiousculture.

Alongwiththespeedofchangethatblursbeforethemindseekingtounderstandit,

theinaccessibilityofmanyEasternTibetanareastoforeignersuntilrecentlyhas

limitedtheamountofethnographicresearchconductedthere.Thefieldworkstudies

conductedoverthelastdecadeinEasternTibethaveprovidedcriticalinformationto

thefieldofcontemporaryTibetanstudiesandhavebeeninstrumentalinshaping

thisthesis.HowevertheoverallbodyofresearchonEasternTibetanBuddhismsince

the1980sisrelativelysmall,andresearchfromonlytenyearsagodoesnotalways

speaktothecurrentsituation108.Todaytheextensionofpavedhighwaystoall

cornersoftheTibetanPlateaucontinuesatasurprising(ifnotalarming)rate.With

increasedtourismandeasieraccessforforeignerswewilllikeyseeasurgeof

researchonEasternTibetanreligiouscultureintheyearsahead.

AnothermethodologicalchallengetomyMaster’sresearchhasbeenthetime

constraintthatmadeafieldworkcomponentimpracticable.Theinterviewsandfield

observationsusedinthisstudyweremostlygatheredbetween2006and2013

108LikeresearchbyGermano(1998),Terrone(2009)andTurek(2013)thatobservedarevivaloftantricBuddhistculturetakingplaceinEasternTibetinthe1990sandearly2000s.

104

beforehoningtheresearchquestionsofthisthesis.Althoughthedataprovides

illuminatinginsightsintorecentthoughtprocessesanddiscussionsinEastern

Tibetansociety,amorenuancedunderstandingmayhavebeenpossiblewiththe

opportunitytoresearchmoreofthedgonpaandcharactersparticipatinginthe

TibetanBuddhistrevival–beyondthebLarungsGarmkhanpoandGadchagsdGon

payoginīs.Itwouldhavebeeninteresting,forexample,tolookatthecurrentstate

ofnumerousrNyingma109dgonpainChabmdo–whichwasthesiteofthe1950

BattleofChabmdo110andhasbeenundertheBeijing-administeredTARsince1965–

andseeinwhatwaystighterpoliticalcontroloftheareahasinfluencedTibetans’

currentvaluingofyogicpractice.

Afurtherresearchquestionrelevanttothisthesis,perhapsobviousforitsabsencein

mydiscussionsofGadchagsdGonpa,isthatofgender.GadchagsdGonpaisoneof

ahandfulofcommunitiesinNangchenpreservingitsoriginalyogicpractice

curriculum,anditisafemalelineage.Isbeingafemalelineageafactorinthe

community’spropensityforevolving,andnowpreserving,adistinctivepractice

traditionthatspecializesingtummo?ItisnoteworthythatLaphyihermitage,the

siteofthepost1980shermiticrevivalofTurek’sresearch,isacommunityofnuns

(albeitsurroundingamaleguru,asisGadchags).Inaddition,thecommentbythe

KhangnedGonpanuninChapterTwonotesthatallmonasteriesinNangchennow

havebothbshadgrwaandpracticecomponents,whileafewnunneriesremainwith

onlyapracticecomponent.Whatarethesocial,psychologicaland/orotherreasons

thatsomecommunitiesofnunsinNangchenhavebeenlatetojointhemovement

towardsincreasedphilosophicalstudy?Arethesenunnerieschoosingtoadhereto

purelypracticecurriculainstead,asisGadchagsdGonpa,oraresocial

disadvantagestheprevailingreason?Thescopeofthepresentresearchdidnot

allowforanexplorationofthesegender-relatedquestionsastheyarebroadand

significantenoughtomeritaresearchprojectoftheirown.Overthelasttwenty-five

yearsarichfieldofliteraturehasemergedonwomen’sexperiencesin

Tibetan/HimālayanBuddhistculturewiththeresearchofGutschow(2004),Gyatso109BeingrNyingmadgonpatheyhavetraditionallyfollowedpracticelineages.110a.k.a.InvasionofTibet

105

andHavnevik(2005),vanEde(2000),Makley(2007)andothers.Gleaningfromthis

fieldofresearch,intandemwithfurtherfieldworkinvestigationsofGadchagsdGon

paanditsfemalepracticetraditions,wouldhelptoaddressmanyofthesequestions.

ThisthesishasbroughtintoreliefarecenttrendinTibetanBuddhismthatwillhavea

criticaleffectonthefutureofTibetanreligiousculture.Thecentralquestionofthis

research–whatisbecomingofTibetancontemplativeculture–remainsanopen

question.Wehaveseenhowquicklyvalues,orientationsandthesocialcontextof

TibetanBuddhismhavechangedinashortperiodoftimeinpost-MaoChina,and

alsohowquicklyleadingTibetanlamashavewokenuptothepotential

disappearanceofTibetanpracticetraditionsonthecurrenttrajectory.The

enforcementofstateregulationsonreligioninChinaisthegovernment’s

prerogative,anditremainstobeseenwhetherincreasedfreedomofreligious

thoughtandactionisintheCCP’sinterestforthenation’sfuture.Thebottomlineof

amoderneconomyandthestate’sreligiouspoliciesmaydeterminehowfarthe

organizationalformsofTibetanBuddhismcanflourishinChina.ButTibetan

Buddhism,asithasbeenpractisedformanycenturiesuntiltoday,has

transformationatitscore.Itwillbeinterestingtoseetheinnerpaththatits

followersdetermineforthemselvesinthefuture.

106

GlossaryofTibetanandChineseterms

Tibetanterms’Ba’rombKa'brgyud:sub-schoolofthebKa’brgyudschoolbcudlen:‘extractingtheessence’,anasceticpracticeoftakingnourishmentsolelyfromherbalandmineralpillsblama’irnal’byor:‘guruyoga’,integralpracticeinTibetanBuddhismforunitingtheBuddhamindofapractitionerwiththatofthegurubLarungsGar(bLarungsgarlNgarigNangbstansLobgling):bLarungsGarFiveSciencesBuddhistAcademyingSerrtaCountyofdKarmdzesPrefecture,Sichuan’BrugpabKa’brgyud:sub-schoolofthebKa’brgyudschoolbshadgrwa:monasticcollegeforadvancedscripturalstudieschossgar:‘Dharmaencampment’,meditationcommunitybasedaroundaguruChuras:‘Wetsheet’,apublicceremonyinwhichpractitionersdemonstratetheiraccomplishmentingtummobydryingoffwetsheetswiththeirraisedbodytemperaturedadpa:faith,orconfidence,correspondingtoSkt.śraddhādagsnang:pureperceptiondbang:tantricempowermentdgonpa:monastery,nunnery,hermitageorcommunityshrinehallGadchagsdGonpa:largenunneryofyoginīsinNangchen;casestudyofthisresearchGrubdbangTshogsgnyis(b.circa1828):renownedmasterofthe’BrugpabKa’brgyudandrNyingmatraditions;rootgurutothefounderofGadchagsdGonpagSarbsgyur:‘NewTranslation’;traditionsbasedonthevariouscyclesoftantras,commentariesandpracticetextsthatweretranslatedintoTibetanfromthelate10thto12thcenturies.Amongmany‘NewTranslation’traditionsthatdevelopedareSaskya,bKa’brgyudanddGelugsschools.gterma:concealedsacredtreasuregterston:revealerofsacredtreasuresgtummo:yogaofpsychicheat’JammgonKongsprulbLogrosmTha’yas(1813-1899),prominentBuddhistmasterfromKhamsandakeyfigureintheRismedmovement’JamdbyangsmKhyenbrtse’idBangpo(1820-1892):prominentBuddhistmasterfromKhamsandakeyfigureintheRismedmovement’JuMipham(1846-1912):animportantrNyingmamaster-scholarandleaderintheRismedmovementKhenpoJigmePhuntsok(mKhanpo’JigsmedPhuntshogs,1933-2004):importantcontemporaryVajrayānamasterandgterston,andfounderofbLarungsGar

107

KhenpoSodargye(mKhanpobSodDarrgyas,b.1962):prominentbLarungsGarmkhanpoandinternationalteacher,especiallyamongChineseBuddhistsKhenpoTsultrimLodrö(mKhanpoThsulkhrimsbLogros,b.1962):prominentbLarungsGarmkhanpoandinternationalteacher,especiallyamongChineseBuddhistskhridka:oralmeditationalinstructionsgivenbyaqualifiedlama’khrul’khor:haṭhayogapractisedintandemwithrtsalungLaphyi:ahermitageofnunssurroundingtheyogicmaster,TshulkhrimsmTharphyin,nearsKyobragmonasteryinNangchen;namedafteraretreatplaceofthe11thcenturyyogin,Milaraspalung:oraltransmissionofBuddhisttexts,importantinmaintainingalineagemanngag:pithoralpracticeinstructionsimpartedbyaqualifiedlama,correspondingtoSkt.upadeśamChoggyurgLingpa(1829-1870):atreasure-revealerborninNangchenandanimportantfigureintheRismedmovementMilaraspa(1040-1123):famousTibetanyoginandpoetwhosepracticeteachingsarecentraltothebKa’brgyudschoolmkhanmo:‘femalescholar’,titleofanaccomplishednun-scholarinrNyingma,bKa’brgyudandSaskyaschoolsmkhanpo:‘malescholar’,titleofanaccomplishedmonk-scholarinrNyingma,bKa’brgyudandSaskyaschoolsmunmtshams:darknessretreatNangchen(Ch.Nangqian):formerkingdominEasternTibet,locationofthisstudyrab’jams:titleofanundergraduateBuddhistscholarincontemporaryTibetanbshadgrwaPodsdebcudrug:thesixteenvolumesofTsangsdbyangsrGyamtso’scommentaryonRatnagLingpa’sgterma;thescripturalbasisforGadchags’spracticetraditionRaspa:‘Cotton-clad’epithetforpractitionersofgtummoRatnagLingpa(1403-1478):aprolificgterstonwhofirstcompiledtherNyingmarGyud’bumcollectionofrNyingmatantrasrDorje’jigsbyed:oneofthe16deitiespracticedinGadchags’sretreatdivisions,correspondingtoSkt.VajrabhairavaRismed:‘unbiased’,thenamegiventoanon-sectarianreligiousmovementthatbeganinEasternTibetinthe19thcenturyrnamthar:hagiographyofaTibetanBuddhistmasterrTamgrin:oneofthe16deitiespracticedinGadchags’sretreatdivisions,correspondingtoSkt.Hayagrīvartogsldan:realizedperson,oryoginrtsarlung:nāḍīandprāṇayoga;thegeneralpracticecategorythatincludesgtummosGrolma:greenTārā

108

sgrubchen:‘greataccomplishment’,agroupsādhanāceremonylastingabouttendayssgrubgrwa:retreatcentreforprolongedVajrayānapracticesgrubkhag:retreatdivisiondedicatedtolifelongpracticeofaparticularyidam;atGadchagsdGonpatherearesixteensgrubkhagsKyobrag:historicallyimportant’Ba’rombKa’brgyudmonasteryinNangchenslobdpon:titleofajuniorBuddhistscholarinrNyingma,bKa’brgyudandSaskyaschools,correspondingtoSkt.ācāryasmansgrub:sacredmedicinemadeofherbsandconsecratedduringasgrubchensmyunggnas:atwo-dayfastingpracticeofAvalokiteśvarasngon’gro:preliminarypracticesinVajrayānasprulsku:reincarnatelamathodrgal:‘leapover’,methodinDzogchenmeditationusingvisionandlightThugssgrubYangsnying’Duspa–animportantgtermainthecollectionofRatnagLingpa’s25gterma;themaingtermapractisedatGadchagsdGonpaTshangsdbyangsrGyamtsho(1848-1909):thefounderofGadchagsdGonpa;histhirdincarnationisthecurrentheadlamaofthenunnerytshethar(Ch.fang-sheng):savingthelivesofanimalsduetobekilledYachensGar:alargemonasticcommunityforDzogchentraininginEasternTibet,establishedinthe1980sbyAkhyugRinpocheyeshes:primordialwisdomawareness,correspondingtoSkt.jñānayidam:personalmeditationdeityZabgternyishurtsalnga:acollectionofRatnagLingpa’sgtermaChinesetermsfubao:merit;karmicrewardgongyang:religiousofferingmixin:superstition;deludedfaithshehuizhuyijingshenwenming:‘SocialistSpiritualCivilization’,since1980thepromotionalnamefortheCCP’sgoalofethicalandsocialdevelopmentinChinaxibudakaifa:theCCP’s‘DeveloptheWest’campaigntoeconomicallydevelopChina’swesternregions,includingmuchoftheTibetanPlateauxiejiao:evilcult

109

AppendixI

Article36ofthePeople’sRepublicofChinaConstitution(takenfromChapter2,

‘TheFundamentalRightsandDutiesofCitizens’)(adoptedon4December1982)

Article36.CitizensofthePeople'sRepublicofChinaenjoyfreedomofreligiousbelief.Nostateorgan,publicorganizationorindividualmaycompelcitizenstobelievein,ornottobelievein,anyreligion;normaytheydiscriminateagainstcitizenswhobelievein,ordonotbelievein,anyreligion.Thestateprotectsnormalreligiousactivities.Noonemaymakeuseofreligiontoengageinactivitiesthatdisruptpublicorder,impairthehealthofcitizensorinterferewiththeeducationalsystemofthestate.Religiousbodiesandreligiousaffairsarenotsubjecttoanyforeigndomination.

– (People’sDaily1982)

AppendixII

sGrubkhagbCudrugTheSixteenRetreatDivisionsatGadchagsdGonpa

rTamgrin:HayagrīvagSang’dus:GuhyasamājadGongs’dus:‘EmbodimentofRealization’(animportantAnuyogasādhanā)’Jigsbyed:Bhairava(aformofYamāntaka)Khroma:wrathfulblackḍākinīTshesgrub:AyuhSādhanā(longevitypracticeofAmitāyus)rDosems:VajrasattvasGrolma:GreenTārākLonggsal:TantraoftheBrilliantExpanse(oneofthe17DzogchenTantras)Gurudragpo:wrathfulSambhogakāyaformofGuruPadmasambhavaTsagsum:‘ThreeRoots’(Guru,Yidam,Ḍākinī[andDharmapāla])Phurpa:VajrakīlayasNgagsgso:ritualforexpiationandpurificationofdefectscorrespondingtoVajrayānaviewandconduct(arrangedbymChoggyurgLingpa[1829-1870])Thugssgrub:‘MindSādhanā’(guruyogapractice)rDorjegrolod:wrathfulemanationofGuruRinpochebKa'brgyad:eightsādhanāofchiefMahāyogayidamdeitiesZhikhro:PeacefulandWrathfulDeitiesofthebar do

110

AppendixIII

GadchagsdGonpa’sscheduleforthe19setsofextendedgroupsādhanā

ceremonies,calledsgrubchen

EachsgrubchentakestendaysandthedatesarebasedontheTibetanLunarcalendar.Theyearlycyclebeginsonthe7thdayofthe10thmonthinwinter.BeginEnd10-0710-13 Thugssgrubyangsnying’duspa(quintessentialaccomplishment

oftheGuru’smind)10-1510-21 GuruDragpo(wrathfulPadmasambhava)10-2210-28 mGonpo(Mahākala)10-3011-06 gSangba’Duspa(Guhayasamāja)11-0711-13 Zhikhro(peacefulandwrathfuldeities)11-1511-21 sNgagsgso(tantricmendingandpurification)11-2211-28 Phursgrub(Vajrakīlaya)11-3012-06 TshesgrubrDo’phreng(secretaccomplishmentofAmitāyus)01-0801-14 ThugssgrubBarchadKunsel(accomplishmentofBuddhamind,

removingallobstacles)01-1501-21 Zhikhro(peacefulandwrathfuldeities)01-2401-30 TshesgrubrDo’phreng(longevitypractice)02-0802-14 rTamgringSang’dus(HayagrīvaGuhayasamāja)02-1602-22 sGrolma(GreenTārā)02-2503-01 ’Jigbyed(Yamāntaka)03-0303-09 rDorje’Jigbyed(Vajrabhairava)03-1103-17 Khroma(wrathfulḍākinīgCodpractice)03-2003-26 SenggegDongma(Lion-facedḌākinī)05-0805-14 bKa’brgyad(theeightdeityclasses)05-2305-29 rDosems(VajrasattvafromthesMingrolglingtradition)

TheschedulefortheannualreligiousceremoniesBeginEnd12-1412-16 Churas:‘Wetsheet’ceremonyinwhichthenunspublically

demonstratetheiraccomplishmentingtummobydryingoffwetsheetswiththeirraisedbodytemperature

12-2312-29 dGuchen:TraditionalsādhanāceremonyofMahākala,performedinthelastweekoftheyeartoremoveobstaclesfortheyearahead

05-1905-21 Ribstod:Purifcationritualofmakingofferingstolocalmountaindeitieswithanextensivesmokepuja(bsang)

06-0106-30 Dungsgrub:AccumulationofonehundredmillionmantrasofPadmasambhavaandotherdeities

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