College of Charleston The History of American Education (EDFS 560 / HIST 310 / AAST 300)

Course Information

Instructor

Jon N. Hale, Ph.D., Assistant Professor of Education

Contact Information halejn@cofc.edu; (843) 953–6354 (office); @jnhale2 Office Location Room 235, School of Education (86 Wentworth St) Office Hours MW: 2:00-5:00; F: 1:00-3:00 and by appointment Meeting Location/Time Education Center, 213, T,TH 1:40-2:55pm Course Credit 3 hours Prerequisites None Course Description

This course will examine the history of education in the United States beginning in colonial times and continuing up through the present day. This course will look at the history of education in a larger American economic, social, political, and cultural context. We will consider the development, purposes, effects, and evolution of public and private schools in the United States at the elementary, middle and secondary levels. We will analyze the tension, debate and struggle over their structure, their goals, and their governance. This course will also utilize a particular emphasis on a historical perspective on the schooling options and experiences of people of color and women. Finally, this course will also examine the politics of knowledge and how historical narratives are constructed and perpetuated in our understanding of American schooling. This course is structured for students majoring in history and/or education, but all majors across the College of Charleston are invited to enroll in the course. Course Prerequisites

Depending on your declared major, you must have successfully completed: HIST 101–102, HIST 103–104, or HIST 115–116; EDFS 201; or receive permission from the instructor. Course learning objectives

Students will demonstrate an understanding of major trends, ideas, and debates within the

history of American education from the colonial era through contemporary times. Students will explain the development of the public K-12 system and an interconnected system

of private education from the colonial era through contemporary times. Students will evaluate the historical tensions in the long struggle over equal and quality

educational opportunity for all students. Students will analyze contemporary issues such as the Achievement Gap, Affirmative Action,

educational funding, and contemporary federal and state policy from a historical perspective.

Students will apply historical research methodology in an independent research paper on a

topic related to class. Required Texts

Wayne J. Urban and Jennings L. Wagoner, American Education: A History (New York:

Routledge, 2009). Jim Fraser, The School in the United States: A Documentary History (Boston: McGraw Hill,

2001). Class Assignments

OAKS Discussion Prompts. Students will respond to ten discussion prompts throughout the semester. Each assignment should consist of a two-page response to a question posed on OAKS, which reference and draw upon the assigned readings. Responses must be completed and submitted to OAKS prior to class. (100 total pts) Primary Source Analysis Paper. Students will examine the primary documents set aside at the Avery Research Center (125 Bull Street) to address the following questions: How was education used in Charleston and the Lowcountry to advance the goals of the Civil Rights Movement? What role did the Progressive Club, the Citizenship Schools, and the Highlander Research Center play in the Civil Rights Movement? How did educators like Septima Clark, Esau Jenkins, and Bernice Robinson advance the Civil Rights Movement in Charleston and the Lowcountry? Papers must be between 5 and 7 pages and based on these primary documents and other secondary sources students find to support their essays. (100 pts) February 28. An annotated bibliography will help structure your final research paper. Students will examine several sources but select seven primary sources and eight secondary sources that can be used in the final research paper. Students will annotate each source in a way that summarizes the source and explains how it can be used in the final research paper. (50 pts) Due February 12. A research paper outline is assigned to organize your main points and sources. This outline will be used to structure your final paper and to check for inconsistencies in your research, writing and argument. Sources from your annotated bibliography will serve as the basis of your writing, but students are expected to synthesize these sources, utilize additional sources and to provide your own analysis and research. (50 pts) Due March 26 Research Paper. Student will submit a research paper at the end of the course. The final paper will be between 15 and 20 pages. The research project will utilize a historical and interpretive methodology in which students will be expected to examine primary sources, archival sources, oral histories, and secondary literature to construct an academic research paper (100 pts) Due April 23 (last day of class) Leading a class discussion during the semester is an important part of this course. Students will select one day on which to present on the readings assigned for that day. Students will read the material, prepare summative comments, pose questions to the class and help facilitate discussion

that day. Students are also expected to consult external readings based on their research to enhance their presentation and help facilitate the discussion (50 pts) (throughout the semester) In-class final exam. Students will complete a midterm and final in-class written exam. The exams will consist of identification terms and short-essay questions. (50 total pts) Attendance and Participation. Attendance will be taken. Students are permitted three absences throughout the semester. Absences will only be excused with a medical note (or other documentation required by the Student Affairs Office) and documenting the absence with an Absence Memo through Student Affairs. Students with more than 3 absences will not be awarded points for attendance. Additionally, your classroom participation is critical for this course. Each student is required to regularly participate in class discussions. If students are not thoroughly reading class materials or participating in discussion, points will not be awarded. (100 pts)

Evaluation Scale:

A 93-100 A, 91-92 B+ 89-90 B 86-88 B- 84-85 C+ 82-83

C 79-81 C- 77-78 D+ 75-76 D 72-74 D- 70-71 F 0-69

Course Assignment Point Values

OAKS Discussion Prompts (10 pts each) 100 Annotated Bibliography 50 Paper Outline 50 Primary Source Analysis Paper 100 Class Discussion 50 Research Paper 100 Attendance and Participation 100 Final Exam 50 Total 600 Academic Integrity and the Honor System

All students are expected to comply with the honor code of the College of Charleston. Violations of the honor code will result in a grade of XF for the course. Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)

In compliance with the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), all qualified students enrolled in this course are entitled to reasonable accommodations. Please notify the instructor during the first week of class of any accommodations needed for the course. We are here to work with you and invite you to inform us of any accommodations you need. You can also contact the Office of Disability Services at 843.953.1431.

Reading and Assignment Schedule

Date Topics Readings Week 1: Introduction and the Foundations of American Education January 10

Plato and The Republic

The Enlightenment

Syllabus (In Class handout) *OAKS

Week 2: Schooling in Colonial America January 15

Colonialism The British Empire

Richard D. Brown, The Strength of a People: The Idea of an Informed Citizenry in America (Chapel Hill: UNC Press, 1996), 1-84.

Wayne Urban and Jennings Wagoner, American Education: A History “Chapter 2: Colonization and Cultural Transplantation” (New York: Routledge, 2009), pp. 15-63.

OAKS discussion prompt #1

January 17

Religion and Education

The Old Deluder Satan Act

Nash, Massachusetts' Education Laws (1642, 1647, 1648)

Cotton Mather, "The Education of Children" (1699) Jim Fraser, The School in the United States: A

Documentary History (Boston: McGraw Hill, 2001); “Chapter 1: The School in Colonial America,” 1-16.

OAKS discussion prompt #2

Week 3: Schooling in the Revolutionary Era January 22

Literacy and Revolution

Educating a Nation

M. Opal, “Exciting Emulation: Academies and the Transformation of the Rural North, 1780s- 1820s,” Journal of American History 91, 2 (2004): 445-481..

Linda Kerber, Toward an Intellectual History of Women (University of North Carolina Press, 1997), 23-40.

Richard D. Brown, The Strength of a People: The Idea of an Informed Citizenry in America (Chapel Hill: UNC Press, 1996), 85-153.

Urban and Wagoner, American Education, “Chapter 3: Education and the Building of a New Nation,” 71-105.

OAKS discussion prompt #3

January 24

The American Revolution

Thomas Jefferson and Republican Education

Carl Kaestle, “Prologue: The Founding Fathers and Education,” in Pillars of the Republic: Common Schools and American Society, 1780-1860 (Hill and Wang, 1983): 3-61.

Fraser, The School in the United States, “Chapter 2: The American Revolution and Schools for the New Republic, 1770-1820.” 17-47

Week 4: The Origins of Public Schools January 29

Horace Mann The Common Schools

Michael Katz, “Reform by Imposition: Social Origins of Educational Controversy,” in The Irony of Early School Reform: Educational Innovation in Mid-Nineteenth Century Massachusetts (Harvard University Press, 1968), 19-114

Michael Katz, Edward Stevens and Maris Vinovskis, “The Origins of Public High Schools,” History of Education Quarterly 27 (Summer 1987), 241-258.

Urban and Wagoner, American Education, “Chapter 4: The Common Man and the Common School: 1820-1860,” 71-105

OAKS discussion prompt #4 January 31

Class and the Common Schools

Educational Reform and the American Republic

Carl Kaestle, “The Common-School Reform Program,” in Pillars of the Republic: Common Schools and American Society, 1780-1860 (Hill and Wang, 1983): 104-135.

Fraser, The School in the United States, “Chapter 3: The Common School Movement.” 48-88.

Week 5: The Origins of Education for People of Color February 5

Frederick Douglass Black Codes Education for

Freedom

James D. Anderson, The Education of Blacks in the South, 1860-1935 (University of North Carolina Press, 1988)., 1-109.

Hilary J. Moss, Schooling Citizens: The Struggle for African American Education in Antebellum America (University of Chicago Press, 2009): 125-196.

Urban and Wagoner, American Education, “Chapter 5: Class, Caste, and Education in the South: 1800-1900,” 141-184.

OAKS discussion prompt #5

February 7

Native American Boarding Schools

Manifest Destiny Freedmen’s Bureau

David Wallace Adams. Education for Extinction: American Indians and the Boarding School Experience (University Press of Kansas, 1995), 97-113.

Fraser, The School in the United States, “Chapter 5: Slavery, Reconstruction, and the Schools of the South, 1820-1903,” 107-139.

Week 6: W.E.B. DuBois and Educational Debate during Jim Crow February 12

W.E.B. DuBois Benjamin Hays Booker T. Washington

Derrick P. Alridge, “African American Educators,

Emancipatory Education, and Social Reconstruction,”

in The Educational Thought of W.E.B. DuBois: An

Intellectual History (New York: Teachers College

Press, 2008), 86-100.

Kathryn Manuelito, “Indigenous Epistemologies and

Education: Self-Determination, Anthropology, and

Human Rights” Anthropology & Education Quarterly

Vol. 36, No. 1, (Mar., 2005), pp. 73-87.

Annotated Bibliography Due

February 14

Quality Education and Segregation

The NAACP

W.E.B. DuBois, “Of Our Spiritual Strivings,” “Of the

Dawn of Freedom,” “Of Mr. Booker T. Washington and

Others,” and “Of Alexander Crummell,” in The Souls of

Black Folk, 1-36, 133-140

W.E.B. DuBois, “Does the Negro Need Separate

Schools,” Journal of Negro Education, 328-335

Booker T. Washington, "Speech at Atlanta Exposition"

(1895), 1-3.

Fraser, The School in the United States, “Chapter 6:

Growth and Diversity in Schools and Students, 1880-

1960,” 140-180.

Week 7: The Rise of Progressive Education and the Progressive Critique February 19

Progressive Era of Education

John Dewey and student-centered education

Administrative v. Pedagogical Progressives

Educational Reform and the Great Depression

Arthur Zilversmit, Changing Schools: Progressive Education Theory and Practice, 1930-1960 (University of Chicago Press, 1993): 1-18, and 37-63.

William J. Reese, “The Origins of Progressive Education,” History of Education Quarterly 41 (2004), 1-24.

Urban and Wagoner, American Education, “Chapter 7: Organizing the Modern School System: Educational Reform in the Progressive Era, 1890-1915,” 223-264.

George Counts, Dare the Schools Build a New Social Order? (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1978), 1-52.

Fraser, The School in the United States, “Chapter 7: The Progressive Era, 1890-1950,” 181-221.

OAKS discussion prompt #6

February 21

Desegregation in Charleston

Affirmative Action

Required Attendance at a professional conference presentation (details to be announced)

Week 8: The Rise of Urban Education and the High School February 26

Urban Education Centralization Immigration and

Industrialization

Michael Katz "The Emergence of Bureaucracy in Urban Education: The Boston Case, 1850-1884," History of Education Quarterly, 8, 2 (1968): 155-188.

Jonathan Zimmerman, Small Wonder: The Little Red Schoolhouse in History and Memory (Yale University Press, 2009): 15-52.

David Tyack, The One Best System: A History of American Urban Education (Harvard University Press, 1974), 126-268.

Urban and Wagoner, American Education, “Chapter 8: Completing the Modern School System: American Education, 1915-1929,” 265-292.

February 28

Primary Source Analysis Paper Due

Week 9: SPRING BREAK Week 10: Immigrants, Youth Culture, Race and Ethnicity in Early 20th Century Schools March 12

Immigration Policy Class and Education

in the nineteenth Century

Jonathan Zimmerman, “Ethnics Against Ethnicity: European Immigrants and Foreign Language Instruction, 1890-1894,” Journal of American History 88 (2002), 1383-1404.

David Hogan, “Education and the Making of the Chicago Working Class, 1880-1930,” History of Education Quarterly 18, 3 (1978): 227-70.

Carlos Kevin Blanton, "The Rise of English-Only Pedagogy: Immigrant Children, Progressive Education, and Language Policy in the United States, 1900–1930" in When Science Encounters the Child: Education, Parenting, and Child Welfare in Twentieth Century America, Julia Grant, Barbara Beatty, Emily D. Cahan, eds. (Teachers College Press, 2006): 56–76.

OAKS discussion prompt #7

March 14

Race and Science Latino/a Segregation Segregation in the

Southwest

Diana Selig, “The Whole Child: Social Science and Race at the White House Conference of 1930,” in When Science Encounters the Child: Education, Parenting, and Child Welfare in Twentieth Century America, Julia Grant, Barbara Beatty, Emily D. Cahan, eds. (Teachers College Press, 2006): 136-156.

Guadalupe San Miguel, “Origins and Development, 1900-1960” in Brown, not White: School Integration and the Chicano Movement in Houston (College Station, Texas A&M Press, 2001), 3-52

Week 11: School Choice and Charter Schools March 19

Myles Horton Citizenship Schools Education for Social

Change

Myles Horton, The Long Haul: An Autobiography (New York: Doubleday, 1990; 56-112.

Levine, D. P. (2004), “The Birth of the Citizenship Schools: Entwining the Struggles for Literacy and Freedom” in History of Education Quarterly, 44: 388–414.

OAKS Discussion Prompt #8

March 21

Organic Intellectuals Bernice Robinson Septima Clark Activism in

Charleston

Clare Russell, “A beautician without teacher training: Bernice Robinson, citizenship schools and women in the Civil Rights Movement”, The Sixties, 2011, 4, 1-31.

Katherine Charron, “Crossing Broad,” in Freedom’s Teacher: The Life of Septima Clark (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2009), 179-215.

Barbara Ransby, Ella Baker and the Black Freedom Movement: A Radical Democratic Vision (Chapel Hill:

University of North Carolina Press, 2003), 239-298

Week 12: The Road to the Brown v. Board of Education (1954) decision

March 26

The Road to Brown Charles Hamilton

Houston and the Equalization Campaign

Brown v. Board of Education (1954)

Mark Tushnet, “The Politics of Equality in Constitutional Law: The Equal Protection Clause, Dr. Du Bois, and Charles Hamilton Houston,” The Journal of American History, Vol. 74, No. 3, (Dec., 1987), pp. 884-903.

Richard Kluger, “Together Let us Sweetly Live,” in Simple Justice: The History of Brown v. Board of Education and Black America’s Struggle for Equality (New York: Vintage Books, 2004); 3-25.

James Patterson, “The Court Decides,” “Crossroads, 1954-1955,” “Southern Whites Fight Back,” in The Troubled Legacy of Brown, pp. 46-117.

Research Paper Outline Due

March 28

Judge Waties Waring Briggs v. Elliot (1952)

Orville Vernon Burton, Beatrice Burton, and Simon Appleford, “Seeds in Unlikely Soil: The Briggs v. Elliot School Segregation Case,” in Winfred B. Moore Jr. and Orville Vernon Burton (eds.), Toward the Meeting of the Waters: Currents in the Civil Rights Movement of South Carolina during the Twentieth Century (Columbia: The University of South Carolina Press, 2008), 176-200

R. Scott Baker, “The Veil in Higher Education” and “Black Schooling and the Briggs Decision,” in Paradoxes of Desegregation: African American Struggles for Educational Equity in Charleston, South Carolina, 1926-1972, (Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press, 2006), 63-107.

Fraser, The School in the United States, “Chapter 9: Civil Rights, Integration, and School Reform, 1954-1980” 255-273

Week 13: A Tale of Two Browns April 2 Economic, Political,

and Social Context Brown II and “all

deliberate speed”

James T. Patterson, Brown v. Board of Education: A Civil Rights Milestone and its Troubled Legacy (Oxford University Press, 2001), 118-224.

Gloria Ladson Billings (2004) "Landing on the wrong note: The price we paid for Brown" Educational Researcher 33(7), p. 3-13

OAKS discussion prompt #9

April 4 Swann v. Charlotte Mecklenburg (1971)

Milliken v. Bradley (1974)

James Anderson, “A Tale of Two Browns: Constitutional Equality and Unequal Education,” Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education 105 (2006) Issue 2, 14–35.

Fraser, The School in the United States, “Chapter 9: Civil Rights, Integration, and School Reform, 1954-1980” 273-292.

Week 14: Federal Educational Policy Perspectives, from the Warren Court to A Nation at Risk April 9 Freedom Summer

War on Poverty Head Start

Maris Vinovskis, The Birth of Head Start (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005), 5-86.

Urban and Wagoner, American Education, “Chapter 10: Education during and after the Crucial Decade, 1945-1960,” and “Chapter 11: The Pursuit of Equality: 1960-1980,” pp. 325-388.

OAKS discussion prompt #10

April 11 National Defense Education Act (1958)

Elementary and Secondary Education Act (1965)

A Nation at Risk (1983)

Patrick McGuinn, No Child Left Behind and the Transformation of Federal Education Policy, 1965-2005 (University Press of Kansas, 2006), 1-74.

Fraser, The School in the United States, “Chapter 10: Rights and Opportunities in American Education, 1965-1980” and “Chapter 11: Reform Efforts of the 1980s and 1990s,” 293-250.

Week 15: The Achievement Gap and Post-Brown Educational Activism April 16 The Moynihan

Report The Coleman Report The Achievement

Gap Cultural Deficit

Theory Standardized Testing

Gloria Ladson-Billings (2007) "Pushing past the achievement gap: An essay on the language of deficit" Journal of Negro Education, 76(3), 316-323.

Michael Apple, “Patriotism, Democracy, and the Hidden Effects of Race,” in Cameron McCarthy, Warren Crichlow, Greg Dimitriadis, and Nadine Dolby (eds), Race, Identity, and Representation in Education (New York: Routledge, 2005), 337-348.

April 17 Education and Civil

Rights Mathematical

literacy and access The Algebra Project

Moses, Robert P. and Charles E. Cobb, Radical Equations: Civil Rights from Mississippi to the Algebra Project (Boston: Beacon Press, 2001), vii – 113.

Robert Moses, “An Earned Insurgency: Education as a Constitutional Right,” Harvard Educational Review 79 (2) (Summer 2000), 370-381.

Week 16: No Child Left Behind? Federal Educational Policy in the Twenty-First Century April 23 No Child Left Behind

(2001) The Era of

Accountability Race to the Top

(2010)

Patrick McGuinn, No Child Left Behind and the Transformation of Federal Education Policy, 1965-2005 (University Press of Kansas, 2006), 105-195.

Diane Ravitch, The Death and Life of the Great American School System (Basic Books, 2010): 15-30; 93-168.

Linda Darling-Hammond, “Evaluating No Child Left Behind,” The Nation, May 2, 2007, 1-13.

Urban and Wagoner, American Education, “Chapter

Bibliography

Adams, David Wallace. Education for Extinction: American Indians and the Boarding School

Experience (University Press of Kansas, 1995), 97-113. Alridge, Derrick P. The Educational Thought of W.E.B. DuBois: An Intellectual History (New York:

Teachers College Press, 2008), Anderson, James D. The Education of Blacks in the South, 1860-1935 (University of North Carolina

Press, 1988). -------. “A Tale of Two Browns: Constitutional Equality and Unequal Education,” Yearbook of the

National Society for the Study of Education 105 (2006) Issue 2, 14–35 Baker, R. Scott. Paradoxes of Desegregation: African American Struggles for Educational Equity in

Charleston, South Carolina, 1926-1972 (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2006). Brown, Richard D., The Strength of a People: The Idea of an Informed Citizenry in America (Chapel

Hill: UNC Press, 1996) Charron, K. M. (2009). Freedom’s teacher: The life of septima clark. Chapel Hill, NC: University of

North Carolina Press. Counts, George. Dare the Schools Build a New Social Order? (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1978). Darling-Hammond, Linda, “Evaluating ‘No Child Left Behind’” The Nation (May 2,

2007). http://www.thenation.com/article/evaluating-no-child-left-behind Du Bois, W.E.B. “Does the Negro Need Separate Schools?” The Journal of Negro Education vol. 4, no. 3 (July 1935), pp. 328-335. Du Bois, W.E.B. The souls of black folk. (Boston, MA: Bedford and St. Martin’s Press. 1997). Fraser, Jim. The School in the United States: A Documentary History (Boston: McGraw Hill, 2001) Grant, Julia, Barbara Beatty, Emily D. Cahan, eds. When Science Encounters the Child: Education,

Parenting, and Child Welfare in Twentieth Century America, (Teachers College Press, 2006). Guadalupe, Jr., San Miguel, Brown, Not White: School Integration and the Chicano

Movement in History (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 2001), Chapter 2.

12: From Equality to Excellence: American Education, 1980-2008,” pp. 389-438.

Research Paper Due Final Exam TBA

Hogan, David. “Education and the Making of the Chicago Working Class, 1880-1930,” History of

Education Quarterly 18, 3 (1978): 227-70.

Horton, Myles. The Long Haul: An Autobiography. Edited by Judith Kohl and Herbert Kohl. (New York: Doubleday, 1990. Kaestle, Carl, Pillars of the Republic: Common Schools and American Society, 1780-1860 (Hill and

Wang, 1983). Katz, Michael. The Irony of Early School Reform: Educational Innovation in Mid-Nineteenth Century

Massachusetts (Harvard University Press, 1968) ------. "The Emergence of Bureaucracy in Urban Education: The Boston Case, 1850- 1884," History of Education Quarterly, 8, 2 (1968): 155-188. Katz, Michael, Edward Stevens and Maris Vinovskis, “The Origins of Public High Schools,” History of

Education Quarterly 27 (Summer 1987), 241-58. Kerber, Linda. Toward an Intellectual History of Women (University of North Carolina Press, 1997) Kluger, Richard . “Together Let us Sweetly Live,” in Simple Justice: The History of Brown v. Board of

Education and Black America’s Struggle for Equality (New York: Vintage Books, 2004). Ladson Billings, Gloria. (2004) "Landing on the wrong note: The price we paid for Brown" Educational Researcher 33(7), p. 3-13. -------. (2007) "Pushing past the achievement gap: An essay on the language of deficit" Journal of Negro Education, 76(3), 316-323. Levine, D. P. (2004), “The Birth of the Citizenship Schools: Entwining the Struggles for Literacy and

Freedom” in History of Education Quarterly, 44: 388–414. Manuelito, Kathryn. “Indigenous Epistemologies and Education: Self-Determination, Anthropology,

and Human Rights” Anthropology & Education Quarterly Vol. 36, No. 1, (Mar., 2005), pp. 73- 87.

McCarthy, Cameron, Warren Crichlow, Greg Dimitriadis, and Nadine Dolby (eds), Race, Identity, and

Representation in Education (New York: Routledge, 2005). McGuinn, Patrick. No Child Left Behind and the Transformation of Federal Education Policy, 1965-

2005 (University Press of Kansas, 2006), Moore, Jr., & W. B., Burton, O. V. (2008). Toward the meeting of the waters: currents in the civil rights

movement of south carolina during the twentieth century. Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press.

Moses, R. P., & Cobb Jr., C.E. (2002). Radical equations: Math literacy and civil rights.

Boston, MA: Beacon Press

Moses, Robert, “An Earned Insurgency: Education as a Constitutional Right,” Harvard Educational Review 79 (2) (Summer 2000), 370-381. Moss, Hilary J. Schooling Citizens: The Struggle for African American Education in Antebellum

America (University of Chicago Press, 2009) Opal, M. “Exciting Emulation: Academies and the Transformation of the Rural North, 1780s- 1820s,”

Journal of American History 91, 2 (2004): 445-481 Patterson, J. T. (1991). Brown v. board of education: A civil rights milestone and its troubled legacy

New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Ransby, B. (2003). Ella baker and the black freedom movement: A radical democratic vision. rights. Boston, MA: Beacon Press. Ravitch, Diane. The Death and Life of the Great American School System (Basic Books, 2010). Reese, William J. “The Origins of Progressive Education,” History of Education Quarterly 41 (2004), 1-24. Russell, Clare “A beautician without teacher training: Bernice Robinson, citizenship schools and women in the Civil Rights Movement”, The Sixties, 2011, 4, 1-31. Tushnet, Mark, “The Politics of Equality in Constitutional Law: The Equal Protection Clause, Dr. Du

Bois, and Charles Hamilton Houston,” The Journal of American History, Vol. 74, No. 3, (Dec., 1987), pp. 884-903.

Tyack, David. The One Best System: A History of American Urban Education (Harvard University

Press, 1974). Urban, W. and Jennings Wagoner, American Education: A History (New York: Routledge, 2009) Vinovskis, Maris. The Birth of Head Start (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005). Zilversmit, Arthur. Changing Schools: Progressive Education Theory and Practice, 1930-1960

(University of Chicago Press, 1993).

Zimmerman, Jonathon. Small Wonder: The Little Red Schoolhouse in History and Memory (Yale University Press, 2009)

-------. Ethnics Against Ethnicity: European Immigrants and Foreign Language Instruction, 1890-

1894,” Journal of American History 88 (2002).