Colin Gordon MSc_Final_Thesis January 2010

School of Computing and

Technology,

University of East London,

Graduate School of the Environment, Docklands Campus,

Centre for Alternative Technology, 4-6 University Way,

Machynlleth, Powys, SY20 9AZ. UK London, E16 2RD. UK

Tel: 01654 705981 Tel: 020 8223 3000

Colin Gordon ‘What are the Problems...Delivering Sustainable Schools...’

What are the problems in delivering ‘Sustainable Schools’

and how can these be overcome?

Thesis for MSc Architecture : AEES

Colin Gordon

0738804

Jan 2010


“Things are changing fast, so we need rapid feedback on how well they are actually working. We

have to learn as much as possible from our own experiences and to share them with others”

(Bordass, 2009)

PREFACE

Sustainability has created many new challenges for architecture and the technology and theories

which underpin the field are still evolving. In essence, the emergence of sustainable schools

requires the industry to develop new skills and to understand that design is a collaborative

process, which has broader implications for the future.

The research for this thesis was motivated by a desire to clarify findings from previous studies

which have identified that recently completed schools have failed to achieve good practice levels

for sustainability. Previous studies have used Design Quality Indicators to quantitatively measure

performance in new schools, giving a useful appraisal of quality levels across many schools.

However, these abstract scoring methods did not reveal the true nature of the issues undermining

quality or suggest methods by problems could be resolved.

This thesis contributes to knowledge in the field by gathering information from industry sources,

traditionally outside POE feedback loops, to give a more rounded picture of the practical

problems of building new schools. This was done in addition to incorporating conventional “walk

through interview” POE, which was focussed on analysing building problems and incorporating

the views of end users and clients.

The research for this thesis was conducted over a 6 month period, throughout the latter half of

2009. During this time, the researcher lead a parallel life as a senior architect in private practice,

closely involved in the design and construction of two new PPP schools. Direct experience of the

construction process has therefore informed the conclusions of this study.


ABSTRACT

Research into the problems of delivering sustainability in new school building was done using

triangulation methodology, where several lines of enquiry were used to corroborate findings. The

research comprised a literature review, questionnaires, POE case studies and interviews. The

results were analysed and recommendations proposed for the resolution of perceived failings in

current procurement methods.

There were two main threads to the findings of this thesis. Firstly, the evidence revealed that

significant barriers to quality and sustainability exist in the culture of modern procurement.

Secondly, the behaviour of occupants after hand over was investigated, revealing significant

impact on building performance and energy consumption.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Firstly, thanks are due to Dr Simon Tucker for all his inspiration, enthusiasm and practical

guidance throughout the MSc.

Special thanks are also due to John Easton and Mark Mulville of Sustainable Futures who assisted

in opening discussions with Scottish Executive; to everyone at East Lothian Council who assisted

with the schools POE and particularly George Hay, who answered all my queries and was

instrumental in enabling access to the schools.

I would also like to thank FES and Ian McSweeney of Archial Architects for their candid, insightful

interviews.

Finally, I would like to thank my partner Samantha and son Chae for their patience with me over

many months, especially during all those times when I was distracted by matters of a sustainable

nature!


CONTENTS

PREFACE ............................................................................................................................................3

ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................................ 4

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ....................................................................................................................... 4

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ...................................................................................................................... 7

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS, FIGURES & TABLES ....................................................................................... 8

1.0 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 9

1.1 Purpose of the Thesis ......................................................................................................10

1.2 Thesis Structure ...............................................................................................................10

2.0 Literature Review ...............................................................................................................12

2.1 Building Schools for the Future / Scottish School Estate Programmes ...........................12

2.2 What is a Sustainable School? .........................................................................................13

2.3 Design and Procurement of Sustainable Schools ............................................................15

2.4 BREEAM ...........................................................................................................................16

2.5 Energy Efficiency .............................................................................................................18

2.6 Renewable Energy ...........................................................................................................20

2.7 The Role of Post Occupancy Evaluation ..........................................................................21

2.8 The Impact of School Learning Environments ................................................................23

2.9 Comparison of Sustainable Schools against Previous Models ........................................23

2.10 Zurich Insurance POE ......................................................................................................25

2.11 Assessment of Recent Design Quality in Schools ............................................................26

2.12 Summary of Literature Review ........................................................................................27

3.0 Methodology .....................................................................................................................28

3.1 Research Design ..............................................................................................................28

3.2 Research Process .............................................................................................................28

3.3 Critique of the Research Methodology ...........................................................................30

4.0 Results ................................................................................................................................31

4.1 POE Case Study 1 – Musselburgh Grammar PPP ............................................................31

4.1.1 Background ................................................................................................................31

4.1.2 Summary of Findings ..................................................................................................31

4.1.3 Janitor Interview ........................................................................................................33

4.1.4 Interview with Deputy Head Teacher ........................................................................34

4.1.5 Conclusion to Case Study 1 ........................................................................................35

4.2 POE Case Study 2 – Windygoul Primary Design and Build ..............................................36

4.2.1 Background ................................................................................................................36



4.2.4 Interview with Head Teacher .....................................................................................38


4.3 POE Case Study 3 – North Berwick High PPP ..................................................................41

4.3.1 Background ................................................................................................................41



4.3.4 Interview with Head Teacher .....................................................................................44



4.4 POE Case Study 4 – Knox Academy PPP ..........................................................................46

4.4.1 Background ................................................................................................................46



4.4.4 Interview with Head Teacher and Schools Liaison Officer .........................................48


4.5 Interviews .......................................................................................................................51

4.5.1 Findings from M+E engineer / FM team Interviews ..................................................51

4.5.2 Conclusions of M+E / FM Interview ...........................................................................53

4.5.3 Findings from Architect Interview..............................................................................54

4.5.4 Conclusions from Architect Interview ........................................................................55

5.0 Discussion ..........................................................................................................................57

5.1 How effective was the POE methodology? .....................................................................57

5.2 What is happening to POE findings? ...............................................................................57

5.3 How are new schools performing? .................................................................................58

5.4 How well is best value delivered through competitive dialogue? ..................................59

6.0 Conclusion ..........................................................................................................................60

6.1 Evaluation of the Research and Contribution to Knowledge in the Field .......................60

6.2 Recommendations for Policy Makers .............................................................................62

6.3 Recommendations for further research .........................................................................63

APPENDICES ......................................................................................................................................65

APPENDIX A Scottish Executive POE ..............................................................................................65

APPENDIX B Energy Questionnaire ................................................................................................68

APPENDIX C Natural Ventilation and Daylighting ..........................................................................70

APPENDIX D Considerations for Renewables in New Schools .......................................................72

REFERENCES ......................................................................................................................................74

BIBLIOGRAPHY ...................................................................................................................................75


LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ADS Architecture and Design Scotland

BCSE British Council for School Environments

BMS Building Management Systems

BRE Building Research Establishment

BREEAM Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment Method

BRECSU Building Research Energy Conservation Support Unit

BSRIA Building Services Research and Information Association

CHP Combined Heat and Power

CO₂ Carbon Dioxide

CRC Carbon Reduction Commitment

db decibels

DC Design Council

DDA Disability Discrimination Act

DfES Department for Education and Skills

DQI Design Quality Indicators

EAM Environmental Assessment Methods

FES Forth Electrical Services

FM Facilities Management

GCU Glasgow Caledonian University

GSH Ground Source Heat

HCESC House of Commons Education and Skills Committee

HMIE Her Majesty’s Inspectors for Education

IAQ Indoor Air Quality

ICAX Inter-seasonal Collection and Exchange

IT Information Technology

KPI Key Performance Indicator

kW Kilo watts

KWh Kilo watt hours

KWp Kilo watt peak

LAs Local Authorities

l/s/p litres per second per person

m/s metres per second

M+E Mechanical and Electrical

OFSTED Office for Standards in Education

PFI Private Finance Initiative

PIR Passive Infrared

POE Post Occupancy Evaluation

ppm part per million

PPP Public Private Partnership

PV Photovoltaics

RIBA Royal Institute of British Architects

SFT Scottish Futures Trust

TUPE Transfer of Undertakings Protection of Employment

UFH Under Floor Heating


LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS, FIGURES & TABLES

Page No.

1.2 : Relative Importance of Factors Affecting Sustainability.......................................... 11

2.4 : Typical Building Features of a BREEAM rated Primary School................................. 17

2.5 : Benchmarks for Energy Performance...................................................................... 20

2.7 : BRE Design Quality Indicator Matrix........................................................................ 22

4.1.1 : Extension at Main Entrance (Musselburgh Grammar)............................................ 32

4.1.2 : Window restrictor removal...................................................................................... 32

4.1.3 : Compromises to Services Distribution..................................................................... 33

4.2.1 : Plan of Windygoul Primary School........................................................................... 36

4.2.2 : Glare to Dining Rooms – PV cell glazing with electricity monitor on the wall.........37

4.2.3: Internal Courtyard................................................................................................... 37

4.2.4: Good Wayfinding at Main Entrance (Windygoul).................................................... 38

4.2.5: Natural Day-lighting to Nursery Classroom............................................................. 39

4.3.1: Main Entrance (North Berwick High)....................................................................... 41

4.3.2: White Board / Surface Mounted Conduit............................................................... 42

4.3.3: North Facing Glazing by Solar Control Blinds........................................................... 43

4.3.4: Landscaped Courtyard............................................................................................. 43

4.3.5: Social / Dining Area.................................................................................................. 43

4.4.1: Knox Academy – main entrance.............................................................................. 46

4.4.2: 3D view of Knox Academy....................................................................................... 47

4.4.3: Technical room in refurbished area........................................................................ 47

4.4.4: Low ceilings to classrooms....................................................................................... 47

4.4.5: Landscaped area adjacent to social space............................................................... 49


1.0 Introduction

Over the last decade, the UK government has set about delivering on its election promise to

implement what has now become the largest school building programme in history. In Scotland,

this represents the completion of 300 new or refurbished schools by 2009, the majority of which

incorporate sustainable design principles. Unfortunately, with little precedent available to

designers, speed of delivery has necessitated a steep learning curve for all involved.

Recent studies have revealed that there are significant concerns regarding quality and fitness for

purpose of completed school projects (BRE, 2007) (CABE,2006). Moreover, despite briefs which

define sustainability as a primary requirement, relatively few schools fully conform to these

criteria (Scottish Exec., 2004). Practice based research, which can disseminate the lessons of

recently completed school buildings, is urgently required to increase knowledge in the field (GCU,

2007). Given the scale of this initiative, these are worrying findings which require to be tackled,

particularly in the context of delivering best value.

The architectural profession has been slow to adopt practice based research as a means to inform

design decisions, although this is changing, with nascent post occupancy evaluation (POE).

Perhaps, one of the most useful aspects of this emerging field is gradual recognition that design

development is a rather more complex process than was previously realised. Moreover, fine

tuning of building systems can continue long after hand over and has wider implications for

everyone involved in procurement and operation.

Research on sustainable schools may have identified shortcomings in design quality but there is

still work to be done to clarify the true nature of the problems and to formulate remedies.

Previous POE findings indicate that as well as conventional design critique, further investigation is

required into the influence of procurement method and facilities management upon building

performance (Bordass, 2009). Taking these findings as a starting point, this thesis will use post

occupancy case studies to illuminate the practical realities behind the theory of building what is

popularly termed “sustainable schools”.


1.1 Purpose of the Thesis

The purpose of this research is to investigate reported problems in new schools and by using POE

methods, propose possible solutions to barriers which are presently undermining quality. The

thesis is specifically aimed at educational policy makers and procurement teams involved in

building new schools, as well as academics who may be interested in the developing field of

sustainable construction.

To achieve this goal, five key aims were identified for the research:

To establish common themes regarding main areas of concern in new schools.

Conduct a literature review to collate topical thinking in the field and review recent

research into problem areas.

Appraise quality in the context of procurement methods.

To use POE as a tool to investigate design quality in sustainable schools.

Propose key recommendations based on the aims stated above.

Given the broad ranging nature of sustainability, it should be recognised that this investigation is

confined to sustainability issues which are generally within the control of procurement teams.

Most notably, these are energy consumption and environmental quality within recently

completed schools, which have been identified by user groups as the most important

sustainability features – see fig 1.2 (Jackson, 2007). Other relevant issues which form part of the

wider debate e.g. transportation, biodiversity; global and economic aspects are outside the scope

of this study.

1.2 Thesis Structure

Chapter 1 establishes the context, range and aims of research for the thesis.

Chapter 2 covers the literature review, which was driven by a desire to establish current thinking

on delivering sustainable schools. It will begin with an outline of the current school building

programme, before discussing the main issues in the context of published research and

guidelines. The review concludes with a summary of recent school POE studies, commissioned by

the Scottish Executive which identifies problems and gaps in current research.


Chapter 3 outlines the research proposal. Triangulation methodology was adopted, with several

lines of enquiry being used to clarify findings from different perspectives. The centre piece of the

thesis is post occupancy evaluation of 4 recently completed schools in East Lothian.

Chapter 4 sets out the results from the POE case studies and interviews.

Chapter 5 seeks to analyse the data gathered through the research process, with particular

reference to outcomes of sustainability and performance. The analysis will seek to identify the

technical and bureaucratic problems facing the schools investigated and how these can be

overcome.

Chapter 6 summarises conclusions and proposes broad recommendations for sustainable schools

to assist policy makers with procurement decisions across framework agreements.

Fig 1.2 – Relative Importance of Factors Affecting Sustainability

source: “Leading Sustainable Schools” - page 32 (Jackson, 2007)


2.0 Literature Review

Although the field of Sustainable Schools is a relatively new area, it is a flagship initiative and

consequently much has been written on the topic. This necessitated a fairly extensive literature

review and revealed that a great deal of research into performance has already been done.

Moreover, many policy documents have been produced, with Building Bulletins setting out

criteria for environmental performance. Whilst mostly useful, the downside of this situation is

that guidance for designers tends to be spread across multiple documents, which can make

briefing potentially hazardous.

The next section begins with a review of the sustainable schools programme and its requirements

before discussing the role of POE in raising quality. The chapter concludes with a review of recent

quality assessment carried out in schools, which identifies problems and areas for future research.

Due to the breadth of the topic, the literature review is lengthy and technical in places but it has

been arranged to allow readers to refer to relevant sections as required.

2.1 Building Schools for the Future / Scottish School Estate Programmes

The current school building programme was launched in the late 1990s, under the newly elected

Labour government manifesto. The drive for Sustainable Schools was not part of the original

policy but with the publication of the Sustainable Action Plan, environmentally sensitive building

became a major priority for the programme (DfES, 2003).

A controversial feature of the initiative has been Public Private Partnership/Public Finance

Initiative (PPP/PFI) funding mechanisms, commonly used to procure new and refurbished schools

(GCU, 2007). Under these schemes, finance is provided by private consortiums, who lease

facilities back to Local Authorities over a 25 – 30 period contract. At the end of the term, the

buildings are returned to the Councils, ostensibly in perfect condition.

This may have solved the maintenance back log problems associated with existing schools but

critics have denounced PPP as a barrier to excellence in design (GCU,2007). It should be

acknowledged that this may be incorrect. An assessment of recently completed school buildings

has revealed that in comparison with traditional procurement, there was little difference in

quality. In fact, both funding methods produced schools which fell short of good practice

standards (BRE,2007). This suggests that there are problems in the delivery process. Further

enquiry is now required to establish the influence of procurement route on outcomes.


In Scotland, greater knowledge of procurement issues is particularly relevant in the light of

Scottish Futures Trust (SFT), which is replacing PPP as a means to deliver large public projects, on

a not-for-profit basis. At this time, the exact nature of this funding mechanism is unresolved; with

the result that there has been a two year gap in commissioning new school projects. This is

concerning in the context of a recession, as the construction skills which have been built up over

the last decade, may be lost

New sustainable concepts are being introduced through the current building programme, such as

the social principle of “community schools”, which affords public access to shared facilities, out of

school hours (ADS, 2006). Positive design features include the creation of specialised teaching

spaces and the provision of internal social spaces, often linked to landscaped courtyards. On the

downside, the emergence of a “value engineering” culture appears to be undermining quality

with architectural innovation often diverted to cost saving measures. Corridors are usually

centralised, with rooms on either side for economy, or overlapping with social spaces to reduce

area. This internalises these public spaces and limits their flexibility (ADS, 2006).

With regard to the construction techniques of new schools, it has been reported that these are

generally derived from retail, leisure or office contexts (ADS, 2006), which may reflect areas of

particular expertise within construction teams. By far the most common materials are metal

cladding, aluminium windows and brick, with the occasional use of timber cladding at high level. It

is noted that commercial building types tend to be flexible and will usually undergo many

adaptations throughout their building life. This could be a good thing for sustainability and the

ongoing development of the school curriculum, providing longevity can be demonstrated and

achieved.

2.2 What is a Sustainable School?

The term “sustainable school” has become firmly established in the parlance of the government’s

school building programme. However, what it means in practical terms for construction teams is

subject to ongoing debate and little qualitative post occupancy research is available to assist with

evaluation.


The guiding principles of sustainable schools are defined as follows:

Low dependence on fossil fuels.

Encouragement of sustainable methods of transport

Enhancement of biodiversity

Reduced water consumption

Responsible sourcing of building materials

(DfES, 2006)

The recent government report into progress of the BSF programme suggests that there are

difficulties in defining sustainability, since it requires bespoke requirements for any given building

project (HCESC, 2007). Similarly, recent reports on the Scottish School Estate strategy have

revealed a lack of clarity on objectives (Audit Scotland, 2008). 10 years into the parallel BSF

programme, it was noted that clear objectives for sustainability were still required before the

success of the initiative could begin to be measured (HCESC, 2007). Unfortunately, this indicates

that the government has largely left the responsibility for delivering sustainability to the market

place. Given the commercial pressures on construction, this is unlikely to promote a sustainable

building culture, particularly in the absence of clear objectives.

Gaia Research define sustainable school building as “applied good sense – an aspiration to build

to the highest quality and functional standard and with cost assessments that reflect the whole

building life cycle, such that investment can be properly maintained” (Gaia, 2004). They recently

extended this definition to include a commitment to social responsibility, environmentally benign

construction methods and post occupancy evaluation (Halliday, 2007). These are laudable

concerns but their range extends some way beyond the traditional boundaries of a construction

project and implies that sustainable building has operational and political implications. It is

presently unclear how these issues are addressed by present procurement methods and this will

be investigated later in the primary research.

In the absence of clear guidance, the government has embraced the principles of British Research

Establishment Environmental Assessment Method (BREEAM) as a means to demonstrate

sustainable credibility, by stipulating high ratings for new schools (HCESC, 2007). Environmental

Assessment Methods (EAMs) are toolkits which typically assess performance across a number of

categories including water management, energy efficiency, indoor air quality, material selection,

transportation and community use (Ford, 2007). Given the complexities of monitoring

sustainability across a construction project, particularly where there are reputed industry skill


gaps, the use of EAMs is a sensible initiative. However, greater knowledge regarding the

performance of highly rated BREEAM schools post occupancy is urgently required to establish

how well these appraisal tools are delivering key objectives. This aspect was outside the scope of

the primary research but is cited as an area for future investigation.

2.3 Design and Procurement of Sustainable Schools

“Sustainability in Schools is highly context dependent: what works for one school with a particular

set of requirements and constraints may not be so successful elsewhere”

(DfES, 2006).

There is currently no specific information available to clients on best ways in which to procure or

indeed create a brief for a sustainable school (BCSE, 2006). Similarly, despite a plethora of policy

documents, little guidance is available to those seeking to deliver sustainable objectives through

construction projects (Halliday, 2007). This reflects the bespoke nature of sustainable design but

puts the onus on construction teams to develop appropriate solutions – perhaps unrealistic, given

the skill gaps and scale of the challenge involved.

Gaia recommends that clients produce a sustainable development policy at the outset of a

project, which can be given to designers in the form of a Sustainable Policy statement (Gaia,

2004). This requires the client to have a thorough knowledge of sustainability, with particular

relevance to school construction projects. Unfortunately, recent research has revealed that a lack

of skills in client groups has been a particular handicap for new projects. Moreover, it has not

been possible to acquire these skills within procurement time frames, particularly whilst

maintaining regular school duties (HCESC ,2007).

Consultation at all levels, both internally and externally, is noted as a mandatory requirement for

successful design development (Gaia, 2004) but it has been reported that insufficient time is

made available within current programmes for this process (GCU, 2007). This is an important

aspect which will be investigated further as part of the primary research, within the context of

procurement routes.


Gaia suggest that those tendering for a sustainable school project should be able to demonstrate

evidence of delivering similar projects elsewhere, indicating a lack of faith in the construction

industry (2004). The Riverside Infants School case study, recently presented in BCSE’s “Getting It

Right” document, appears to highlight some confusion.

For example, under floor heating (UFH) is referenced in this paper as a sustainable solution, since

it allegedly allows non-load bearing walls to be moved as required for future flexibility. In practice,

this could be hazardous, due to the potential for floor fixings to puncture heating pipes in the

screed; especially since “as-built” pipe work inevitably varies considerably from design drawings.

However, UFH could be regarded as a potentially sustainable solution, if used in conjunction with

ground source heat pumps and high levels of insulation to reduce energy consumption.

On the same case study, the sedum roof is cited as a benefit for roof insulation, despite the fact

that building regulations stipulate it must be discounted from u-value calculations. Sedum can be

specified for surface water attenuation or biodiversity benefits, which are credible aspects, not

mentioned in the document. The use of chains in lieu of rainwater pipes is further presented as a

sustainable feature, although again, this is debatable. The construction team was chosen through

a design competition (BCSE, 2006), which either indicates a lack of requisite knowledge amongst

procurement teams or some breakdown in communication. Ultimately, this undermines the

credibility of this design guidance document which is unfortunate.

In the absence of time and skills for generating bespoke briefing documents, it has fallen to

Building Bulletins and Environmental Assessment Methods eg BREEAM, to define sustainable

credentials for schools. The unfortunate outcome of this situation is that without a clear definition

of sustainability for individual projects, the likelihood of a mismatch between expectations and

results is increased.

2.4 BREEAM

As noted above, BREEAM has become established as the pre-eminent assessment method for

predicting environmental performance in sustainable schools; with a rating of “good” or “very

good” being necessary for statutory compliance (BB98, 2004; BB99, 2006). Higher BREEAM ratings

require evidence of performance which is in excess of BB guidelines.


BREEAM was developed by BRE in association with DfES as a tool to measure sustainability,

whereby schools are awarded points for evidence of sustainable performance across many

aspects of their design and construction. Ratings are then awarded to schools on the basis of the

total points achieved (BRE, 2007).

Fig. 2.4 – Typical Building Features of a BREEAM rated Primary School

source: “Putting a price on sustainable Schools” - page 10 (Surgenor, 2008)

Recently there has been some criticism of the sustainable credibility of schools which achieve high

ratings. The main contention with BREEAM is that a points based system does not promote an

holistic vision for building sustainably (HCESC, 2007). However, given that absolute definitions for

sustainable schools are impractical (see above); it is understandable that EAMs are being used to

set targets for environmental performance, waste reduction and material selection. It is also

useful to have an industry benchmark standard which enables comparison across projects at any

given time.

The downside of EAMs is that commercial pressures can favour pursuit of the most cost effective

credits in preference to the most sustainable. Moreover, commitment across construction teams

is variable, requiring the appointment of a “BREEAM champion” to see the project home,

although time and funding for this role can be difficult. This is in spite of recent research which

has identified that the cost increases for delivering BREEAM “very good” rated schools is less than

3% (Surgenor, 2008). It should be noted that this figure was exclusive of whole life cost


considerations due to the difficulty of obtaining relevant information from construction teams

(Surgenor, 2008).

BREEAM has also been criticised in relation to the relatively low weighting given to carbon

reducing measures (HCESC,2007). Fortunately, in recognition that sustainability is an ongoing

debate, the BREEAM system is subject to constant review and updating, to address industry

concerns. In the 2008 revision, mandatory carbon reduction measures were introduced as a

necessary component for higher ratings. Additionally, a post construction assessment is now

required to demonstrate that features awarded credits at design review, are not subsequently

“value engineered” out during the construction stage. These are sensible initiatives, which should

be monitored for impact, particularly in the light of the downgrading of other sections e.g.

biodiversity.

2.5 Energy Efficiency

“Operating a building has a higher environmental impact than construction and demolition”.

(Fisher, Jessop et al, 2007)

The need to reduce energy consumption and lower carbon emissions is a key aspect of delivering

sustainable schools (BB87, 2003), the hierarchy for which can be summarised as follows:

Start with passive systems to reduce energy use

Service the building efficiently and provide good user controls

Commission services effectively

Use low-carbon energy supplies.

(Bordass, 2009)

Simple, passive measures are the most effective for reducing energy consumption and have the

added benefit of being maintenance free. To illustrate this point, Bordass makes the case that by

halving demand, doubling efficiency and halving the carbon content of its energy sources, a

building will reduce its CO₂ emissions to one eighth (2007). The principles of natural ventilation

and day-lighting are fundamental passive aspects of sustainable schools, further details of which

are included in Appendix C.

It should be noted that many of the most significant passive energy saving decisions can only be

implemented at the initial design stage. For example, judicious orientation reduces heating and

cooling loads throughout a building’s life, whilst simultaneously yielding associated savings

through reduced mechanical plant provision. It is important that these opportunities are


maximised and that adequate time is made available in design programmes to fully investigate.

The current culture of construction procurement means that, due to pressure on fees, architects

usually have to develop the design to an advanced phase, prior to any meaningful user or

consultant input. It should be recognised that successful outcomes are therefore hugely

dependent upon an architect’s skill set and their appointment should be considered on the basis

of sustainability credentials, in addition to relevant schools experience.

Increasing insulation and air tightness standards has reduced heating loads but has recently been

linked to retro-fit mechanical cooling (Fisher, Jessop et al, 2007) reflecting the fact that heat build

up is a major issue for new schools. Heat reduction measures stipulated in Building Bulletin 95

(BB95) include thermal mass, natural ventilation, natural day-lighting and good light and heat

controls, which will be covered in greater detail below (DfES, 2002).

The main influencers upon the energy performance of schools are:

Provision of additional facilities such as sports halls or swimming pools, which typically

increase energy use by 20%. This is a factor to be considered in the context of

community schools

Hours of occupation

Size of schools – larger schools use less energy per pupil.

(BRECSU, 1998)

BB87 and BB101 set out strict guidelines for thermal comfort within new schools, such that

maximum temperatures should not exceed 32˚C and temperatures in excess of 28˚C are not

permissible for more than 80 hours a year. It is also stipulated that internal temperatures should

not exceed 5˚C above external temperatures in the summer months. For a few days a year, this is

not possible by passive means alone, which has unfortunately necessitated the use of mechanical

cooling in situations which could otherwise have been avoided (ICAX, 2007).

BB95 requires designers to provide calculations which demonstrate compliance with acoustic and

energy requirements (DfES,2002). Realistic targets should be set for these during the design

phase, to avoid the potential mismatch between expectation and results. This is evidenced by

recently published case studies which suggest difficulty obtaining accurate figures to compare

design energy targets (DfES, 2006). Further investigation is necessary into the realities of

predicting energy use, especially since it is reported that energy levels are frequently exceeded


post occupancy (Bordass, 2007). A number of factors can conspire to create this situation,

including un-coordinated IT installation and unforeseen levels of occupation (BCSE, 2006).

Good housekeeping such as switching off lights, closing windows and regular checks of heating

controls can reduce energy consumption by at least 10% (BRE, 1996). Anecdotal evidence has

further revealed that frequently occupants struggle with building management due to poor user

interfaces and lack of training, which can significantly increase energy in use (Bordass, 2009).

The provision of representative industry bench marks for energy use can provide a useful tool by

which performance can be measured and managed –see fig 2.6 (BRECSU, 1998). However, these

benchmarks should be revised regularly to keep pace with advances in sustainable construction,

otherwise they will be misleading.

Fig 2.5 – Benchmarks for Energy Consumption in Schools

source : “Saving Energy in Schools” – page 4 (BRECSU, 1998)

2.6 Renewable Energy

“The council will encourage the energy efficient design of buildings and their layout and

orientation on site. All new non-residential developments above a threshold of 1000m2 will be

expected to incorporate renewable energy production equipment to provide at least 10% of

predicted energy requirements.”

(Merton Council, 2009)


There is a notable lack of renewable technology guidance for construction teams procuring new

schools, requiring designers to interpolate the principles from other building types. Following the

publication of the Merton Rule, specification of renewables is becoming a mandatory

requirement for planning consent (Scottish Exec, 2007), despite the fact that it is rarely a cost

effective means of generating energy. Instead, case studies cite the key benefit as communicating

sustainability values through the school curriculum. (DfES, 2006). The considerations for

specifying established renewables in schools are summarised in Appendix D.

It should be noted that for renewable systems to function efficiently, they require to be

monitored and maintained on a frequent and regular basis. Moreover, complexity of energy

systems is increased, especially when used in parallel with traditional sources or if more than one

technology is adopted. This puts greater demands upon management resources.

2.7 The Role of Post Occupancy Evaluation

The use of post occupancy evaluation as a means to share the lessons of best practice is gradually

becoming established in sustainable school initiatives (DfES, 2006). POE is focussed on assessing

building performance in use and recognises that building completion is simply the starting point

of delivering sustainability (Halliday, 2007).

Myriad methodologies have been established for carrying out POE, and their scope extends to all

aspects of building performance, as well as conventional appraisal of architectural quality.

However, a disadvantage of POE methodologies is their tendency to be burdensome and

unnecessarily prescriptive, with some requiring the appointment of trained assessors (Scottish

Exec, 2005). The process for selecting an appropriate method should be confined by the nature of

data to be obtained and the purpose of its analysis. In the BSRIA example cited in 2.11 below, POE

was carried out using the carbon methodology to gain a specific comparison of benchmark

emissions, across 3 schools (BSRIA, 2007). BRE proposes Design Quality Indicator (DQI) method

whereby various aspects of performance are given a points rating, which enables quality across a

number of schools to be usefully compared. However, results are abstracted and do not readily

convey the nature or peculiarities of the problems encountered.


For Scottish Schools, the Executive recommend Local Authorities (LAs) carry out “walk through

interviews” with key building users’ comments reported, to promote transparency (Scottish Exec,

2005). The advantage of this method is that it is relatively easy to do, with informality promoting

better participation and communication with building users. Additionally, the open nature of this

style of investigation, allows for the reporting of unforeseen problems, which would otherwise be

missed by more prescriptive methods (Scottish Exec, 2005). Against this style of enquiry, it is

acknowledged that such studies will be qualitative and the human element must be recognised.

For example, it is not unknown for participants with a particular grievance, to use POE feedback as

means to exact revenge at perceived management failings or organisational change (Halliday,

2007).

It usually takes about two years for a new building to achieve optimum performance, which

typically involves using POE to fine tune Building Management Systems (BMS) and train

operatives (BSRIA, 2007). This is an increasing challenge for building users, as complexity

continues to increase in line with burgeoning renewable technology. Moreover, it has been

reported that the quoted costs for fine tuning aspects of a BMS system can be prohibitively

expensive, with the result that clients often replace equipment instead (Bordass, 2007). This

highlights the fact that POE may be at risk of compromise through mismanagement and

misguided cost reducing measures. This aspect will be investigated further in the thesis.

This diagram is an

example of POE using

DQI methodology where

points are awarded in

categories and results

are presented in graph

format.

Fig 2.7 – BRE DQI Matrix

source: “Design Quality of

Scottish Schools” – page 10

(BRE, 2007)


2.8 The Impact of School Learning Environments

Research into the performance of teaching environments post occupancy is a relatively new area.

In recent years, the disparate nature of design guidance and legislation, coupled with the scale of

the government’s school building programme has necessitated urgent investigation into quality

and performance. In 2005, the Design Council commissioned a literature review into the impact of

teaching environments, with the aim of identifying lessons from POE which could inform

construction teams on future projects. The study noted that the available research tended to

focus on particular aspects of environmental performance in isolation, which did not reflect the

complexities of real life situations. The effects of combining performance criteria were as yet

unrecorded but are deemed to be significant (DC, 2005).

Whilst it could be clearly proven that poor environmental performance adversely affected

occupant learning, the effect of mediocre environments was unknown. This research also noted

that the social and philosophical aspects of the school curriculum were at least as important as

the physical structure of the building (DC, 2005). This suggests that in buildings which are fit for

purpose, the teaching culture within the school may have a greater impact on academic

performance than the architecture.

Disturbingly, the literature review revealed that much of the available research was not being

incorporated into the design of new teaching environments. Examples cited, include the desire to

reconfigure room layouts easily for different purposes or the benefits of ergonomic furniture. Low

take up in research findings was attributed to a lack of engagement with building users during the

design process (DC, 2005). This was echoed in other papers, which attributed design success to be

directly proportional to the level of user consultation (HCESC ,2007, GCU, 2007). It is also possible

that since expert opinions can vary, the stabilising input of ordinary users, who ultimately use the

building, is critical. The paper suggested that this engagement should continue as the building’s

requirements change, to reflect the ongoing personal investment of its users (DC, 2005). Both

these findings have strong implications for the method of procurement by which schools are

delivered and suggest potential new roles for design teams, after building hand over.

2.9 Comparison of Sustainable Schools against Previous Models

Critics of the current building programme have argued that schools design has evolved little since

Victorian models (GCU, 2007). This is highly inaccurate but may reflect a renaissance of more

sensible passive environmental control measures from this period.


In 2007, a study compared the carbon footprints of three primary schools from different periods:

a Victorian; a 1970s model and a sustainable exemplar. The research revealed the following:

Despite a strong emphasis on renewable technology, the sustainable school was using

more than double the good practice benchmark for electricity. Gas use was also

surprisingly high and in excess of good practice. Water consumption varied due to

problems with the rainwater harvesting technology. The report concluded that

sustainable technology performed inconsistently and required constant management to

be effective. Credit was given to the layout and the non bearing internal walls which were

designed for future flexibility.

The 70s school was in dire condition, suffering from years of maintenance neglect and

was due to be replaced with a new school. Given the poor state of building fabric and

plant, it was unsurprising that the building had the highest carbon footprint of the

sample. However, the school had recently been ranked as “outstanding” by an OFSTED

inspection, reflecting high teaching standards.

The Victorian school performed particularly well with regard to environmental quality and

comfort, having a similar carbon footprint to the sustainable school. Its performance

would be further improved through upgrading heating systems, double glazing and

insulating. The main negative of the school related to the inflexible nature of the internal

layout, which has not kept pace with modern teaching methods.

(BSRIA, 2007)

The conclusion is that older buildings can perform better than one might expect. They are usually

of higher build quality, which is a factor in their longevity and are typically constructed using local

materials. Also, high sustainable credentials on new schools are no guarantee that the buildings

will perform as expected. Before demolition, replacement buildings must be shown to justify the

resultant loss of embodied energy. This requires a far greater understanding of how buildings

perform and acknowledgement that proper investment in maintenance will yield greater

durability over time.


2.10 Zurich Insurance POE

Zurich is the only insurance provider to cover new PPP/PFI schools and therefore its influence on

the design of these buildings is far reaching. One respondent to a recent survey complained that

“prohibitively high premiums are the penalties LAs must bear for innovation“(GCU, 2007). By

nature, insurance companies are risk-averse and have agendas which are primarily driven by the

concerns of building longevity. Whilst this has benefit, these priorities can conflict with other

aspects of sustainability or indeed the practicalities of site constraints.

Zurich produces design guidance, based on its own POE, which stipulate minimum performance

requirements in order for new buildings to qualify for insurance cover. In this sense, they were

ahead of procurement teams in that their requirements, based on previous experience, now have

a wide ranging impact on the design of new schools. For example, Zurich recommends the

installation of sprinkler systems in all their schools. Interestingly, the document “The Design and

Protection of New School Buildings and Sites”, has distinct England and Scotland editions. This

may be due to the fact that 34% of the total costs of fire damage in 2002 were caused in Scottish

Schools. (Zurich, 2003).

Since the durability of a building is an important aspect of sustainability, the principles Zurich set

out are eminently worthy of incorporation. However, some aspects of their guidance documents

may cause conflict with other principles of good building practice. Desirable design features such

as roof overhangs or recessed entrances must be kept to a minimum to prevent youths

congregating (Zurich, 2003). The use of thermal mass and night cooling to moderate heat gains

throughout the day can necessitate opening windows, for which Zurich require security grilles, “at

the very least”. For earth tubes, management regimes will be required to prevent the build up of

rubbish and unauthorised access (Zurich, 2003).

Of particular note, is the fact that if timber cladding (often proposed by designers as a carbon

neutral material) exceeds 26% of the envelope, insurance underwriting is prohibited (Zurich,

2005). Artificial sports pitches are a common feature in new schools, which, Zurich identify as

vulnerable to flooding. Location of pitches should be such that surface water run-off from

adjacent slopes is avoided, although in practice, this can be difficult to achieve since LAs have

limited land available.


2.11 Assessment of Recent Design Quality in Schools

In 2007, Audit Scotland commissioned BRE to carry out an assessment of a representative sample

of recently completed Scottish Schools. The buildings were appraised using BRE’s Design Quality

Indicator POE method, which categorises buildings into architectural quality, environmental

engineering, user comfort, whole life costs, detail design and user satisfaction (Audit Scotland,

2008).

The results revealed that most of these schools were at a standard below good practice levels,

falling short in terms of environmental comfort, sustainability and design quality. Additionally,

refurbished schools were significantly below good practice standards and fared worse than the

new build sample, although the best classroom layout dated from 1950. Further detail is required

on this finding, particularly in light of the BRESCU comparative study described above and the

potential loss of embodied energy. Little difference in quality was noted in schools procured

between PFI and traditional funding mechanisms (BRE, 2007).

Although the matrix data did not clarify the nature of problems, helpful key findings from the BRE

report were identified in appendices. For example, it was noted that many new schools had

significant problems with natural day-lighting. Glare from windows made whiteboards difficult to

read, necessitating blinds to be drawn in classrooms and the constant use of artificial lighting.

Design professionals were deemed to be unaware of brightness management principles in

relation to this finding.

Most schools had less than 1% Average Day Light Factor (ADLF), necessitating the constant use of

artificial lighting. (Daylight displacement of artificial lighting starts at 2% ADLF and becomes

significant at 4% ADLF). It was noted that these schools would be uninhabitable during power

cuts.

Natural ventilation systems paid scant regard to window design, with the result that problems of

draughts and thermal comfort were encountered in cold weather. The majority of classrooms

lacked sufficient opening windows and where they were provided, restrictors frequently

prevented adequate ventilation. Moreover, there were seldom separate high and level openers

for intake and exhaust air. CO₂ levels in teaching spaces were reported at levels in range between

2200ppm (2.6l/s/p) to 3500ppm (1.5l/s/p), well above the maximum recommended by the World

Health Organisation to avoid health hazards. The effect of this was poor internal environment

resulting in a 5-10% loss of cognitive function in these areas.


Assembly halls lacked distinct supply and extract air paths for ventilation, with the result that

occupants resorted to opening doors to provide replacement air. This created problems for

thermal comfort in these spaces. Moreover, ventilation designs did not recognise the multi-

functional use of these spaces i.e. exam halls requiring five times the air change rate of sports

halls.

These are important and useful findings. Further research is now required to clarify why these

problems are happening and to propose remedial measures by with they can be resolved.

2.12 Summary of Literature Review

Sustainable Schools is a broad ranging term, which has been brought under control by the

application of Environmental Assessment methods, most notably, BREEAM. Presently, EAMs are

used to appraise design and construction methods for evidence of sustainability. However, the

energy performance and thermal comfort of highly rated schools requires measurement post

occupancy, to gauge the effectiveness of this assessment tool.

Initial feedback from school reports is disappointing, with a lack of time for quality briefing and

design development at the initial stages of the project reported as a significant problem. If one

applies the 80/20 rule to the procurement process, valuable adjustments to the brief can be

provided with relatively little impact on the overall cost and/or programme, providing this is done

at the early stages.

The literature review has revealed that a great deal of research has been gathered on the

technical shortcomings of new school buildings, although it appears there is difficulty in using this

knowledge to influence outcomes on future projects. In essence, this is because Design Quality

Indicators – the currently favoured POE method – tend to measure what is happening, rather than

looking at why things are going wrong. This is due to the inherent desire to facilitate comparison

with other schools but it can obscure the practical issues. Further investigation is required into the

influence of procurement on quality and to identify possible areas where methods can be

improved. Additionally, there is little information in the public domain which compares energy

performance in practice against design expectations. The following chapter will discuss an

appropriate methodology to investigate the knowledge gaps which have been identified.


3.0 Methodology

3.1 Research Design

The literature review outlined current research into assessing the effectiveness of new schools

through POE, using Design Quality Indicators. Whilst these findings are useful and convenient to

present in graph format, the abstract nature of DQI scoring does not explain in practical terms,

where things are going wrong. However, occupant and client feedback is occasionally identified in

the Appendices of these studies, which gives some insight into actual problems. To develop

research in the field, the aim of this thesis was to gather feedback from other key protagonists in

construction teams, to find out where the problems are happening in current procurement

methods. In this way, as well as having an objective measure of “quality” across the school estate,

the aim was to establish key recommendations to overcome the problems.

It was noted in the literature review that research in the field has been focussed on isolated

aspects of environmental performance (DC, 2005). Real life situations are more complex and in

recognition of this fact, qualitative methods were chosen for the research. Additionally, several

complimentary methods of research were used to collect the widest possible range of data. By

applying the triangulation research method (Denscombe, 1998), the aim was to produce a

rounded picture of the performance of new schools, where findings from one line of investigation

could illuminate or corroborate another. The primary data gathering was carried out over a

twelve week period from September to November 2009.

The research instruments used for the thesis were as follows:

Literature review of Sustainable School guidance and case studies

Analysis of published Post Occupancy Evaluation

Energy questionnaire survey

POE of recently completed schools

Interviews of key informants

3.2 Research Process

The starting point for the research was a review of Post Occupancy reports, carried out on

recently completed schools which are now published on the Scottish Executive website (Scottish

Exec, 2008). These were used to gain an overview of current best practice in the field and to

establish a range for the study. This process identified that specific data on energy consumption

and thermal comfort is presently lacking from published POE studies. Selected critiques of these

reports are included in appendix A.


As a follow up exercise, ten of these schools were subsequently contacted by means of a brief

postal questionnaire to establish how well they met their predicted energy targets and to find out

possible causes of variances. Questions submitted in the energy questionnaire were as follows:

What are the school’s annual usage for gas and electricity?

Is this on a par with what was expected at design stage?

Is there a divergence from design levels of consumption and if so are there explanations?

Difficulty was experienced with this method in establishing a correct point of contact for the

survey; commitment was variable and the response rate was low. Completed questionnaires are

published in appendix B. Although data from this investigation was incomplete, the issue of IT

growth, corroborated later in the POE research was highlighted. Despite the initial enthusiasm of

all the schools contacted, problems in undertaking the questionnaire suggested that an

awareness of energy consumption data is presently lacking at the management level.

During this time, contact was made with the Education department of the Scottish Executive. As a

means to clarify findings from the questionnaire survey, it was proposed that more detailed

investigations should be carried out on a number of schools. After a general enquiry to Scottish

Education Departments, East Lothian Council contacted the researcher, volunteering a number of

schools for POE research. These included new build and refurbishment models, all completed

within the last five years. Moreover, both PPP and traditional procurement methods were

included in the sample, giving useful diversity.

Post Occupancy Evaluations were carried out for each school, using the “walk through interview”

methodology recommended by the Scottish Executive (Scottish Exec, 2005). A feature of this

methodology is that it is time consuming to do and therefore only allowed for a limited sample

within the project constraints. However, it is more personal and can provide a better depth of

information from participants. Furthermore, by conducting interviews with key informants on a

particular sample, it also confirms validity and accuracy. To summarise, this POE methodology was

chosen in preference to DQI scoring for the following reasons:

to produce qualitative data, presently lacking from current research in the field

to keep the investigation as open as possible

to avoid pre-coded questions influencing outcomes

to gain a better insight into the realities of practical situations

it was appropriate for the detailed review of a limited sample


Given the desire to present qualitative data, the POE was central to the investigation and thus

reports have been included chronologically in the results section. Analysis of the findings is dealt

with separately in a later section of the thesis.

3.3 Critique of the Research Methodology

Triangulation methodology, whereby several lines of enquiry are used to investigate the issues

being examined was chosen as the appropriate research method for this thesis. The relative

merits and disadvantages of this approach are discussed in this section.

A negative aspect of triangulation methodology is that due to limitations of resource, each

process was to some extent, more simplified than might have been the case with a single research

method. It is also noted that this can be a controversial methodology, with constructivist thinking

disputing the notion of multiple methods converging on a single “truth” (Denscome, 1998).

Additionally, observational findings are subject to personal interpretation, which can influence

the conclusions drawn. However, triangulation methodology was considered the most

appropriate route to gain a fuller understanding of the data produced. This is a reaction to

previous quantitative DQI research in the field, which has identified shortcomings in quality but

fails to reveal the true nature of the problems. It is also noted that within the time constraints of

the thesis, failure of a single line of enquiry (e.g. questionnaires as above) would have been

catastrophic for the research proposal.

Credibility of this thesis, to some degree, may be measured by the ability of others to replicate

the results, which can be a criticism of qualitative research. However, in essence POE is simply a

method of reporting real life situations, in collaboration with users and building teams. The

findings are generally striking and unambiguous. Assuming the research was carried out by others

with some background in constructing schools, similar findings would be reported. It is

acknowledged that analysis of the POE reports required personal interpretation but this is no

different from the analysis of quantitative data. Moreover, by using several complimentary lines

of enquiry, the chance of correctly interpreting the data was increased.


4.0 Results

The following sections outline the reports from POE case studies carried out at East Lothian

schools, arranged in chronological order.

The purpose of the building “walk-round” and interviews was to gain practical insight into building

usability and the environmental performance of recent upgrading works. The interviewees

reported that no post occupancy evaluation had been done on the building prior to this

investigation. The reports begin with a summary of observations from the building walk round

and conclude with salient points raised in interviews. Recommendations for the schools are

presented in the conclusions of each report.

4.1 POE Case Study 1 – Musselburgh Grammar PPP

4.1.1 Background

Musselburgh Grammar school is the largest school in East Lothian, with a school roll of 1310

pupils (HMIE, 2006). It is located in the Inveresk area of Musselburgh and the present campus

comprises 3 distinct building phases. The original building dates from 1930 but it was extended in

the 1970s. It was subject to a PPP contract, incorporating refurbishment and minor extension

between 2002 and 2005.

The recent refurbishment programme was temporarily disrupted by the insolvency of the original

contractor Ballast Ltd and completed further to the appointment of Balfour Beatty. Since the

completion of the PPP refurbishment, the facility is managed by FES FM. Her Majesty’s Inspectors

of Education (HMIE) report of 2006 has identified that attainment standards have generally

improved across the curriculum since the completion of refurbishment works (HMIE, 2006).

4.1.2 Summary of Findings

The PPP refurbishment works comprised three main areas:

Upgrade to M+E provision

Complete window replacement and over-clad

Upgrading of facilities as necessary for DDA compliance.

Extension to existing entrance area.

Date of Site Visit: 09.10.09

Weather: Fair - 15 ˚C.

Interviews: John McInley, Janitor; Stewart MacKinnon, Deputy Head.


One of the principle findings during the walk round was a constant fluctuation in temperature

around the building, with some areas being too hot and others too cold.

It was evident that replacement window design for the classrooms was inadequate, with only a

small opening hopper at the base.

Further remedial modifications include the provision of hold open devices to main corridor doors,

allowing movement of air and heat loss, albeit relatively uncontrolled. Despite this adaptation, it

was reported that conditions in classrooms were intolerable during summer months.

Conversely, the new maths classrooms, built as part of the recent extension works were generally

deemed to be too cold. Concerns were raised regarding the level of insulation provided, which

should be investigated. It was reported that trickle vents are occasionally taped up by the

teachers who perceive the draughts to be a problem.

To increase the free opening area,

window restrictors have

subsequently been removed as a

remedial measure. However, for

valid health and safety reasons,

barriers have been erected in

front of windows, which

unfortunately reduce day-lighting

levels.

Fig 4.1.2 – Window restrictor removal

The extension was deemed to be

a positive enhancement, although

security measures required

improvement by provision of an

intermediate control zone.

Fig 4.1.1 – Extension at Main Entrance


A number of the classrooms inspected had IT equipment and lighting on, although the rooms

were unoccupied at the time. It was reported that despite requests, some teachers did not

consider switching off equipment a priority, when not in use.

Generally, it was felt that the space provision was below area, particularly in social / circulation

areas. Some areas were inadequately finished and sealed, particularly in the technical department

where air infiltration around openings was acute. Remedial works to address this source of heat

loss should be investigated.

This suggests that there is insufficient space within the building for distribution and/or lack of

funding for service trenches, which is a hazard of refurbishment.

4.1.3 Janitor Interview

Mr John McGinley has worked in a building maintenance capacity for Musselburgh Grammar for

20 years, although he is now employed directly by FES FM.

One of the main problems JM noted was a widespread failure of users to close down IT

equipment when not in use (evidenced during the walk round). It was also noted that artificial

lighting was rarely switched off when rooms were unoccupied.

JM had a strong complaint regarding the lack of storage throughout the building. There was a

particular lack of cleaner cupboards and those that were available often lacked a sink. This meant

that cleaners had to empty their buckets in teaching spaces eg science areas. This has obvious

Curiously, mechanical pipe-

work from the boiler house was

distributed on the outside of

the building, with implications

for heat loss.

Fig 4.1.3 – compromises to services

distribution


concerns for health and safety and he felt that had he been consulted during design phase, this

would not have happened.

Further areas of concern were the constant need to replace damaged ceiling tiles through

vandalism and the lack of proper draught proofing / insulation to some areas.

His view was that the refurbishment was partially successful and that compromises had been

made due to existing operational constraints. He considered that a better solution would have

been a completely new building but was aware that the temporary occupation of 1300 pupils may

have made this an impractical proposition.

4.1.4 Interview with Deputy Head Teacher

Stewart MacKinnon was closely involved in the refurbishment programme and is the main point

of contact between the school and the Forth Electrical Services Facilities Maintenance (FES FM)

team. He reported that the project, although disruptive to the daily functioning of the school was

generally well managed. Relations between members of the construction team during

procurement phases were highly strained at times. However, opportunity for input during the

design process was deemed satisfactory with several client-led design changes resulting in an

improved solution.

The layout design was deemed fit for purpose, although the environmental performance of the

school is an ongoing problem for the management team. SMK: “From the day after the new

windows were installed, the building had overheating problems. Although it’s reasonably OK at

this time of year we have serious problems in summer and winter.”

Further frustrations were reported regarding the daily management of the school, due to the

delegation of facilities management to an independent company. One example cited, was the

ongoing refusal of the FM team to permit litter bins on upper floors, resulting in constant litter

problems. Much of the Deputy Head Teacher’s (DHT) time was also given over to the daily signing

off of maintenance reports for items which would previously have been dealt with as a matter of

course. Another complaint was the fact that toilets were only cleaned once a day, which given

their level of use, was deemed inadequate.

On the matter of the energy questionnaire forwarded as the initial research exercise, SMK

reported that the school do not have access to data relating to energy consumption of the

building and that FES FM should be contacted in this respect. However, he noted that a meeting

was due to be held between the school and FES FM the following week regarding concerns raised

on building energy consumption.


4.1.5 Conclusion to Case Study 1

Musselburgh Grammar PPP will be affected by the Climate Change (Scotland) Act 2009 which sets

out year-on year reductions for carbon emissions in public buildings (Scottish Exec, 2009). With

data on energy consumption managed remotely by the FM team, occupiers are presently unable

to gauge how their behaviour directly impacts on this. Daily targets for the school’s energy

performance based upon real time monitoring and with proper marshalling, could result in

significant savings.

Over-heating is a significant problem in the school, which was attributed to the growing demands

of Information Technology (IT) equipment and failure of the replacement window design.

Addressing the first problem will require a cultural change in procurement strategies, since IT is a

direct supply item by Local Authorities and effectively outside design team control. There is also a

need for education to make users aware of the cumulative impact of leaving lights and equipment

on when rooms are unoccupied.

The window design was inadequately developed to take cognisance of the specific ventilation and

day-lighting requirements for each classroom. Given that this component has a profound

influence on environmental performance and energy use, its design resolution should be

prioritised on future projects. Moreover, an assessment of the adequacy of existing fenestration

should be made before refurbishment. As a remedial measure, the window installation would be

improved by the introduction of high level openers to increase classroom ventilation by stack

effect. External shading could also be deployed to control solar gain, although this would require a

free standing structure, due to the difficulty of fixing back through new cladding.

Refurbishment of the 1970s block was the least successful aspect of the works from both an

environmental comfort and services distribution perspective. This is due to the inherent

constraints of existing floor to floor heights, fenestration and construction methods. Partial

demolition should be considered on future projects where sustainability will be compromised by

the existing fabric, although it is noted that this may require the provision of temporary

accommodation during building works.


4.2 POE Case Study 2 – Windygoul Primary Design and Build

4.2.1 Background

Windygoul Primary School, completed in November 2007, is a custom designed new building,

erected on a green field site, to serve the large new housing scheme on the adjacent sites.

The school was the Carbon Trust’s Low Carbon Building winner of 2008 and was awarded a Silver

Flag eco award in the same year.


The building is single storey throughout and its layout is organised around a central courtyard.

The rooms are generally light and airy with landscaped areas around the building which serve to

create a general sense of well being. Rooms were comfortable, although it was perceived by the

writer that temperatures in some rooms were slightly high.

The building is naturally ventilated, which is supplemented by mechanical ventilation in the main

hall. The building has natural day-lighting throughout its main spaces and much of the circulation

benefitting from views to a landscaped courtyard. Solar tubes provide natural day-lighting to

other areas.


Weather: Sunny- 16 ˚C.

Interviews: Jimmy Bonner, Janitor; Ruth Johnstone, Deputy Head.

It is owned and managed

exclusively by East

Lothian Council and was

conceived as an Eco

School. It was largely

subsidised through

developers’

contributions.

Fig 4.2.1 – Plan of Windygoul

Primary.


Classrooms have a sloping ceiling with windows at both sides of the plan to provide cross

ventilation and natural lighting. Fenestration is generally configured so that openers are provided

to the full elevation. Teleflex and electric openers are provided to high level openers.

The building is constructed in timber frame “breathing wall” which has been highly insulated with

warm-cell insulation. Other sustainable features include Photovoltaic (PV) cell roof glazing, sedum

roof and timber composite windows and cladding.

Due to unforeseen pressure on school roll, the building was due to be extended imminently,

which is surprising so soon after completion. This may reflect an unexpectedly family-orientated

demographic within the new housing development and the continued pressure of Edinburgh

commuting.

Solar glare was observed in

the main dining hall (south

facing) and clerestory

glazing in classrooms,

although the latter had

solar control blinds.

Fig 4.2.2 – Glare to dining rooms

/ PV glazing with electricity

monitor on wall.

The classrooms have

sliding doors which open

on to “break out” spaces

adjacent to the courtyard.

Fig 4.2.3 – internal courtyard –

planting carried out by staff and

pupils post occupancy.


The kitchens were due to undergo refurbishment works further to complaints from the catering

team regarding the difficulty of prepping food below worktop mounted storage cupboards. It is

noted that the design of commercial kitchen units is principally done by supplier subcontractors,

and this may reflect a lack of direct consultation with end users.


Mr Bonner was highly enthusiastic about building usability and when pressed, advised that he

couldn’t find one fault with the design! This implies the building works well and is generally fit for

purpose. The main recurring problem he reported was a lack of daily hot water at 6am, when

cleaners carried out their duties.

The school has under floor heating and is served by four boilers delivering 80kW. Minor tweaking

to the heating system was possible and carried out periodically without reverting to the BMS

control centre in Haddington.

Passive Infrared (PIR) units were fitted as standard to lighting but as part of the daily routine,

these are over-ridden by switching lights off when not in use, to keep energy use to a minimum.

JB reported that generally teachers were co-operative in switching off lights and IT equipment

when not in use.

4.2.4 Interview with Head Teacher

Ruth Johnstone was generally positive about the school and considered the environmental

comfort within the classrooms to be good. She reported that the arrangement of electronic white

board and fixed roller boards did not work particularly well, ergonomically. Further consultation

JB advised that the school

was not a community school

in the sense that the building

was open to members of the

public but advised that the

hall was available for let to

external groups.

Fig 4.2.4 - Good way-finding at

entrance.


during the construction process could have improved the arrangement to give better wall space

for display.

A further concern related to the conflict of natural lighting washing out the electronic white

boards. Although blinds to rooms were provided, RJ reported that full black out blinds are

necessary to see video presentations. This indicates a conflict here between the desire to provide

natural day-lighting to save energy and the requirement to revert to black-out blinds / artificial

lighting when using this teaching aid.


Since the school have full ownership of the building, they are able to adapt and improve as funds

permit, without negotiation through an FM consortium. This saves time and increases flexibility,

whilst enhancing the sense of personal responsibility amongst users. Landscaping of the courtyard

area by teachers and pupils has improved this amenity through their personal efforts. Moreover,

greater user co-operation in managing energy consumption was evident during the walk round.

This may suggest that where ownership and control of the school is retained post occupancy,

there are benefits for building performance. To gain better insight into this situation, particularly

in the context of PPP procurement, this is an area which should be researched further.

Fig 4.2.5 – Good Natural Day-lighting to Nursery Classroom


The building generally functions well and is justifiably promoted by the Scottish Executive as an

exemplar of good quality sustainable design. However, the POE identified solar glare and heat

gain in some areas. Despite this, feedback from users was universally positive in relation to

thermal comfort, which indicates increased tolerance; either due to the phenomenon of

“aesthetic /usability” effect (Lidwell, Holden et al, 2003) or the greater sense of building pride /

ownership described above.

A problem was identified regarding the supply of hot water out of normal hours of occupation. It

is undesirable to run the boilers additionally to produce a relatively small amount of water and

other solutions should be investigated e.g. a small supplementary water heater. This problem may

have been identified during design phases had the Council cleaning team been consulted at the

appropriate time.

Despite the successes of natural day-lighting and ventilation, problems are reported in the use of

IT whiteboards, with requests from teachers for black out blinds. This appears to indicate a

conflict in priorities, which undermines both usability and energy efficiency. It is noted that

despite ongoing progress with regard to building performance, there are no regulations which

cover the use and deployment of IT. Consideration should be given to the management and

appropriateness of IT specifications within the context of sustainability and resultant heat gains.

Quality of finishes and co-ordination throughout the building was superior to the other schools

visited. Despite being traditionally funded, Windygoul was constructed under a design and build

contract, similar to the PPP contracts. This suggests that there may be conflicting agendas in PPP

consortiums, where members of the construction team wear more than one hat. For example,

design and installation of Mechanical and Electrical equipment (M+E) may be done by one team

who are also part of the funding consortium, which can make site roles and co-ordination less

straightforward.


4.3 POE Case Study 3 – North Berwick High PPP

4.3.1 Background

North Berwick High school serves North Berwick and the surrounding rural area. It has a school

roll of 930 pupils and achieved a “very good” performance in all categories of a recent HMIE

report (HMIE, 2009).

The school is due to undergo further extension works imminently to serve the on-going expansion

of the surrounding locale.

Similar to Musselburgh Grammar, refurbishment works were disrupted by the insolvency of the

original contractor, Ballast Ltd and were subsequently completed by Balfour Beatty. Since the

completion of the PPP refurbishment, the facility is managed by FES FM.

The report will begin with a summary of findings from the building walk round and conclude with

salient points raised during interviews.


Weather: Inclement - 12 ˚C.

Interviews: David Sibbald, Janitor; Colin Sutherland, Head Teacher.

The present campus comprises

four distinct building phases.

The original building dates from

1939 and was extended in 1960.

A further extension took place

in 1997, before it was subject to

a PPP refurbishment and minor

extension between 2002 and

2005.

Fig 4.3.1 – main entrance



The refurbishment works comprised four main areas:


Complete window replacement


Creation of new dining / social spaces.

From a thermal comfort perspective, North Berwick High is reasonably successful, with users

reporting general satisfaction with environmental performance. However, it would appear that

the refurbishment of existing areas was limited by budget as some finishes are of inferior quality

to Musselburgh Grammar. Areas of terrazzo flooring were in poor condition and are in urgent

need of renewal.

While new ceilings had been

introduced (and lowered)

throughout to conceal services

distribution; within rooms, all

conduit is generally surface

mounted, which suggests this

element was not co-ordinated

on site.

Fig 4.3.2 – White board / surface

mounted conduit.


Fig 4.3.4 – landscaped courtyard

This may be due to the relatively dense nature of the building which is organised around several

courtyards, thus reducing solar gain. Some air infiltration was discernable at window jambs, which

suggests gaps due to poor installation or detail design.

The dining room amenity has been pleasantly enhanced by landscaping to the internal courtyard

which was done in conjunction with the pupils.

Although the main entrance was obvious, signage announcing the school was ineffective and way-

finding signage in the building could be improved.

Fig 4.3.3 – North facing glazing

obscured by solar control blinds (for

whiteboard).

The window design for

Musselburgh Grammar has

been replicated at North

Berwick but thermal comfort

within the building appears to

be within acceptable limits.

Fig 4.3.5 – Social / Dining Area



David Sibbald is a former pupil and is involved in running sports clubs for the school after hours. In

his view, the level of zoning for heating in the building was inadequate for the size of the building

and did not take proper cognisance of room orientation. This means that rooms are often heated

when not in use or have differential heating requirements, due to solar gain.

With regard to the refurbishment, he noted that the copula sky light in the boiler room, although

an impressive architectural feature was a notable source of heat loss. Poor draught sealing to

main entrance doors was a perpetual source of complaint for nearby admin staff during the

winter months.

In general, he felt that most teachers did not consider energy conservation a priority, with open

windows, IT and lights being a perennial problem in unoccupied rooms. Instances were also

reported of poor understanding of system controls e.g. reported instances of air conditioning and

heaters being operated simultaneously.

No operational problems were noted with regard to building management and cleaning regimes.

4.3.4 Interview with Head Teacher

Mr Sutherland advised that he was not closely involved with the building works, with the school’s

interests being represented by his colleague Colin Hutchieson, who has since retired. The process

of construction was clearly disruptive to the operation of the school and quite painful for all

concerned.

It was deemed that the building works were fit for purpose, although finishes were generally of a

mediocre quality. CS believed that the main advantage of the refurbishment option was larger

rooms and generous corridors. He was philosophical about the build quality, given his experience

of other schools.

CS reported that IT use has increased, approximately 10 fold in the last decade, from two library

computers plus forty admin workstations to around four hundred computers now. Given that the

fabric of the building is largely unchanged, the implications for increased heat gains and energy

are significant; particularly when one considers this is happening in every school.

Teachers complain that they require black-out blinds to use white boards properly.

CS regarded the dining space as the most successful aspect of the refurbishment works.



Build quality for the refurbishment works at North Berwick High may have been constrained by

time and cost and there was evidence of poor service co-ordination. However, thermal comfort

was good reflecting the inherent quality of the existing fabric and building design. Energy could be

saved by increasing the level of control to heating zones so that fewer rooms are unnecessarily

heated during periods of low occupation.

It appears that a standardised window design has been rolled out across the PPP schools, which

although cost effective, does not perform as well as a bespoke solution. Heat loss from the

building would be reduced by remedial draught proofing to doors and windows, although this is

only possible where gaps are visible. Primarily, window installation requires to be better

controlled on site to avoid this situation from the outset, by proper sizing openings. Consideration

should also be given to insulating and lining out below the boiler room cupola.

Dependence on IT systems is steadily increasing along with the burden on electricity. Like the

other schools, there is conflict between the desire for good day-lighting and teaching with

electronic whiteboards. As noted above, this may be due to direct supply i.e. elements are out-

with design team control. Short throw projectors should be specified on future projects to avoid

the tail off in luminance which necessitates closing window blinds. Given the anecdotal evidence,

users also require to be better informed in the use of controls and energy management good

practice.


4.4 POE Case Study 4 – Knox Academy PPP

4.4.1 Background

Knox Academy is located in Haddington and has a history dating back to the 14th century,

although its name originates from a dedication made to John Knox in the 19th century. The

present campus dates from 1930 and was substantially extended in the late 60s. Recently, the

building was extended and refurbished as part of the East Lothian Schools PPP, completed in

2005. The school roll at the time of the recent HMIE inspection was 865 (HMIE, 2007).


The layout of the building is relatively complex, featuring multi-levelled accommodation

organised around four internal courtyards. Of the three PPP schools visited, upgrading works to

Knox Academy were the most extensive and comprised:


Complete window replacement


Remodelling of Existing Rooms

Extension to form new teaching blocks and gym halls.


Weather: Sunny - 15 ˚C.

Interviews: Martin Duddin, DHT; Ken Milne, School Liaison Officer; George Brunton, Janitor.

Fig 4.4.1 – Knox Academy,

Main Entrance


Way-finding around the building was confusing, particularly at the main entrance which was

completely obscured by the new extension. However, as can be seen from the sketch below, this

is not what the architect intended.

Both the design and build quality and finishes were of a significantly higher standard than the

other PPP schools, with successful deployment of roof-lights and courtyard providing day-lighting

and amenity to corridors. It is noted that additional circulation area was created by the

remodelling of the main assembly hall which has been sensitively handled, although its adjacency

to the main hall has proven controversial (see interviews below).

Similar problems to the previous PPP schools were noted with regard to heat build up in the

classrooms and failure of the window design necessitating removal of restrictors. However, when

queried, teachers did not report major problems of glare affecting whiteboards. This may be due

to the security grilles obscuring most of the window.

To overcome issues of window operation and cooling, high level openers could be introduced to

rooms with higher ceilings. However, in the majority of new teaching accommodation this is

compromised by reduced ceiling heights and other avenues to reduce heat loads should be

considered.

The original proposal has a

portal formed as an extension

of the curving plane on the

facade of the adjacent blue

block.

Fig 4.4.2 – 3D view of Knox Academy

Fig 4.4.3 – Technical room in refurbished area

Fig 4.4.4 – Low ceilings to new classrooms



Mr Brunton had been in his current role prior to the commencement of the PPP programme,

although his employment had been transferred to FES FM under TUPE legislation.

He felt that the design would have been improved through better consultation and had inherent

flaws fundamentally affecting the management of the school. He reported severe congestion in

corridors and problems with the stair design due to gaps between stringers and wall attracting

litter.

He also reported that there was a profound lack of cleaners’ stores, with electrical cupboards

doubling up for this function. This echoes findings from the Musselburgh Grammar POE in case

study 1.

It was felt that there were insufficient heating zones in the building, with occupation of one or

two rooms necessitating activation of an entire wing of accommodation. Again, this is a finding

which is replicated at North Berwick High School.

Extract ventilation to the Home Economics department was introduced post occupancy further to

complaints from staff. It is surprising that this element was excluded from the original briefing

documents.

Cracks in flooring identified during the walk round were attributed to shrinkage in the slab and

were due to be remedied through introduction of movement joints in the vinyl. Knowledge of this

issue should avoid this situation on future projects.

4.4.4 Interview with Head Teacher and Schools Liaison Officer

The refurbishment programme for Knox Academy started in 1999 through competitive dialogue

between three bidders. Knox Academy was one of six projects incorporated into the PPP bid and

was deemed to be the most difficult, due to integration of refurbishment and new-build, with

what was already a complex layout.

It was felt that the successful bidding team had the best design solution for Knox Academy,

although subsequent comments from the users were either not incorporated or done so at the

expense of other accommodation. User influence on the design process was further

compromised by the insolvency of the original contractor and upon appointment of another

contractor, previously agreed changes were reversed. This highlights the consultation issue

reported in the literature review.


A major design problem identified by the users prior to construction, was the adjacency of the

social space and the main hall. This presents problems for the school during exam periods, as

predicted and highlighted. Unfortunately, with the design at an advanced stage by the time of

consultation, to alter this feature was impossible within the project constraints.

Notwithstanding the frustrations of the design process, KM advised that a good relationship was

established between the school and the site foreman. Ongoing dialogue during the construction

process produced many mutually beneficial compromises and increased quality overall.

Heat gain within the classrooms was noted as a major concern and was attributed to poor

window design. In older parts of the building, over heating was reported immediately after the

new windows were installed.

Remedial works to the window were done without approval of the school and consisted of

removing window restrictors and fitting new security grilles. It was felt these greatly detracted

from the quality of the school visually and that the grilles restricted window operation. Other

remedial methods tabled had included the use of solar control film, additional opening lights and

the use of hold open devices to corridor doors coupled with permanently open windows. The

users had considered these solutions preferable, although it is noted that permanent corridor

ventilation may have caused uncontrolled heat loss (which was evidenced at Musselburgh

Grammar).

The main social area was deemed to be a successful space. However, no seating was provided

through the contract.

The school had had to raise

funds to provide picnic

benches to the adjacent

courtyard subsequently.

Fig 4.4.5 – Landscaped courtyard

adjacent to social area


Occasional incidents of vandalism were reported to toilet areas. To overcome this problem, it was

suggested that individual toilets be incorporated on future schools.

Overall, it was considered that the PPP project had significantly improved the quality of teaching

facilities in the school but the result had been compromised by cost constraints.


One problem of framework agreements, evident from the case studies, is that similar

shortcomings are replicated across several schools. For example, like Musselburgh, usability has

been compromised at Knox Academy by lack of cleaners’ cupboards, poor window design and

insufficient heating zones.

The removal of window restrictors as a remedial measure was not agreed with the school, who

communicated their disapproval of the proposed method. Better consultation could potentially

overcome this problem, although ultimately the school are disempowered to block minor

alterations, since they no longer own and maintain their building.

Measures suggested to improve window functionality through high level openers, described for

Musselburgh, apply here also. Unfortunately, they will be harder to implement, due to the

prevalence of lower ceiling heights. Floor to floor heights require to be reviewed carefully for

future projects.

Quality is noticeably higher at Knox Academy than the other PPP schools visited, despite it being a

more complex design to build. As reported, this may reflect better working relations between the

construction team and the school during the build. It should be acknowledged that the human

element is crucial in the successful delivery of a building, something which is rarely recognised or

facilitated through competitive bidding.

Greater contact between those responsible for managing the building should be allowed for at

the briefing stage, to ensure all aspects of accommodation are incorporated at the right time. The

POE revealed that seemingly minor considerations, such as an adequate provision of cleaners’

cupboards can have significant impact upon smooth functioning of the building.

The design of future schools should consider the principle of individual toilets as a method to

reduce vandalism in unsupervised areas. This measure would also eliminate potential problems of

bullying.


4.5 Interviews

As noted in the methodology section, several lines of enquiry were used to corroborate findings.

Interviews with key protagonists were carried out in parallel with the POE. The notes and

conclusions of these interviews are summarised in the following section.

4.5.1 Findings from M+E engineer / FM team Interviews

Interview 1

Date : 06.11.09

Attendance : Johnny Dobson FES FM, Chris Bowness, FES FM, Colin Gordon, MSc Student CAT

Location: FES offices, Bilston Ind. Estate, Loanhead, Edinburgh

Background

FES are PPP consortium partners on a large number of Scottish schools projects and provide M+E

design and installation works during the bidding and construction phases. The FM division looks

after maintenance and operation of schools after hand over.

The interview was conducted with the FES Energy Managers who are responsible for the East

Lothian schools. FES are currently carrying out their own research into occupant behaviour effect

on energy consumption and are developing an energy management strategy for the school estate.

Whilst discussion was focussed on the East Lothian Schools where POE studies have been carried

out, their general observations based on other schools have been included.

CG outlined the background to the literature review and areas for new research as follows:

1. Designed energy v in-use

2. Post Occupancy Evaluation – observations / lessons to be learned?

3. Influence of Procurement Route on Quality

4. Influence of Occupant Behaviour on Performance

Key Points from the Discussion:

Energy Performance Certificates (EPCs) are not yet finalised for the East Lothian schools but once

available will provide a useful benchmark for energy consumption monitoring. Currently, heating


bills were generally as expected but electricity use was higher. It is estimated that UK schools are

currently using electricity at approximately 3 times the benchmark figures for electricity use. CG

was advised to contact the Council directly for further information on energy consumption. (post

meeting note: data was not received within the timescale for the thesis).

FES advised that the East Lothian schools are not particularly good examples of Sustainable

Schools, since they were completed a few years ago and are compromised by the constraints of

refurbishment and timing. Co-ordinating the works with school holidays was difficult and the

contract was severely disrupted by the insolvency of the main contractor.

FES have collaborated on school energy conservation projects with pupils, which produced a

dramatic and immediate reduction in energy use. This suggests that user awareness has a major

impact on energy consumption.

One of the problems of the PPP process is that Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) are required for

every room. This stipulates constant temperature / ventilation rates between certain hours,

regardless of external temperatures and even when rooms are not in use. Failure to comply with

the range specified results in a financial penalty for the FM team. Whilst there is a financial

incentive to preserve energy through KPIs for overall utility consumption, reductions are difficult

to achieve.

CB reported one incident where PE staff had managed to obtain access to heating controls for the

gym hall. In preference to using the tumble driers provided, it was discovered that staff were

heating the hall to 35 ˚C and hanging clothes on the wall bars. Clearly, staff commitment is

necessary to reduce energy use.

It was noted that PIRs are a “double edged sword” for energy conservation, since entire corridors

can be illuminated for 20 minute periods for minimal movement, when the building is lightly

occupied. This was evidenced during the POE case studies above, where janitors switched lights

off when rooms were unoccupied. Solar glare is also a problem, since teachers will close blinds for

what is a temporary situation but due to the distractions of teaching, will tend to keep lights on

etc until the end of the lesson.

Carbon Reduction Commitments (CRCs) are due to become a big issue for Councils as they will be

charged £12 / ton of CO₂ produced. For every ton saved, they will recoup £12. This will involve a

great deal of data gathering in preparation for energy submissions in September 2010.


FES do not currently incorporate renewable energy technology into new schools as despite 50%

grants, the figures for pay-back time simply do not stack up. Additionally, renewables have no

material impact on EPC ratings.

Although PPP has come in for some criticism in the media, due to the requirements of the

contract, FES believe energy performance and management is more stringent than in Council run

schools.

Insufficient time is provided for commissioning at hand-over with the result that users can

struggle with controls systems, initially. Moreover, some teachers have insufficient time to make

user management packs or energy conservation a priority.

4.5.2 Conclusions of M+E / FM Interview

It would appear that energy performance is currently compromised by occupant behaviour and

the increasing demands of IT, both of which are unregulated. The imminent demands of CRCs will

require these areas to be scrutinised carefully to reduce carbon emissions.

The inflexible requirements of KPIs and room data sheets, which disregard occupancy levels and

seasonal variance, can necessitate excessive use of heating and cooling plant. Future government

contracts should be reviewed to address this issue to promote energy conservation. This should

be considered in light of the POE findings above, which suggest greater occupant tolerance in high

quality architectural space.

From informal experiments on some schools, it appears that an awareness of consumption has a

large impact on energy conservation. Some form of real time monitoring device to communicate

energy consumption to users eg Ewgeco should be investigated.

Renewables are currently considered to be cost prohibitive in most instances, although, planning

legislation is gradually making their incorporation a mandatory requirement on new schools.

Efficient performance will require a greater management resource from maintenance teams in

future.


4.5.3 Findings from Architect Interview

Date : 12.11.09

Attendance : Ian McSweeney, Archial, Colin Gordon, MSc student, CAT

Location: 18 Rothesay Place, Edinburgh

Background

Ian McSweeney is a project architect and recently produced a case study for his RIBA part 3

submission. This investigated the role of the architect within the PPP procurement process, with a

view to improving outcomes. The following is a discussion based upon key findings from this

report.

Summary of Discussion

One of the principal drawbacks of PPP procurement is that direct contact between schools and

bidding teams is impossible during the competitive dialogue process, due to requirements of

commercial confidentiality. IM: “It is imperative that an architect should be able to effectively

access, manage and respond to client requirements and aspirations if a project is to have any

hope of being considered a success”.

Under traditional procurement, the architect is closely involved in the briefing process, which is

recognised as a key aspect of successful design development. Under PPP, briefing is carried out

prior to architect engagement with the result that the brief was generic, with some aspects

ambiguous or incomplete.

Recent Scottish school framework projects have stipulated a 70% cost versus 30% quality

weighting, which strongly favours cheapness over design quality. Given the substantial financial

risk involved in putting together a PPP bid, to ensure any chance of success, this mind set must

define the entire project. It begins with reduced design fees and scope of services which can

result in significant aspects of the design being unresolved until after the bid has been successful.

This has consequent cost implications for project which must be kept within budget.

In a traditional procurement, the architect is deemed leader of the design team. Often, other

members of the team will be sub-consultants to the architect in recognition of this. Under PPP, all

consultants are appointed by the main contractor directly and regard themselves as “sub-

contractors”, completely independent of the architect’s direction. This is further complicated by


the fact that consultants can also be installers and/or project stakeholders and thus have a

separate agenda from the design team. IM: “a bid winning design can soon be interrogated, cost-

stripped, contradicted and re-designed beyond recognition... Design development can... descend

into a conflict between the architect trying to detail the scheme they originally envisaged and the

contractor feeling the need to realise each potential cost saving”.

One of the advantages of PPP from a client perspective is the transferral of risk from the client to

the main contractor. Unfortunately, this discourages innovation, since contractors are unlikely to

adopt anything other than tried and tested methods, unless a significant cost saving can be

identified.

Under traditional procurement, the architect role ensures that the quality of work being carried

out on site meets standards of the contract. Under PPP, it is the duty of the employer to monitor

quality. The site role for the architect is restricted to reporting any material deviations to the

contractor.

It is understood that PPP is being phased out as a procurement vehicle in Scotland to be replaced

by the Scottish Futures Trust. However, the exact nature of this new funding mechanism is

presently unclear, with much public frustration expressed within the profession. In the interests

of quality, architects must now fight for a more centralised role within the construction team.

Issues experienced during the construction process can impact upon building performance;

therefore procurement choice and programming require to be considered carefully. There is

currently little provision for awarding contracts based on the value of team working as evidenced

on previous projects, although this can have a notable impact on quality.

4.5.4 Conclusions from Architect Interview

The requirement for better briefing with the involvement of key stakeholders has been cited in

the literature review as a major factor in raising design quality in new schools. The protocol for

competitive dialogue currently makes contact between users and construction teams impossible

until the design is at a highly advanced stage. In effect, during bidding stages several school

designs are developed in parallel by competing teams, all with the absence of direct consultation

with occupants. Moreover, for confidentiality, it is incumbent upon awarding teams to avoid

cross-fertilisation of ideas between various design schemes during their development. This means

that the winning scheme may not have useful aspects incorporated into other bids during bidding

stages and does not reflect consultation with building users.


The most obvious way to address this problem is to separate design development from

competitive dialogue, so that schools can be tailored to client requirements, as part of the

briefing and initial budget setting. This principle was recently proposed as “Smart PFI”(RIBA,

2005).

The desire to limit cost is an understandable and necessary aim. However, Local Authorities need

to allocate realistic budgets if they are serious about achieving a reasonable level of quality.

Competitive frameworks which are weighted towards appraising cost over design quality, favour

cheap, mediocre buildings.


5.0 Discussion

The previous chapter reported findings from the primary research which was conducted to

address perceived gaps identified in the literature review. The following sections discuss various

aspects of these results in the context of the literature review and delivering best value for

sustainability.

5.1 How effective was the POE methodology?

POE was identified in the literature review as a key component of delivering sustainability. The

primary research has established that it can be an effective way of identifying problems in new

schools and in some instances, can identify practical measures to resolve. Moreover, it can be an

effective tool to raise quality.

POE using the Scottish Executive “walk through” method is a quick and useful tool by which

quality can be assessed and remedial measures suggested, in the context of real-life situations. It

also enables those closely involved in the daily management and running of the schools to

feedback their concerns. This yields valuable insight into the realities behind practicalities of

building performance, although it may be less effective for innovating or analysing new solutions.

Better recording and dissemination of energy in use is urgently required to aid energy predictions

on future projects.

5.2 What is happening to POE findings?

The literature review has revealed that there are still difficulties in accommodating the lessons of

best practice into the design of new schools. Given the importance of this process in the context

of sustainability, this is a concern. Findings from the interviews suggest the following barriers:

Currently provision to disseminate the findings of POE through consultation during

bidding stages is impeded by the protocol of competitive dialogue.

Many established POE methodologies are qualitative in nature and obscure the practical

realities of issues undermining sustainability.

In most instances, POE requires to be extended to include members of construction

teams, who are well positioned to contribute additional feedback from a practical

perspective.

From the literature review, it would appear that the barriers to proper consultation, also

identified in the primary research may have historical basis; since at the outset of the school

building programme, skills gaps in LAs were identified. The government’s desire to leave the

resolution of sustainable objectives to BREEAM and the vagaries market place may have been a


consequence of this. However, with substantial built evidence now available, knowledge in LA

departments has grown exponentially over the last ten years. Moreover, with POE now carried

out routinely in new schools, LAs are better equipped to drive to the briefing process than many

commercial consortiums. The barriers which currently exist to enable proper dissemination of

POE knowledge through consultation and iterative design development should therefore be

removed.

5.3 How are new schools performing?

Unfortunately, it was not possible to obtain the necessary data on energy consumption during the

primary research for the thesis to make a full analysis of this. The issue of access was also noted in

the literature review and reflects the fact that, due to competitive nature of PFI/PPP frameworks,

much of the data on public buildings is not available in the public domain. One problem of

privatising school-building and management is that gaining access to data necessary to appraise

sustainability, particularly in the context of life cycle costing will prove difficult in future.

The POE evidenced cases where remedial works had been carried out to rectify failings with the

window design. Mostly, these had proved ineffectual, with knock on effects causing further

problems and quality falling. Clearly the classroom window component has a major influence on

thermal comfort and indoor air quality (IAQ). This is a high cost element and one which comes

under pressure from value engineering throughout the construction process. Given its

importance, the window element should be singled out for special attention in briefing

documents to avoid compromises during design, specification and installation.

From the reaction of building users at Windygoul Primary, it appears that architectural quality

may make users more tolerant of thermal comfort issues. This is a phenomenon known as the

“aesthetic usability effect” (Lidwell, Holden et al, 2003). This finding should be considered in the

context of energy use and plant associated with achieving inflexible performance criteria of PPP

schools. For example, a simple way to reduce energy consumption in new schools is to make the

occupants more adaptable to seasonal variances, providing IAQ can be maintained.

The role of the occupant behaviour in lowering energy consumption is an area which requires

further investigation and may yield the most significant reductions in future. The best laid plans of

design and construction will come to nothing if the building is not operated and managed

responsibly. A recurrent problem was noted in the use of whiteboards and IT, which supports

findings from the literature review. These elements require to be brought within the control of

construction teams to ensure they are appropriately specified in the context of the overall design.


One way to rectify current problems is to specify “short throw” whiteboard projectors which

avoid the tail off in luminance across longer distances.

5.4 How well is best value delivered through competitive dialogue?

The current school building programme has been predicated on delivering at minimal cost and to

tight deadlines, a culture prevalent since the post-war building boom. Unfortunately, quality is

compromised for expediency, which is impacting on performance and sustainability. There is little

point in pushing forward a sustainable agenda, if new schools are not properly planned and

constructed to last for many years. To achieve sustainability, procurement methods must be

devised which gave adequate time within programmes for proper consultation and design.

It is noted that framework agreements may offer procurement benefits through economies of

scale but the POE revealed similar failings to the window design were replicated across multiple

school projects. Moreover, by appointing consortiums across multiple projects, it is more difficult

for one successful bid to contain the most appropriate design solution for every school. Again,

given that the failings may be impossible to resolve through remedial works, this puts greater

onus on briefing processes, which are currently reported as ineffective.

Several of the schools, visited lacked basic requirements for cleaners’ cupboards necessitating

unsanitary make-do measures. Moreover, at Knox Academy, once the consortium was appointed,

perceived failings in the brief were identified by the school team, prior to commencement of site

works. However, due to the terms of the contract and the incalculable costs of abortive work, the

occupants were given no choice but to except a design which they perceive has a major flaw.

It is thus important that those involved in the daily running of schools have opportunity to

contribute during initial design development, to ensure the brief is fully comprehensive. As noted

above, this can be difficult to achieve in the context of competitive bidding which precludes direct

contact with users until the design is at a highly advanced stage.

Finally, it is recognised that competitive tendering is a fundamental aspect of delivering best value

for sustainable schools. However, design development, like most activities is subject to the 80/20

rule, whereby the greatest value can be added to a project by incorporating necessary

amendments at the early stages. The later changes are delayed, the more expensive are the

implications for the project. In the context of a fiercely competitive market place, it is inevitable

that corners will be cut to gain the lowest tender price. Therefore, to deliver best value, it makes

little commercial sense from the client perspective, to bundle the building design into the bidding

process.


6.0 Conclusion

This thesis sought to delve deeper into the issues which are currently impeding sustainable

objectives in the delivery of new schools and where possible make recommendations for

improvement. The literature review outlined the general principles and problems of sustainable

school building before discussing the relative merits of POE as a tool to raise design quality.

Further to a questionnaire survey, the primary research was done by “walk through interview”

POE, which was selected to reflect the complexities of real life situations. Further interviews were

carried out with key protagonists to corroborate findings. From the subsequent analysis, the main

conclusions of the thesis are summarised below.

6.1 Evaluation of the Research and Contribution to Knowledge in the Field

POE is an effective tool for establishing and fine tuning building performance, although

consideration should be given into its purpose and the methods by which findings can be

disseminated. Design Quality Indicators can give useful comparison across multiple projects but

are less effective for identifying the root causes. Anecdotal evidence produced through “walk

through interview” POE gives a greater insight into the complexities of real life issues but is more

time consuming to produce.

Prior to this thesis, research in the field been focussed on using POE to quantitatively report on

what is happening to quality in sustainable schools. Little research has been done to find out why

things are going wrong. Moreover, research was required into sustainable schools to link POE with

construction processes and feedback from building professionals and FM teams. This thesis is the

starting point for an investigation which will be ongoing for some time to come as we begin to

understand the nature of modern procurement methods and their influence upon sustainability.

What are the common problems in designing and constructing new sustainable schools?

The literature review has identified that IT equipment installed in new schools often conflicts

directly with building performance and sustainability eg the mismatch between whiteboards and

day-lighting and increased heat gains. This was corroborated by POE carried out as part of the

primary research. However, despite the previous studies which have been uniquely critical of

design teams, cognisance should also be taken of the fact that this element is directly supplied by

LAs and thus is uncontrolled through the design process. This reflects the complexity of briefing

and specification of these items within the context of the limited time and resources for delivering

new schools. Nevertheless, its impact on energy consumption is significant. Serious consideration

should be given to amending contracts to incorporate IT items, particularly whiteboards, within

main works packages.


Although schools generally consume gas more or less as expected, electricity use was invariably

higher and continues to rise. This was attributable to the exponential growth of IT combined with

poor management regimes for its use. Participation in the management and control of energy

consumption was greater in situations where occupants felt a sense of ownership and

responsibility for the school building. Due to the limitations of the research sample, it was not

possible to draw definite conclusions on this finding. However, it is clear that occupant behaviour

is a major influence on performance and an area which requires to be tackled urgently in future.

Renewables are becoming established features of new schools under recent planning legislation

but their use involves greater complexity and pressure on management resources, a factor which

must be considered in the context of whole life costing.

How is quality affected by procurement?

Procurement methods were identified as key barriers to sustainability in the literature review.

PPP was singled out for special criticism but further studies revealed that quality was below good

practice levels across all procurement methods. Previous studies have highlighted a lack of clarity

in briefing documents for sustainable objectives, putting the onus on construction teams to

produce. Moreover, the current school building programme is primarily focussed on delivering

schools to minimal cost and to very tight timescales. The primary research revealed several

downsides to this approach, including:

The proliferation of framework agreements, whereby several school projects are bundled

together to reduce cost, revealed mistakes replicated across multiple projects.

Competitive dialogue protocol prevented any communication with building users during

briefing / design development stages, which materially impacted on post occupancy

performance. In some cases, this had necessitated costly and mostly ineffective remedial

work. In other instances, it was impossible to rectify shortcomings identified in the

briefing, after contracts had been awarded. These aspects had significant life cycle cost

implications and permanently undermined the performance of the schools.

The inflexible nature of performance criteria required the over-specification of plant

items, to maintain constant room temperatures for rare occurrences, regardless of

occupancy levels. Bespoke briefing would enable a better tailoring of environmental

control systems and reduce capital expenditure, maintenance and energy consumption.

Fast tracking of construction programmes impacted on build quality and performance,

due to the compression of conventional sequence of operations for lead-in and site

works.


In some instances, refurbishment of schools was compromised by inherent problems of

the existing fabric eg level of fenestration, floor-floor heights. Partial demolition, where

appropriate should be considered on future refurbishment projects, if it is perceived

sustainable objectives will be compromised.

Finally, previous research papers have placed the responsibility for quality failings solely

at the door of construction teams. Findings from this study suggest that to achieve

sustainable objectives, those commissioning new schools have to acknowledge that as

clients, they also have an active role to play in achieving their desired outcomes. Post

Occupancy Evaluation, in communicating the lessons of best practice, can only be

effective if there is adequate provision under the terms of the contract to enable proper

consultation and dissemination during the briefing stages.

6.2 Recommendations for Policy Makers

The literature review reported difficulty in accommodating the lessons of POE into new projects.

Findings from the interviews suggested that current procurement methods are a barrier to those

best placed to influence sustainability. This reflects the lowered status of briefing and design

development as a means to achieve best value.

The most obvious way to address this problem is to carry out the briefing /design / consultation

process in advance of competitive bidding stages. However, to facilitate this process, realistic

timescales are required to enable proper consultation and iterative design development to take

place.

Other key recommendations are as follows:

Occupant behaviour and IT are major influencers on energy performance and thus require

the implementation of effective management procedures. Moreover, the growth of heat

producing IT equipment requires to be managed within the context of environmental

performance.

PPP contracts currently stipulate inflexible performance criteria, which necessitate the

deployment of plant for exceptional circumstances, regardless of occupation levels. Better

tailoring of criteria within the context of annual temperatures and realistic levels of room

occupation would yield significant savings. This has implications for the consultation

aspect of briefing described above.

Demolition should be considered for situations where it can be shown that the limitations

of existing fabric will compromise sustainability. However, given the inherent build quality


and embodied energy of older building stock, its removal should be avoided where

possible.

To minimise vandalism and bullying, individual toilets should be incorporated into the

design of future schools.

6.3 Recommendations for further research

As identified in the literature review, there is currently no specific guidance available to clients

seeking to procure a sustainable school. Moreover, without clear objectives, it is virtually

impossible to measure the success of this government initiative. Given that the programme has

been ongoing for over a decade, with many hundreds of schools already built, comprehensive

guidance is long overdue.

Following on from this finding, it is evident that there is still an urgent need for greater knowledge

of how our new schools are performing. For example, the research for this thesis was unable to

obtain clear data on energy consumption in new schools. This was disappointing and highlighted

the fact that most users were unaware of the energy consumption of their schools. Better

recording and dissemination of energy use data would better inform designers on future projects

and assist in the development of better management strategies.

Occupant behaviour has been identified as a key part of managing sustainability post occupancy.

The interview evidence suggested that energy consumption would be reduced through better real

time monitoring and reporting. From the literature review and discussions with energy monitor

suppliers during the primary research, it appeared that no studies have been done previously in

this area. This is an area which could yield significant improvements for efficiency in the future,

particularly as construction of the building envelope edges towards optimal efficiency.

The literature review revealed that there were gaps in the current research relating to the whole

life costing of sustainable schools, mainly due to inability to obtain relevant data. BRE have done

comparative cost analysis of sustainable school construction against conventional methods which

reveal minor uplift. However, we still require a better understanding of the impact of sustainable

design to reduce costs in use over the lifetime of the building. As part of this analysis, life cycle

costing for remedial works and performance loss, due to failure in the briefing process should be

included. This would enable those commissioning new schools to make informed decisions when

devising new procurement methods for schools.


Finally, returning to the quotation from Bordass which introduced the thesis, the need to find out

why things are going wrong in sustainable schools is an ongoing area for research. By its nature,

qualitative POE methods are detailed and illuminating but they are by no means exhaustive.

Moreover, although POE is deemed an essential aspect of sustainable construction, further

research is required to establish the relative effectiveness of various POE methodologies in raising

quality. This thesis is simply the starting point for lines of enquiry which must be continued, to

gain a better understanding of performance in our new schools.


APPENDICES

APPENDIX A Scottish Executive POE

The Scottish Executive recently carried out a number of POE studies of recently completed school

projects, the results of which have been published on its website, along with building plans and

images. This research was used as the starting point for the thesis. A summary and brief critique

of a selection of these studies is outlined below. Common themes which came up in the POE

studies related to problems of accessibility, comfort, acoustics, ambiance and build quality

(Scottish Exec, 2006).

Ardnamurchan High School, Highland Region

Described as a vernacular PPP community school and completed in 2002, its key sustainable

features include: thermally massive structure, increased u-values and locally sourced materials.

Features which are perhaps less sustainable are: the deployment of electric heating and

development of a Greenfield site, although these may be attributable to the relative remoteness

of the site. The school is designed for 250 but has only 140 attending currently. It is noted that the

users believe that without PPP funding the project would not have happened. The question of

sustainability in relation to proximity of catchment is worthy of further investigation. No mention

is made of natural lighting / ventilation or services.

Feedback from the client seems to be universally positive and focuses on the benefits to the

community of the new amenity. It is noted that the architect was requested to design the

accommodation schedule and technical specification, perhaps reflecting a lack of available skills

within the procurement team. Much community consultation is noted during the design process.

The design was “heavily cost-driven”, which may well be a reflection of the procurement route.

Lessons learned through the project seem to be confined to insufficient budget allocation for IT

and FFE. Since this feedback was produced at handover, it would be worthwhile re-visiting the

school to carry out POE studies to gain better understanding of successes and failures in use.

Nesting Primary School, Shetland

This school was a traditionally procured new building, replacing a Victorian building and huts to

house 32 pupils. It was completed in 2004. Sustainable attributes cited include increased u-values

and reduced boiler plant. Natural lighting is maximised, although it is noted that the main

classrooms are south facing. This requires user co-operation to activate blinds to reduce solar gain

but reduces heating season and associated costs / energy use. Wind speeds at the exposed site

prohibited roof overhangs. Driving rain and snow requires fenestration to be carefully detailed


and limits roof glazing. Care has been taken to specify materials which can be later recycled at the

end of the building life.

Again, the feedback on the design has been mainly positive, with close liaison between client,

users and construction team cited as a major contributor to a successful outcome. Lack of co-

ordination regarding installation of services and IT is listed as a problem. There were no negative

comments reported of universal interest.

Meldrum Academy, 2002

Conceived as a community school and delivered through the PPP process, to combine 3 no

smaller school rolls within one large school on a Greenfield site. POE notes that the steel portal

frame and clear spanning roof enable interior to be remodelled as future demands require.

Natural lighting and ventilation are highlighted as strong design features. Thermal mass was

achieved through concrete block partitions. It is noted that large areas of timber cladding would

suggest expensive Zurich insurance premiums. A Sustainable Urban Drainage scheme incorporates

wetlands amenity. Unfortunately, the images suggest a poor landscape strategy for the site,

which may reflect cost savings within design consultancy.

Lack of storage and insufficient dining space are listed as problems by the users. Since the school

is a new entity there was no staff consultation during the design process and this lack of input has

necessitated a fair amount of adaptation post occupancy.

Achahoish Primary School, Lochgilphead

Located on a Greenfield site and completed in 2005, the school has a roll of only 30 pupils and

replaced a much loved Victorian building. It is surprising to note that it was not until after moving

that the users realised their original building was no longer fit for purpose!

A couple of passive vent stacks are provided in the roof to assist natural ventilation in the

classrooms. However, other opportunities for passive design have not been included eg an east

west axis would have favoured north light / solar gain and facilitated better zoning for the

landscaping. Mention is made of natural lighting through the roof but on investigation, the roof

lights are few and rather small. Due to its remote location electric heating and storage heaters are

provided – was possibility for biomass explored?

Lessons learned appear to be universally positive and relate to the consultation of users

throughout the process. However, there is no information relating to performance in relation to

expectations.


Bunessan Primary School

POE relates to an extension to an existing school dating from the 1870s. The project was

completed in 2001 and utilised off-site construction techniques and dry trades to offset problems

with erecting in winter months. Little evidence is provided in relation to sustainable credentials,

although the building is naturally ventilated.

Cedar cladding has been selected due to its proposed maintenance free properties, although it is

noted that this could have been enhanced through better detailing eg provision of roof

overhangs, gravel edging below boards, stainless steel nails.

Users reported a lack of consultation during the design process and complain of insufficient

storage space, heating problems and poor connection with external spaces. From reviewing the

plans, it is unclear whether full compliance with DDA access requirements has been achieved.


APPENDIX B Energy Questionnaire

Unfortunately the questionnaire produced a relatively low return rate, despite initial enthusiasm

from head teachers. It was evident from follow up discussions that there was difficulty in gaining

access to energy performance data in some LAs.

Williamswood Primary School

This respondent did not directly reply to the questionnaire but submitted data in table format.

Date Target Gas Kwh/Day

Actual Gas Kwh/Day

Delta Target

Electricity Kwh/Day

Actual Electricity Kwh/Day

delta CUSUM Gas & Elect

03 July 2006

31 July 2006 653 1,546 894 2,713 1,998 -715

31 August 2006 1,400 1,586 187 2,842 2,797 -46 320

30 September 2006 1,237 3,227 1,990 2,814 3,471 657 2,966

31 October 2006 3,868 4,314 447 3,270 3,398 127 3,540

30 November 2006 7,537 7,764 227 3,907 4,351 445 4,212

03 January 2007 9,226 9,304 78 4,200 3,413 -786 3,504

31 January 2007 9,031 9,782 751 4,166 4,153 -13 4,242

28 February 2007 8,512 9,418 906 4,076 4,018 -58 5,090

30 March 2007 8,512 8,569 58 4,076 4,373 298 5,446

30 April 2007 4,939 4,960 20 3,456 3,057 -399 5,067

31 May 2007 4,842 3,940 -902 3,439 3,295 -144 4,021

28 June 2007 1,984 1,203 -781 2,944 3,238 294 3,534

31 July 2007 1,627 664 -963 2,882 1,514 -1,368 1,203

31 August 2007 1,530 1,320 -209 2,865 2,763 -102 892

28 September 2007 3,121 3,119 -2 3,141 3,795 654 1,543

30 October 2007 4,452 4,812 360 3,372 3,870 499 2,402

30 November 2007 7,407 6,722 -685 3,884 4,639 755 2,472

28 December 2007 10,655 9,877 -778 4,448 4,076 -371 1,323

31 January 2008 10,298 9,878 -419 4,386 4,073 -312 591

29 February 2008 9,064 11,060 1,996 4,172 4,672 501 3,088

31 March 2008 9,875 9,668 -207 4,312 4,269 -44 2,837

30 April 2008 7,700 6,464 -1,235 3,935 3,735 -200 1,401

30 May 2008 3,218 2,090 -1,129 3,158 3,323 165 437

30 June 2008 2,601 2,000 -602 3,051 3,558 507 343

31 July 2008 978 868 -109 2,769 1,867 -902 -668

29 August 2008 685 1,365 680 2,718 2,853 134 146

30 September 2008 3,056 2,634 -422 3,130 3,630 501 225

31 October 2008 6,920 6,264 -656 3,800 3,824 24 -408

28 November 2008 8,836 8,056 -780 4,132 4,455 323 -864

19 December 2008 12,279 10,336 -1,943 4,729 4,307 -422 -3,229

26 January 2009 11,499 10,487 -1,012 4,594 3,933 -661 -4,902

27 February 2009 10,168 8,010 -2,158 4,363 3,358 -1,005 -8,065

30 March 2009 8,869 6,755 -2,114 4,138 3,865 -273 -10,452

29 April 2009 6,076 5,259 -816 3,653 3,837 184 -11,084

29 May 2009 5,459 3,527 -1,932 3,546 3,576 30 -12,987

26 June 2009 2,114 1,993 -121 2,966 3,860 893 -12,214

24 July 2009 913 1,536 624 2,758 2,014 -744 -12,335

28 August 2009 978 2,079 1,102 2,769 3,203 434 -10,800

24 September 2009 2,147 2,520 373 2,972 4,345 1,373 -9,053


Galston Primary School

This return did not come in the form of actual data and responses paraphrase the original

questionnaire.

1. The school’s annual energy usage for gas and electricity?

The official handover was Autumn last year and as our records cover financial years that is April to April, our readings for 2008/9 are incomplete and the first full year’s results would be in the 2009/10 figures.

2. Is this on par with expectations?

Until all the commissioning, system tweaking and user training has been complete it would not be possible to make a far assessment against expectations. We can confirm that electricity and heat is being produced on the site and that the amount of imported energy is substantially reduced as a result, but as to the total consumption and how

that compares against comparable schools this has not as yet been evaluated.

3. Divergence?

The relentless increase in energy consumption whilst relatively easy to control if used for heating, gas usage for example can and has been substantially reduced throughout our property stock and considerable reductions in electricity for lighting has also been achieved. The far bigger problem is the growth of computers, peripherals and the increase in server power requirements not just for the operation but the increasing requirement for air conditioning. This is not specifically for the Galston School but as an organisation poses considerable challenges for the future.

My comments have been somewhat general but hopefully they explain why as yet we are not in the position to give definitive answers.


APPENDIX C Natural Ventilation and Daylighting

Energy use in schools is significantly reduced through the provision of natural ventilation and day-

lighting systems, assuming users are provided with appropriate automatic and manual controls

(case studies DfES ,2006). This places exacting demands upon fenestration and window design,

which must balance the desire for daylight and ventilation against potential problems of thermal

performance, acoustics and glare.

The purpose of ventilation is three fold:

To reduce excess heat gains

To maintain air quality by removing air borne pollutants

To remove odours

(DfES, 2003)

For teaching spaces, ventilation should provide fresh air at a rate of 8 l/s per person, based on the

maximum room occupancy. BB87 advises that natural ventilation is the preferred method of

providing fresh air in schools, although it is acknowledged that this can conflict with acoustic

performance in noisy environments. In recognition, ambient noise levels are relaxed in

exceptional circumstances, by lowering ambient noise levels by 5dB.

Natural ventilation is either driven by the phenomena of stack effect, where warm air rises or by

the effect of differential air pressure on opposite elevations of the building. To promote

ventilation by stack effect in classrooms, windows should be provided with high and low level

openers.

Indoor Air Quality, which is a measure of environmental pollutants, has been shown to be a

significant factor on occupant performance (DfES, 2006). For this reason, the pollutant CO₂ is

monitored as a key indicator, which must not exceed an average of 1500 ppm in teaching areas.

In a well insulated building, ventilation heat losses are typically in the region of 80%, necessitating

heat recovery in mechanical systems and a commitment to air tightness. Summer overheating is a

significant problem, especially with increasing heat gains due to the growth of IT. Natural

ventilation requirements for cooling are therefore substantially greater than would be necessary

for IAQ alone.


Roof mounted passive stack ventilators are a common feature in many new schools and have the

advantage of security and acoustic integrity. Being wind assisted, optimum performance requires

a reasonable differential in air pressure, which requires ventilation to be calculated on the basis of

average wind speed and temperatures. They can be used with opening window ventilators to

boost natural ventilation in classrooms. Dampers are provided to control the supply of air and fan

assist in summer. Secure night cooling can also be provided by programming volume control

dampers to open at midnight, expelling stale air via the stack effect (Monodraught, 2009).

Daylight should be the main source for lighting internal rooms, with ADLF of 4 -5%, deemed

appropriate for most tasks. In teaching spaces 500 lux on the working plane is required, with 300

lux elsewhere. Maximum glazed area of 40% adopted for heat loss purposes – may be increased if

passive daylight design strategy is proposed, providing insulating u values are also increased.

Horizontal glazing should not exceed 20% of roof area. A minimum of 20% of the external wall of

teaching spaces should be available for views out.


APPENDIX D Considerations for Renewables in New Schools

The following is a brief summary of considerations which will influence the appropriate selection

of renewable technology on school projects.

Solar water heating is highly effective, with a good capital payback but due to relatively low water

use and void occupancy in summer, it is has often been rejected for schools. The technology is

appropriate when used off-grid, particularly in conjunction with other systems e.g. PV and GSHP

(see below).

Biomass has been successfully implemented in several recent sustainable schools (DfES, 2006)

although it most suitable for buildings in continuous occupation. The capital payback can be

compromised by the onerous demands of constructing fuel storage, particularly if below ground.

To be sustainable, biomass should be locally sourced, which raises concerns for stability of supply

and price, should the market become saturated.

Ground source heat pumps are efficient, providing buildings are well insulated and heat is

distributed at lower temperatures, favouring their use with UFH. Due to the relatively high cost of

the heat pump, they only become economic in the absence of mains gas. Ground Source Heat

(GSH) also offers the benefit of cooling in summer, since heat pumps can work in reverse. Free

energy gained from heat exchange is typically four times the electricity used to power the pump,

although this can be doubled through the use of inter-seasonal heat stores (ICAX, 2007).

PV cells have a strong tradition in sustainable schools, although capital investment is rarely repaid

over their lifetime. Installations with good solar radiation typically generate 750kWh per kWp of

installed capacity (Fisher, Jessop et al, 2007) but the mismatch between supply and demand has

to be managed. Usually, this is done by exporting surplus energy to the grid, although this is

invariably reimbursed at a substantially lower rate than supplied power. Installations are

maintenance free and if highly visible, can effectively communicate a school’s sustainability

credentials to the general public. PV can be useful when used in parallel with other renewables or

to offset energy demands of mechanical cooling in summer months.

Wind turbines are a common feature, although their contribution is largely dependent on the

average speed and “roughness” of available wind. Average wind speeds in excess of 5 m/s are

required before pay back can be achieved. Turbines work well in parallel with PV cells, since wind

is often available when there is a lack of sunlight. Mast height materially impacts upon their

generating capacity, which along with noise pollution can be a planning issue in urban centres.

Occasional maintenance is required to ensure optimal performance.


Micro-hydro power may be highly appropriate in situations where there is a suitable water source

nearby, although the technology requires specialist engineering unlike other methods. When used

off-grid, the management of surplus electricity has to be considered and the system will require

occasional maintenance and overhaul. Moreover, the impacts on wildlife and fauna require to be

carefully controlled.

Combine Heat and Power (CHP) is an emerging renewable, which can be specified in place of a

conventional boiler, using natural gas and also has the added benefit of generating electricity. If

fuelled by biomass or biogas, it becomes a viable low carbon technology, providing a stable local

supply is available. Since CHP produces both heat and power, it is not deemed compatible with

other renewables. Given the capital investment, it is an inappropriate technology for use in

schools during summer months, when only electricity is required.

Fuel cells are a further emerging technology which may well offer appropriate energy solutions in

future but are insufficiently established at this time to be considered for current school projects.


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Colin Gordon MSc_Final_Thesis January 2010

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