Cold WarCold WarKKennedyennedy1961-19631961-1963

KennedyKennedy

Bay of Pigs, April 1961Bay of Pigs, April 1961

In the Summer of 1960 the CIA began secretly training In the Summer of 1960 the CIA began secretly training Cuban expatriates – know as La Brigada – in Florida, Cuban expatriates – know as La Brigada – in Florida, Panama, Guatemala, for an invasion of the island in the Panama, Guatemala, for an invasion of the island in the hope of triggering a mass uprising against Castro and hope of triggering a mass uprising against Castro and overthrowing his regime (Operation Zapata)overthrowing his regime (Operation Zapata)

Kennedy inherited the Plan and approved of it after CIA Kennedy inherited the Plan and approved of it after CIA assurances that it would succeed – but he did not want assurances that it would succeed – but he did not want US involvement in it to be too obvious (no “sneak US involvement in it to be too obvious (no “sneak attack”)…wanted “plausible deniability” ….attack”)…wanted “plausible deniability” ….

On the night of April 17th, 1961, some 1,400 Cuban On the night of April 17th, 1961, some 1,400 Cuban exiles landed on the island’s southern coast at the Bay exiles landed on the island’s southern coast at the Bay of Pigs – expecting air support and a spontaneous of Pigs – expecting air support and a spontaneous uprising of the Cuban people. Nothing went as planneduprising of the Cuban people. Nothing went as planned

An air strike carried out two days before had failed to An air strike carried out two days before had failed to knock out the Cuban air force, although the CIA knock out the Cuban air force, although the CIA reported that it had done soreported that it had done so

Kennedy had at the last second reduced the air strike, Kennedy had at the last second reduced the air strike, (from 16 to 6 planes) helping to render it ineffective(from 16 to 6 planes) helping to render it ineffective

He then canceled the air strikes planned to coincide He then canceled the air strikes planned to coincide with the actual invasion – the invasion failed…with the actual invasion – the invasion failed…

Castro turned the failed invasion into a public relations Castro turned the failed invasion into a public relations triumph (Castro popular, no popular unrest, armed by triumph (Castro popular, no popular unrest, armed by USSR, knew of invasion plans)USSR, knew of invasion plans)

The disaster left Kennedy embarrassed. Privately he The disaster left Kennedy embarrassed. Privately he blamed the CIA and Pentagon for miscalculating and blamed the CIA and Pentagon for miscalculating and misinforming him. Publicly he accepted blame for the misinforming him. Publicly he accepted blame for the fiasco. He negotiated terms with Castro for the release fiasco. He negotiated terms with Castro for the release of the survivors and paid a ransom of $53m in food and of the survivors and paid a ransom of $53m in food and medical supplies.. medical supplies..

But he warned that he would resist any further But he warned that he would resist any further Communist expansion in the Western Hemisphere: he Communist expansion in the Western Hemisphere: he said that the US did not intend to abandon Cuba to said that the US did not intend to abandon Cuba to Communism – yet Castro defiantly welcomed more Communism – yet Castro defiantly welcomed more Soviet aid and forged a closer relationship with the Soviet aid and forged a closer relationship with the USSR. USSR.

The whole episode pushed the Cubans closer to the The whole episode pushed the Cubans closer to the Soviets. – and then in Nov. 1961 Castro declared himself Soviets. – and then in Nov. 1961 Castro declared himself to be a Communist, that he was always a Communist…to be a Communist, that he was always a Communist…

Kennedy’s reaction was to agree to the CIA’s plans to Kennedy’s reaction was to agree to the CIA’s plans to assassinate Castro – Operation Mongoose – but several assassinate Castro – Operation Mongoose – but several assassination attempts failedassassination attempts failed

Other Kennedy Cold War PoliciesOther Kennedy Cold War Policies

Strong anti-Communist. Critical of Eisenhower for not Strong anti-Communist. Critical of Eisenhower for not opposing Communist expansion with more force. He opposing Communist expansion with more force. He abandoned Massive Retaliation and replaced it with abandoned Massive Retaliation and replaced it with Flexible Response and Military DiversificationFlexible Response and Military Diversification

Strengthening the army and navy as well as the air force Strengthening the army and navy as well as the air force and increased nuclear weapons. and increased nuclear weapons.

As part of his policy he approved the formation of a new As part of his policy he approved the formation of a new force – force – The Green BeretsThe Green Berets – to fight guerilla warfare – to fight guerilla warfare against communist forces in Latin America if necessary. against communist forces in Latin America if necessary.

He hoped to return to a He hoped to return to a Good Neighbor policyGood Neighbor policy by by devising devising An Alliance for Progress (March, 1961)An Alliance for Progress (March, 1961) under under which relief projects would be undertaken in which relief projects would be undertaken in impoverished Latin Am countries to eliminate the impoverished Latin Am countries to eliminate the conditions under which Communism might grow – conditions under which Communism might grow – volunteer graduates were encouraged to give their volunteer graduates were encouraged to give their services. services.

He also set up the He also set up the Peace CorpsPeace Corps which trained volunteers which trained volunteers to work abroad on humanitarian projects. to work abroad on humanitarian projects.

However, the US relationship with Latin America was However, the US relationship with Latin America was not very good in these year because of what they not very good in these year because of what they perceived to be US interference in their internal political perceived to be US interference in their internal political affairs….including in Cuba affairs….including in Cuba

Alliance for Progress; Origin and goalsAlliance for Progress; Origin and goalsU.S. assistance program for Latin America begun U.S. assistance program for Latin America begun in 1961 by Kennedyin 1961 by Kennedy It was created principally to counter the appeal It was created principally to counter the appeal of revolutionary politics, such as those adopted in of revolutionary politics, such as those adopted in Cuba….. A type of Marshall Plan….economic Cuba….. A type of Marshall Plan….economic development to prevent the growth of left wing development to prevent the growth of left wing gorupsgorupsIt called for vast multilateral programs to relieve It called for vast multilateral programs to relieve the continent's poverty and social inequities and the continent's poverty and social inequities and ultimately included U.S. programs of military and ultimately included U.S. programs of military and police assistance to counter Communist police assistance to counter Communist subversion. subversion.

In March 1961, President Kennedy proposed a ten-year plan for In March 1961, President Kennedy proposed a ten-year plan for Latin America:Latin America:

““...we propose to complete the revolution of the Americas, to build ...we propose to complete the revolution of the Americas, to build a hemisphere where all men can hope for a suitable standard of a hemisphere where all men can hope for a suitable standard of living and all can live out their lives in dignity and in freedom. To living and all can live out their lives in dignity and in freedom. To achieve this goal political freedom must accompany material achieve this goal political freedom must accompany material progress...Let us once again transform the American Continent into progress...Let us once again transform the American Continent into a vast crucible of revolutionary ideas and efforts, a tribute to the a vast crucible of revolutionary ideas and efforts, a tribute to the power of the creative energies of free men and women, an example power of the creative energies of free men and women, an example to all the world that liberty and progress walk hand in hand. Let us to all the world that liberty and progress walk hand in hand. Let us once again awaken our American revolution until it guides the once again awaken our American revolution until it guides the struggles of people everywhere-not with an imperialism of force or struggles of people everywhere-not with an imperialism of force or fear but the rule of courage and freedom and hope for the future of fear but the rule of courage and freedom and hope for the future of man.man.””

The program was signed at an inter-American conference at The program was signed at an inter-American conference at Uruguay in August 1961. The charter called for:Uruguay in August 1961. The charter called for:

First, Latin American countries to pledge a capital investment of First, Latin American countries to pledge a capital investment of $80 billion over 10 years. The United States agreed to supply or $80 billion over 10 years. The United States agreed to supply or guarantee $20 billion over the decade.guarantee $20 billion over the decade.

Second, Latin American delegates required the participating Second, Latin American delegates required the participating countries to draw up comprehensive plans for national countries to draw up comprehensive plans for national development. These plans were then to be submitted for development. These plans were then to be submitted for approval by an inter-American board of experts.approval by an inter-American board of experts.

Third, tax codes had to be changed to demand "more from those Third, tax codes had to be changed to demand "more from those who have most" and land reform was to be implemented.who have most" and land reform was to be implemented.

Also called for Also called for an annual increase of 2.5% in per capita an annual increase of 2.5% in per capita income, the establishment of democratic governments, more income, the establishment of democratic governments, more equitable income distribution, land reform, and economic and equitable income distribution, land reform, and economic and social planningsocial planning

Under the program economic assistance to Latin Under the program economic assistance to Latin America nearly tripled between fiscal year 1960 and America nearly tripled between fiscal year 1960 and fiscal year 1961. Between 1962 and 1967 the US fiscal year 1961. Between 1962 and 1967 the US supplied $1.4 billion per year to Latin America. If new supplied $1.4 billion per year to Latin America. If new investment was included, this amount rose to $3.3 investment was included, this amount rose to $3.3 billion per year. billion per year.

But economic aid to Latin Am dropped sharply in the But economic aid to Latin Am dropped sharply in the late 60s, esp. when Nixon became President…the late 60s, esp. when Nixon became President…the amount of aid totaled $22.3 billion….but this amount amount of aid totaled $22.3 billion….but this amount was not necessarily net transfers of resources and was not necessarily net transfers of resources and development…Latin American countries still had to development…Latin American countries still had to pay off their debts to the US and other first world pay off their debts to the US and other first world countriescountries

In addition, profits usually returned to the US, In addition, profits usually returned to the US, and profits frequently exceeded new investment.and profits frequently exceeded new investment.

In March 1969, the US ambassador to the OAS, In March 1969, the US ambassador to the OAS, William T. Denzer concluded that "When you William T. Denzer concluded that "When you look at net capital flows and their economic look at net capital flows and their economic effect, and after all due credit is given to the effect, and after all due credit is given to the U.S. effort to step up support to Latin America, U.S. effort to step up support to Latin America, one sees that not that much money has been put one sees that not that much money has been put into Latin America after all.“into Latin America after all.“

The alliance charter included a clause encouraged by US The alliance charter included a clause encouraged by US policy makers that committed the Latin American policy makers that committed the Latin American governments to the promotion "of conditions that will governments to the promotion "of conditions that will encourage the flow of foreign investments" to the region.encourage the flow of foreign investments" to the region.

U.S. industries lobbied Congress to amend the Foreign U.S. industries lobbied Congress to amend the Foreign Affairs Act of 1961 to ensure that US aid would not be Affairs Act of 1961 to ensure that US aid would not be furnished to any foreign business that could compete with furnished to any foreign business that could compete with US business "unless the country concerned agrees to limit US business "unless the country concerned agrees to limit the export of the product to the US to 20 percent of the export of the product to the US to 20 percent of output“output“

Very pro-USA……….more like Dollar Diplomacy

To many experts, the foreign aid program was a To many experts, the foreign aid program was a sham since five times more dollars were leaving sham since five times more dollars were leaving Brazil in the form of earnings, dividends and Brazil in the form of earnings, dividends and royalties paid to American companies than royalties paid to American companies than entering the country as direct investments. entering the country as direct investments.

In his book In his book Hidden TreasuresHidden Treasures, Langguth , Langguth describes the way Brazilians referred to the describes the way Brazilians referred to the program as being one in which it was Brazil that program as being one in which it was Brazil that was giving foreign aid to the United States after was giving foreign aid to the United States after tax credits and other privileges given to foreign tax credits and other privileges given to foreign firms were taken into accountfirms were taken into account

Military measures during Alliance for ProgressMilitary measures during Alliance for ProgressDuring the Kennedy administration, between 1961 and 1963 the U.S. During the Kennedy administration, between 1961 and 1963 the U.S. suspended economic and/or broke off diplomatic relations with suspended economic and/or broke off diplomatic relations with several countries which had dictatorships, including Argentina, the several countries which had dictatorships, including Argentina, the Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Peru. But Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Peru. But these suspensions were imposed only temporarily, for periods of only these suspensions were imposed only temporarily, for periods of only three weeks to six months (selective )three weeks to six months (selective )By 1964, under President Johnson, the program to discriminate By 1964, under President Johnson, the program to discriminate against dictatorial regimes ceased. In March 1964 the US approved a against dictatorial regimes ceased. In March 1964 the US approved a military coup in Brazil, and was prepared to help if called upon under military coup in Brazil, and was prepared to help if called upon under Operation Brother SamOperation Brother SamIn 1965 the US dispatched 24,000 troops to the Dominican Republic In 1965 the US dispatched 24,000 troops to the Dominican Republic to stop a possible left-wing take over under Operation Power Pack.to stop a possible left-wing take over under Operation Power Pack.The Alliance for Progress included U.S. programs of military and The Alliance for Progress included U.S. programs of military and police assistance to counter Communist subversion, including Plan police assistance to counter Communist subversion, including Plan LASO in Colombia.LASO in Colombia.

Because the perception was that the Alliance for Progress was a Because the perception was that the Alliance for Progress was a failure, shortly after taking office, on February 17, 1969, President failure, shortly after taking office, on February 17, 1969, President Richard Nixon commissioned a study to assess the state of Latin Richard Nixon commissioned a study to assess the state of Latin America. Nixon appointed his most powerful political rival, New America. Nixon appointed his most powerful political rival, New York Governor Nelson Rockefeller to direct the study. The poor York Governor Nelson Rockefeller to direct the study. The poor relationship between the two politicians suggested that Nixon relationship between the two politicians suggested that Nixon would not be that interested in the results of the study. There was would not be that interested in the results of the study. There was a lack of interest for the region in the late 1960s to early 1970s.a lack of interest for the region in the late 1960s to early 1970s.In early 1969, Rockefeller and his advisors took four trips to Latin In early 1969, Rockefeller and his advisors took four trips to Latin America. Most of the trips turned out to be an embarrassment. America. Most of the trips turned out to be an embarrassment. Rockefeller wrote in his report preface that,Rockefeller wrote in his report preface that,

““There is general frustration over the failure to achieve a more rapid There is general frustration over the failure to achieve a more rapid improvement in standards of living. The United States, because of its improvement in standards of living. The United States, because of its identification with the failure of the Alliance for Progress to live up to identification with the failure of the Alliance for Progress to live up to expectations, is blamed. People in the countries concerned also used our visit expectations, is blamed. People in the countries concerned also used our visit as an opportunity to demonstrate their frustrations with the failure of their own as an opportunity to demonstrate their frustrations with the failure of their own governments to meet their needs...demonstrations that began over grievances governments to meet their needs...demonstrations that began over grievances were taken over and exacerbated by anti-US and subversive elements which were taken over and exacerbated by anti-US and subversive elements which sought to weaken the United States, and their own governments in the sought to weaken the United States, and their own governments in the process.”process.”

The major part of the Rockefeller report suggested a reduction of The major part of the Rockefeller report suggested a reduction of U.S. involvement, "we, in the United States, cannot determine the U.S. involvement, "we, in the United States, cannot determine the internal political structure of any other nation". Because there was internal political structure of any other nation". Because there was little the United States should or could do toward changing the little the United States should or could do toward changing the political atmosphere in other countries, there was no reason to political atmosphere in other countries, there was no reason to attempt to use economic aid as a political tool. This was the attempt to use economic aid as a political tool. This was the justification to reduce economic aid in Latin America. justification to reduce economic aid in Latin America.

The Rockefeller report called for some aid to continue, but the The Rockefeller report called for some aid to continue, but the report recommended creating more effective aid programs.report recommended creating more effective aid programs.

Success and failures of the planSuccess and failures of the planGrowth in regional output per capita in Latin America in the 1960s Growth in regional output per capita in Latin America in the 1960s was 2.6%, exceeding the Alliance for Progress goal of 2.5%. In was 2.6%, exceeding the Alliance for Progress goal of 2.5%. In contrast to 2.2% growth per capita in the 1950s, GDP growth rate contrast to 2.2% growth per capita in the 1950s, GDP growth rate per capita in the region reached 2.9% in the latter half of the 1960s per capita in the region reached 2.9% in the latter half of the 1960s and accelerated to 3.3% in the 1970s. Overall nine countries and accelerated to 3.3% in the 1970s. Overall nine countries (including Brazil and Mexico) reached the target goal, ten nations (including Brazil and Mexico) reached the target goal, ten nations did not reach the goal, and only Haiti had lower growth.did not reach the goal, and only Haiti had lower growth.

Adult illiteracy was reduced but not wiped out. In some Adult illiteracy was reduced but not wiped out. In some countries, the number of people attending universities countries, the number of people attending universities doubled or even tripled. Access to secondary education doubled or even tripled. Access to secondary education also showed increases. One out of every four school-age also showed increases. One out of every four school-age children were provided with an extra food ration. Many children were provided with an extra food ration. Many people were provided with new schools, textbooks, or people were provided with new schools, textbooks, or housing.housing.

The Alliance for Progress saw the start of long-range The Alliance for Progress saw the start of long-range reform, with some improvements in land use and reform, with some improvements in land use and distribution, slightly improved tax laws and distribution, slightly improved tax laws and administration, the submission of detailed development administration, the submission of detailed development programs to the OAS, the creation of central planning programs to the OAS, the creation of central planning agencies, and greater local efforts to provide housing, agencies, and greater local efforts to provide housing, education, and financial institutions.education, and financial institutions.

Health clinics were built across Latin America. However, success in Health clinics were built across Latin America. However, success in improving health care was hindered by population growth.improving health care was hindered by population growth.

Of the 15 million peasant families living in Latin America, only one Of the 15 million peasant families living in Latin America, only one million benefited from any kind of land reform. The traditional million benefited from any kind of land reform. The traditional elites resisted any land reform.elites resisted any land reform.

Minimum wage laws were created but the minimum wages offered Minimum wage laws were created but the minimum wages offered to Nicaraguan workers, for example, were set so low as to have no to Nicaraguan workers, for example, were set so low as to have no appreciable effect on the wages received. In other nations, such as appreciable effect on the wages received. In other nations, such as El Salvador, minimum wage laws encouraged employers to use El Salvador, minimum wage laws encouraged employers to use labor-saving machinery.labor-saving machinery.

In Latin America during the 1960s thirteen constitutional In Latin America during the 1960s thirteen constitutional governments were replaced by military dictatorships. According to governments were replaced by military dictatorships. According to some authors, such as Peter Smith, this was a failure of the Alliance some authors, such as Peter Smith, this was a failure of the Alliance for Progress. Peter Smith wrote, "The most striking failure of the for Progress. Peter Smith wrote, "The most striking failure of the Alliance of Progress occurred within the political realm. Instead of Alliance of Progress occurred within the political realm. Instead of promoting and consolidating reformist civilian rule, the 1960s promoting and consolidating reformist civilian rule, the 1960s witnessed a rash of military coups throughout the region...By the witnessed a rash of military coups throughout the region...By the end of 1968 dictators were holding sway in several countries." end of 1968 dictators were holding sway in several countries."

ResultsResultsThe Alliance for Progress achieved a short-lived public The Alliance for Progress achieved a short-lived public relations success. It also had real but limited economic relations success. It also had real but limited economic advances. But by the early 1970s the program was widely advances. But by the early 1970s the program was widely viewed as a failure.viewed as a failure.Failure due toFailure due to1. Latin Am nations were unwilling to implement needed 1. Latin Am nations were unwilling to implement needed reform, esp. Land Reformreform, esp. Land Reform2. Presidents after Kennedy were less supportive of the 2. Presidents after Kennedy were less supportive of the ProgramProgram3. The amount of money was not enough - $20m 3. The amount of money was not enough - $20m averaged out to only $10 per person in Latin Amaveraged out to only $10 per person in Latin Am4. US supported military dictators at the expense of 4. US supported military dictators at the expense of democracy, to stop the spread of Communism democracy, to stop the spread of Communism

In 1973, the OAS disbanded the committee created to In 1973, the OAS disbanded the committee created to implement the alliance implement the alliance

Cuban Missile CrisisCuban Missile Crisis

During the Summer of 1962, Soviet weapons began to flow During the Summer of 1962, Soviet weapons began to flow to Cuba. Kennedy’s first response was to warn that the US to Cuba. Kennedy’s first response was to warn that the US would not tolerate the presence of offensive weapons in would not tolerate the presence of offensive weapons in Cuba. Cuba.

It was first thought that these weapons were defensive in It was first thought that these weapons were defensive in nature – the Soviets insisted they were SAM’s (surface to nature – the Soviets insisted they were SAM’s (surface to air)air)

But on Oct 14, photographs taken by American U2 spy-But on Oct 14, photographs taken by American U2 spy-planes provided evidence that the Soviets were installing planes provided evidence that the Soviets were installing medium and long range offensive nuclear missiles medium and long range offensive nuclear missiles (MRBM’s), which were not yet operational (estimated 22 (MRBM’s), which were not yet operational (estimated 22 weapons) – could kill 80m Americans in 5 minutes - might weapons) – could kill 80m Americans in 5 minutes - might be operational in about 14 days be operational in about 14 days

Khrushchev hoped to protect Cuba from another Khrushchev hoped to protect Cuba from another invasion and to maybe gain leverage with regard to US invasion and to maybe gain leverage with regard to US weapons in Europe, and with Allied presence in West weapons in Europe, and with Allied presence in West BerlinBerlin

Kennedy consulted with a specially appointed Kennedy consulted with a specially appointed Executive Committee – considered air strikes, invasion Executive Committee – considered air strikes, invasion Eventually recommended imposing a Quarantine on Eventually recommended imposing a Quarantine on Cuba to prevent delivery of more equipment / missiles, Cuba to prevent delivery of more equipment / missiles, as well as a demand that the Soviets remove all the as well as a demand that the Soviets remove all the missilesmissiles

The 13 day standoff is considered the closest both sides The 13 day standoff is considered the closest both sides came to actual war / nuclear war during the Cold War – came to actual war / nuclear war during the Cold War – “the Cold War’s most dangerous and dramatic event”“the Cold War’s most dangerous and dramatic event”

Soviet ships carrying more missiles headed towards Soviet ships carrying more missiles headed towards Cuba, while the US navy prepared a quarantine to Cuba, while the US navy prepared a quarantine to prevent them coming within 500 miles of the island. prevent them coming within 500 miles of the island.

In Florida nearly 200,000 men and dozens of B-52 In Florida nearly 200,000 men and dozens of B-52 bombers were being concentrated as part of a US bombers were being concentrated as part of a US invasion forceinvasion force

The first break in the crisis occurred when the Soviet The first break in the crisis occurred when the Soviet ships suddenly halted and turned back to avoid ships suddenly halted and turned back to avoid confrontation at sea.confrontation at sea.

A few days later, Khrushchev offered to remove the A few days later, Khrushchev offered to remove the missiles in return for a US pledge not to invade Cuba: missiles in return for a US pledge not to invade Cuba: then in a second note he added a new condition, that the then in a second note he added a new condition, that the US withdraw its weapons (Jupiters) from TurkeyUS withdraw its weapons (Jupiters) from Turkey

Kennedy agreed to the first condition but would not Kennedy agreed to the first condition but would not make removing weapons from Turkey part of this deal – make removing weapons from Turkey part of this deal – but gave a private assurance that he would do so anyway but gave a private assurance that he would do so anyway – they were obsolete and were in the process of being – they were obsolete and were in the process of being removed…..Khrushchev acceptedremoved…..Khrushchev accepted

Kennedy was praised for his decisive handling of the Kennedy was praised for his decisive handling of the crisis, for being tough and determinedcrisis, for being tough and determined

The crisis severely damaged Khrushchev’s prestige in The crisis severely damaged Khrushchev’s prestige in the USSR and the world. the USSR and the world.

Kennedy did not escape criticism, however, from some Kennedy did not escape criticism, however, from some who said he engaged in brinkmanship when private talks who said he engaged in brinkmanship when private talks might have resolved the crisis without the threat of might have resolved the crisis without the threat of nuclear war, and without embarrassing Khrushchev nuclear war, and without embarrassing Khrushchev (later replaced by more hard line Brezhnev). (later replaced by more hard line Brezhnev).

Others – hard-liners - believed that he had been too soft Others – hard-liners - believed that he had been too soft and had passed up an ideal chance to invade Cuba and and had passed up an ideal chance to invade Cuba and

oust Castrooust Castro. .

Kennedy and BerlinKennedy and Berlin

In between the Bay of Pigs and the Cuban Missile In between the Bay of Pigs and the Cuban Missile Crisis, Kennedy was involved in another Berlin Crisis, Kennedy was involved in another Berlin conflict with Khrushchev (the third Berlin Crisis)conflict with Khrushchev (the third Berlin Crisis)

By this time the economy of West Berlin was By this time the economy of West Berlin was extremely prosperous. In the 11 yrs since the Airlift, extremely prosperous. In the 11 yrs since the Airlift, almost 3 million East Germans – 20% of the pop of almost 3 million East Germans – 20% of the pop of East Germany – had fled into West Berlin. This great East Germany – had fled into West Berlin. This great stream of refugees showed the weakness in the stream of refugees showed the weakness in the Communist economy and its unpopular political Communist economy and its unpopular political systemsystem

It was embarrassing for the USSR - Khrushchev It was embarrassing for the USSR - Khrushchev wanted to solve the problem wanted to solve the problem

At a summit meeting in Vienna, Austria, in June 1961, At a summit meeting in Vienna, Austria, in June 1961, he ordered the Allies out of West Berlin, or he would he ordered the Allies out of West Berlin, or he would cut it off from West Germanycut it off from West Germany

Felt he could intimidate the young, inexperienced Felt he could intimidate the young, inexperienced Kennedy who had shown his limitations through the Kennedy who had shown his limitations through the Bay of Pigs fiascoBay of Pigs fiasco

But Kennedy resisted and threatened war if the Soviets But Kennedy resisted and threatened war if the Soviets tried to force them out again…nuclear war if necessarytried to force them out again…nuclear war if necessary

On returning home Kennedy told the nation in a On returning home Kennedy told the nation in a televised speech that Berlin was “the great testing place televised speech that Berlin was “the great testing place of Western courage and will”. He pledged that “we of Western courage and will”. He pledged that “we cannot and will not permit the Communists to drive us cannot and will not permit the Communists to drive us out of Berlin.” out of Berlin.”

Khrushchev, because of Kennedy’s determination, did Khrushchev, because of Kennedy’s determination, did not follow through with his threat to cut off the routes, not follow through with his threat to cut off the routes, but on Aug. 13, 1961, East German troops built a but on Aug. 13, 1961, East German troops built a concrete wall topped with barbed wire which cut the city concrete wall topped with barbed wire which cut the city in two and reduced the flow of refugees to a trickle. in two and reduced the flow of refugees to a trickle.

The Berlin Wall solved Khrushchev’s problem – ended The Berlin Wall solved Khrushchev’s problem – ended the refugee issue – but the wall became an ugly symbol the refugee issue – but the wall became an ugly symbol of Communist oppression, from which the US gained of Communist oppression, from which the US gained huge propaganda value (Kennedy wasn’t too unhappy huge propaganda value (Kennedy wasn’t too unhappy with it)with it)

Judge and Langdon say that he greeted it with a Judge and Langdon say that he greeted it with a “thunderous silence”….. And that it was a “thunderous silence”….. And that it was a “huge propaganda windfall.”“huge propaganda windfall.”

DetenteDetenteEvents in Cuba and Berlin made both leaders realize how Events in Cuba and Berlin made both leaders realize how serious the prospect of nuclear war was and they both serious the prospect of nuclear war was and they both searched for ways to tone down the hard line stance. The searched for ways to tone down the hard line stance. The one positive consequence of the Missile Crisis was that it one positive consequence of the Missile Crisis was that it scared both sides into finding some kind of scared both sides into finding some kind of accommodation. accommodation.

In April 1963 Kennedy announced that a In April 1963 Kennedy announced that a hot linehot line had had been set up between the White House and the Kremlin to been set up between the White House and the Kremlin to enable both leaders to communicate at once should enable both leaders to communicate at once should another crisis arise. another crisis arise.

Later that year the USA and USSR also agreed to a Later that year the USA and USSR also agreed to a Limited Test Ban TreatyLimited Test Ban Treaty that banned nuclear testing in that banned nuclear testing in the atmosphere…..these two represented mild the atmosphere…..these two represented mild detentedetente

Kennedy realized the need to improve Kennedy realized the need to improve communications, especially during times of communications, especially during times of emergency, for a confidential channel of emergency, for a confidential channel of communication unadulterated by the press…he communication unadulterated by the press…he stressed to Khrushchev the difference between stressed to Khrushchev the difference between popular American news and official gov. policies popular American news and official gov. policies in the wake of the media involvement in the in the wake of the media involvement in the Cuban Missile Crisis. Both sides agreed to setting Cuban Missile Crisis. Both sides agreed to setting up a direct line of communications knows as the up a direct line of communications knows as the “hot line” which would improve contact in “hot line” which would improve contact in dangerous situations and feasibly avert disasterdangerous situations and feasibly avert disaster

In Aug. 1963, representative of both countries In Aug. 1963, representative of both countries signed the Limited Test Ban Treaty. The goal was signed the Limited Test Ban Treaty. The goal was to “put an end to the contamination of man’s to “put an end to the contamination of man’s environment by radioactive substances.” Kennedy environment by radioactive substances.” Kennedy regarded it as a worldwide victory, stating that; regarded it as a worldwide victory, stating that; “for the first time agreement has been reached on “for the first time agreement has been reached on bringing the forces of nuclear destruction under bringing the forces of nuclear destruction under international control.”international control.”

Following Hot Line and Test Ban Treaty came an Following Hot Line and Test Ban Treaty came an agreement by Kennedy to sell wheat to the USSRagreement by Kennedy to sell wheat to the USSR

See Historiography and Judge and See Historiography and Judge and Langdon QuestionsLangdon Questions

Judge and Langdon Ch.’s 9,10,11Judge and Langdon Ch.’s 9,10,11

Historians: Historians: Dallek, Kautt, Schlesinger Dallek, Kautt, Schlesinger

Historians: Soares, Walton, Nathan Historians: Soares, Walton, Nathan

SummarySummaryBackground / Causes / Ideological DifferencesBackground / Causes / Ideological DifferencesConferences – Two World’s Speech, Iron CurtainConferences – Two World’s Speech, Iron CurtainTruman Doctrine / Containment (Kennan Telegram): Truman Doctrine / Containment (Kennan Telegram): Greece and Turkey Greece and Turkey Marshall Plan (Economic Containment)Marshall Plan (Economic Containment)National Security ActNational Security ActBerlin Crisis – NATO – Warsaw PactBerlin Crisis – NATO – Warsaw PactChina and MaoChina and MaoKorea: Limited WarKorea: Limited WarNuclear Arms RaceNuclear Arms RaceEisenhower, Dulles: New Look, Massive Retaliation, Eisenhower, Dulles: New Look, Massive Retaliation, BrinkmanshipBrinkmanshipSpace Race, NASASpace Race, NASA

Latin America (Guatemala, Cuba – Bay of Pigs and Missile Latin America (Guatemala, Cuba – Bay of Pigs and Missile Crisis)Crisis)Kennedy: Cuba, Berlin Wall: Flexible Response, Good Kennedy: Cuba, Berlin Wall: Flexible Response, Good Neighbor, Space Race Neighbor, Space Race Vietnam: Truman, Eisenhower, Kennedy, Johnson, NixonVietnam: Truman, Eisenhower, Kennedy, Johnson, NixonContainment: PresidentsContainment: PresidentsTruman: Greece/Turkey, Western Europe, Berlin Crisis, Truman: Greece/Turkey, Western Europe, Berlin Crisis, China, Korea, VietnamChina, Korea, VietnamEisenhower: Middle East (Iran, Egypt), Latin America Eisenhower: Middle East (Iran, Egypt), Latin America (Guatemala, Cuba), Vietnam(Guatemala, Cuba), VietnamKennedy: Berlin, Cuba, Vietnam, Latin AmericaKennedy: Berlin, Cuba, Vietnam, Latin AmericaJohnson/Nixon – VietnamJohnson/Nixon – VietnamContainment: Continents. Success or Failure? Containment: Continents. Success or Failure? Europe: Greece/Turkey, Marshall Plan and Western Europe, Europe: Greece/Turkey, Marshall Plan and Western Europe, Berlin Crisis (three)Berlin Crisis (three)Asia: China, Korea, VietnamAsia: China, Korea, VietnamLatin America: Guatemala, CubaLatin America: Guatemala, Cuba