Cognitive Psychology · 2019-02-12 · Cognitive Psychology Philipp Koehn 12 February 2019 Philipp...
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Cognitive Psychology
Philipp Koehn
12 February 2019
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1
two systems
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2System 1
• How does this woman feel
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2System 1
• How does this woman feel
• Intuitive, fast, non-conscious, automatic
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3System 2
• Compute:
13 × 27
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3System 2
• Compute:
13 × 27
• Reflection, slow, conscious, controlled
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4Cognition
• Human mind uses both System 1 and 2
• They interact
• They are occasionally in conflict
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5
memory
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6Memory
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7
sensory memory
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8Sensory Memory
• Retention of effects of sensory stimulation
• Persistence of vision: continued perception image after shown
• Lasts only fractions of second
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9Capacity and Duration of Sensory Memory
• display 12 letters for 50ms• ask to recall letters→ on average 4.5/12 correct
• display 12 letters for 50ms• immediately followed by sound indicating row• ask to recall letters in row→ on average 3.3/4 correct
• display 12 letters for 50ms• with delayed sound• ask to recall letters in row→ on average 1/4 correct
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10
short term memory
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11Short Term Memory
• Storing a few items for brief time
• Small: maybe just 4 items
• Short time: 15-20 seconds
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12Size: Numbers
• Experiment
– have a piece of paper ready– you will be shown a sequence of numbers– then, these will be hidden– write down the sequence
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12Size: Numbers
• Experiment
– have a piece of paper ready– you will be shown a sequence of numbers– then, these will be hidden– write down the sequence
• 2 1 4 9
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12Size: Numbers
• Experiment
– have a piece of paper ready– you will be shown a sequence of numbers– then, these will be hidden– write down the sequence
• 2 1 4 9
• 3 9 6 7 8
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12Size: Numbers
• Experiment
– have a piece of paper ready– you will be shown a sequence of numbers– then, these will be hidden– write down the sequence
• 2 1 4 9
• 3 9 6 7 8
• 6 4 9 7 8 4
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12Size: Numbers
• Experiment
– have a piece of paper ready– you will be shown a sequence of numbers– then, these will be hidden– write down the sequence
• 2 1 4 9
• 3 9 6 7 8
• 6 4 9 7 8 4
• 7 3 8 2 0 1 5
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12Size: Numbers
• Experiment
– have a piece of paper ready– you will be shown a sequence of numbers– then, these will be hidden– write down the sequence
• 2 1 4 9
• 3 9 6 7 8
• 6 4 9 7 8 4
• 7 3 8 2 0 1 5
• 8 4 2 6 4 1 3 2
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12Size: Numbers
• Experiment
– have a piece of paper ready– you will be shown a sequence of numbers– then, these will be hidden– write down the sequence
• 2 1 4 9
• 3 9 6 7 8
• 6 4 9 7 8 4
• 7 3 8 2 0 1 5
• 8 4 2 6 4 1 3 2
• 4 8 2 3 9 2 8 0 7
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12Size: Numbers
• Experiment
– have a piece of paper ready– you will be shown a sequence of numbers– then, these will be hidden– write down the sequence
• 2 1 4 9
• 3 9 6 7 8
• 6 4 9 7 8 4
• 7 3 8 2 0 1 5
• 8 4 2 6 4 1 3 2
• 4 8 2 3 9 2 8 0 7
• 5 8 5 2 9 8 4 6 3 7
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13Size: Shapes
• Asked to remember shapes
• Subjects can only remember up to 4
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14Size: Letters
• Remember a sequence of letters
• First experiment
B C I F C N C A S I B B
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14Size: Letters
• Remember a sequence of letters
• First experiment
B C I F C N C A S I B B
• Second experiment
C I A F B I N B C C B S
• Second example much easier
– exactly same letters– but: CIA, FBI, NBC, CBS are known acronyms
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15Chunking
• Short term memory only holds few items
• Items can be more complex chunks
• Grouping elementary items into larger meaning chunks
→more elementary items (e.g., letters) can be remembered
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16Working Memory
• Multiply 43×6
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16Working Memory
• Multiply 43×6
• One way to solve this problem
– visualize 43×6– multiply 3×6 = 18– hold 18 in memory– multiply 6×4 = 24– mentally transform this to 6×40 = 240– remember the 18– add 240+18=256
• In memory
– holding information (18)– processing information (the calculations)
• Short term memory = working memory
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17Components of Working Memory
• Phonological loop
stores verbal and auditory information
• Visuospatial sketch pad
contains visual and spatial information
• Central executive
contains information currently being processed
• Each component can contain information independent of the others
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18
long term memory
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19Long Term Memory
• What do you remember about today?
– when did you get up?– what did you have for breakfast?– what other classes did you have?– who did you talk to?– where have you been so far?– what ”things to do” where on your mind this morning?
• Take some time to write these down
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20Long Term Memory
• What do you remember about the day of the first lecture of this course?
– when did you get up?– what did you have for breakfast?– what other classes did you have?– who did you talk to?– where have you been so far?– what ”things to do” where on your mind this morning?
• Compare with you memories of today
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21Long Term Memory
• What do you remember about your first day of taking classes at college?
– when did you get up?– what did you have for breakfast?– what other classes did you have?– who did you talk to?– where have you been so far?– what ”things to do” where on your mind this morning?
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21Long Term Memory
• What do you remember about your first day of taking classes at college?
– when did you get up?– what did you have for breakfast?– what other classes did you have?– who did you talk to?– where have you been so far?– what ”things to do” where on your mind this morning?
• Do you remember more basic facts about that day
– where did you live that day?– who were you best friends that time?– what was your general mood that day?
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22Experiment
There is an interesting story about the telescope.In Holland, a man named Lippershey was an eyeglassmaker. One day his children were playing with somelenses. They discovered that things seemed very closeif two lenses were held about a foot apart. Lippersheybegan experimenting, and his ”spyglass” attractedmuch attention. He sent a letter about it to Galileo,the great Italian scientist. Galileo at once realized theimportance of the discovery and set about building aninstrument of his own.
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23Experiment
• Which of the following sentences was in the story:
1. Galileo, the great Italian scientist, sent him a letter about it.2. He sent a letter about it to Galileo, the great Italian scientist.3. A letter about it was sent to Galileo, the great Italian scientist.4. He sent Galileo, the great Italian scientist, a letter about it.
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23Experiment
• Which of the following sentences was in the story:
1. Galileo, the great Italian scientist, sent him a letter about it.2. He sent a letter about it to Galileo, the great Italian scientist.3. A letter about it was sent to Galileo, the great Italian scientist.4. He sent Galileo, the great Italian scientist, a letter about it.
• Correct answer is 2, but some subject mis-identify 3 or 4.
• Semantic coding: literal words forgotten, but meaning is remembered.
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24Episodic vs. Semantic Memory
• Episodic memory
– mental time travel– remembering specific personal experiences
• Semantic memory
– knowledge of facts– disconnected from the experience of learning them
• Interaction
– autobiographical: both episodic and semantic componentsI went to the Levering cafeteria Thursday two weeks ago.The cafeteria is 5 minutes from my room and open for lunch.
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25Types of Long Term Memory
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26Procedural Memory
• Skill memory
– tying your shoes– riding a bicycle
• Learned by practicing
• Hard to explain, but done effortless
• In fact, focusing on the task makes it harder
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27Priming
• Repetition priming
– showing the word bird– later, quicker response to
word bird than unseen ones– even, if no explicit memory
of seeing the word
• Propaganda effect
– exposed to messages (”X is good!”)– later, unconscious bias towards X
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28Classical Conditioning
• Pairing of two stimuli
– neutral stimulus
– conditioning stimulus withnatural response
• Classic example
– dog hears sounds
– dog gets food
⇒ Neutral stimulus evokes response
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29Encoding Methods
• Encoding = transferring information into long term memory
• Rehearsal (repeating information over and over again)
– maintenance rehearsal works poorly (5611 5611 5611 5611 5611)– better if elaborated (56 is my house number and 11 is the month I was born)
• Forming visual images
• Linking words to yourself
• Organize information (e.g., put in categories)
• Retrieval practice (test yourself)
• Matching conditions of encoding and retrieval
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30
categories
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31Concepts and Categories
• Concept
– meaning of objects, events, and abstract ideas– example: what is a cat?
• Category
– set of all possible examples of a concept
• Categorization
– placing things into categories
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32Category Cat
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33Definitional Approach
• Category defined byfeatures
• Very unlikely a goodexplanation of humancategories
• Example: chair ⇒
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34Wittgenstein’s Family Resemblance
• Recall: game
• Not all instances of a category share the same features
• But: each instance shares features with some other instances
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35Prototypical Approach
• What is a typical pet?
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35Prototypical Approach
• What is a typical pet?
– cat– dog
• What is a typical piece of furniture?
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35Prototypical Approach
• What is a typical pet?
– cat– dog
• What is a typical piece of furniture?
– chair– table– shelf
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36Average Case
• Mental image: average of all instances of class
• Does not have to be a real instance
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37Typicality
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38Tests for Typicality
• Sentence verification technique
– Measure reaction time for
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38Tests for Typicality
• Sentence verification technique
– Measure reaction time for
∗ An apple is a fruit.
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38Tests for Typicality
• Sentence verification technique
– Measure reaction time for
∗ An apple is a fruit.
∗ A pomegranate is a fruit.
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38Tests for Typicality
• Sentence verification technique
– Measure reaction time for
∗ An apple is a fruit.
∗ A pomegranate is a fruit.
– Faster reaction time for typical example
• Typical examples are named first
• Stronger priming effect
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39Exemplar Approach
• Prototype = one average example, possibly artificial
• Examplars = multiple real examples
• People seem to be use both
– initially build prototype– when learning more about category, exemplars are added
(e.g., penguin for bird)– exemplar approach for small categories (U.S. presidents)
prototype approach better for bigger categories (birds)
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40
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41Levels of Categories
musical instrument clothingguitar fish pants
trout jeans
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42Basic Level Categories
• Methods to establish what basic level ise.g., quickly determine if picture is car vs. vehicle
• Basic level not common among people
• For instance: oak vs. tree, sparrow vs. bird
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43Semantic Networks
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44Semantic Networks
• Relationships between concepts– is-a relationships defines hierarchy– is relationships defines properties– has relationship defines parts– can relationship defines possible actions
• Relationship marked at most general conceptbut can be overruled by more specific– a bird can fly– a penguin cannot fly
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44Semantic Networks
• Relationships between concepts– is-a relationships defines hierarchy– is relationships defines properties– has relationship defines parts– can relationship defines possible actions
• Relationship marked at most general conceptbut can be overruled by more specific– a bird can fly– a penguin cannot fly
• Response time for questions related to distance in network– is a canary a bird? (fast)– is a canary an animal? (slower)
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44Semantic Networks
• Relationships between concepts– is-a relationships defines hierarchy– is relationships defines properties– has relationship defines parts– can relationship defines possible actions
• Relationship marked at most general conceptbut can be overruled by more specific– a bird can fly– a penguin cannot fly
• Response time for questions related to distance in network– is a canary a bird? (fast)– is a canary an animal? (slower)
• But does not always work– is a pig a mammal? (slow)– is a pig an animal? (faster)
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45Connectionism
• Hidden layer representations for concepts and concept relationships
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46
problem solving
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47Problem
If the length of the circle’s radius is r, what is the length of the line x?
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48Solution
r = x
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49Problem Solving
• Obstacle between present state and goal
• Difficult, solution not immediately obvious
• When found, solution obviously correct
• Solution requires sudden ”insight”
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50Problem Solving Methods
• Restructuring
• Overcoming fixation
• Reaching solution through subgoals
• Find a better representation
• Analogical transfer
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51Problem
• Connect the chains into a single linked chain
• Only allowed to open and close 3 links
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52Overcoming Fixation
Fixation = Focus on specific characteristics of problem(here: 4 equal chain parts)
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53Problem
You are in a room with a corkboard.Mount the candle, so no dripping wax on the floor!
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54Overcoming Functional Fixation
Functional fixation = function of box is a container
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55Tower of Hanoi
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56Reaching Solution through Subgoals
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57Mutilated Checkerboard
After removing two corners,can you fill the checkerboard with dominos?
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58Variations of Representing the Problem
”Bread and Butter” solved twice as fast than ”Blank”, required fewer hints
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59Analogical Transfer
• Applying a known solution to a different problem
• Steps
– noticing that there is a analogous relationship– mapping between source and target problem– applying mapping to generate solution
• Apparently very common in real world
• Arguably, major driver in technology
– methods established in one field applied to another– younger researchers ignoring common practice– main problem: disproving bad ideas
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60
decision making
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61Judgment, Decisions, Reasoning
• We constantly have to make choices
• We typically have insufficient information
• Still, what is the best choice?
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62Inductive Reasoning
• All swans in Baltimore are white.
• I visited New York. The swans are white there, too.
⇒ Swans are white everywhere.
• Strength of inductive reasoning
– number of observations– representativeness of observations– quality of evidence
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63Problem
• What is a more likely cause of death in these pairs?
homicide vs. appendicitisauto-train collision vs. drowning
asthma vs. tornadoappendicitis vs. pregnancy
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64Availability Heuristic
• What is a more likely cause of death in these pairs?
homicide (20 times) vs. appendicitis 9% pricked wrongauto-train collision vs. drowning (5 times) 34% pricked wrongasthma (20 times) vs. tornado 58% pricked wrong
appendicitis (2 times) vs. pregnancy 83% pricked wrong
• More easily remembered examples judged as more probable
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65Representativeness Heuristic
• People often make decisions based on how two events resemble
• Possible pitfalls
– ignoring base rate– ignoring conjunction rule– ignoring law of large numbers
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66Problem
• We randomly pick one male from the population of the United States. That male,Robert, wears glasses, speaks quietly, and reads a lot.
• Is it more likely that Robert is a librarian or a farmer?
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67Ignoring Base Rate
• We randomly pick one male from the population of the United States. That male,Robert, wears glasses, speaks quietly, and reads a lot.
• Is it more likely that Robert is a librarian or a farmer?
• There are many more farmers than librarians(currently 10 times more male farmers than male librarians)
⇒ more likely that he is a farmer
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68Problem
• Linda is 31 years old, single, outspoken, and very bright. She majoredin philosophy. As a student, she was deeply concerned with issuesof discrimination and social justice, and also participated in antinucleardemonstrations.
• Which of the following alternatives is more probable?
1. Linda is a bank teller.2. Linda is a bank teller and is active in the feminist movement.
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69Ignoring Conjunction Rule
• Linda is 31 years old, single, outspoken, and very bright. She majoredin philosophy. As a student, she was deeply concerned with issuesof discrimination and social justice, and also participated in antinucleardemonstrations.
• Which of the following alternatives is more probable?
1. Linda is a bank teller.2. Linda is a bank teller and is active in the feminist movement.
• 2 is subsumed by 1, so 1 is always more likely
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70Problem
• A certain town is served by two hospitals. In the larger hospital about 45 babiesare born each day, and in the smaller hospital about 15 babies are born eachday. As you know, about 50 percent of all babies are boys. However, the exactpercentage varies from day to day. Sometimes it may be higher than 50 percent,sometimes lower. For a period of 1 year, each hospital recorded the days onwhich more than 60 percent of the babies born were boys.
• Which hospital do you think recorded more such days?
– The larger hospital?– The smaller hospital?– About the same
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71Law of Large Numbers
• A certain town is served by two hospitals. In the larger hospital about 45 babiesare born each day, and in the smaller hospital about 15 babies are born eachday. As you know, about 50 percent of all babies are boys. However, the exactpercentage varies from day to day. Sometimes it may be higher than 50 percent,sometimes lower. For a period of 1 year, each hospital recorded the days onwhich more than 60 percent of the babies born were boys.
• Which hospital do you think recorded more such days?
– The larger hospital?– The smaller hospital?– About the same
• Results: 22% each picked the larger or smaller, 56% picked the same
• But in a hospital with fewer births, larger variation from mean more likely
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72Confirmation Bias
• When presented with evidence, e.g., about political issues
• Confirming evidence is judged more credible
• Contradicting evidence is rejected
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73Deduction
• Syllogism
– all birds are animals– all animals eat food→ birds eat food
• Conditional Syllogism
– if a then b– predictions
given conclusion valid? judged correctly?a b yes 97%
not b a yes 60%b a no 40%
not a not b yes 40%
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74Conditional Syllogism: Abstract Example
• Each card has a letter on one side, a number on the other
• Which cards need to turned to check the rule
if the letter is a vowel, then the number is even
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74Conditional Syllogism: Abstract Example
• Each card has a letter on one side, a number on the other
• Which cards need to turned to check the rule
if the letter is a vowel, then the number is even
• Correct answer: card E and 7
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75Conditional Syllogism: Concrete Example
• Each card has the age on one side, a beverage on the other
• Which cards need to turned to check the rule
if a person is drinking beer, then the person must be over 21 years old
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75Conditional Syllogism: Concrete Example
• Each card has the age on one side, a beverage on the other
• Which cards need to turned to check the rule
if a person is drinking beer, then the person must be over 21 years old
• Correct answer: card Beer and 16 years old
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76
two systems, revisited
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77Problem
• a bat and a ball cost $1.10
• the bat costs $1 more than the ball
• how much does the ball cost?
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77Problem
• a bat and a ball cost $1.10
• the bat costs $1 more than the ball
• how much does the ball cost?
• Immediate response (system 1): 10 cents
• Careful consideration (system 2): 5 cents
• System 2 can be better, in daily life, we do not always have time for it
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