CognitionCognition

The elements of thought and reasoning

What is “Cognition”?What is “Cognition”?

• All of the mental activities associated with processing, understanding, and communicating

• All of the mental activities associated with processing, understanding, and communicating

What’s so great about thinking?What’s so great about thinking?

• It frees us from the immediate present It frees us from the immediate present – Think about things you’ve done in the past Think about things you’ve done in the past – Plan for the futurePlan for the future

• It carries us beyond the boundaries of It carries us beyond the boundaries of realityreality

– Imagine a Martian, a unicorn, etcImagine a Martian, a unicorn, etc

• It frees us from the immediate present It frees us from the immediate present – Think about things you’ve done in the past Think about things you’ve done in the past – Plan for the futurePlan for the future

• It carries us beyond the boundaries of It carries us beyond the boundaries of realityreality

– Imagine a Martian, a unicorn, etcImagine a Martian, a unicorn, etc

Thinking about thinkingThinking about thinking

• We have been able to accumulate and refine ideas over time

• We can be deceived– Knowledge of thought process allows us

to reason more effectively

• We have been able to accumulate and refine ideas over time

• We can be deceived– Knowledge of thought process allows us

to reason more effectively

Examples of LimitsExamples of Limits

• A man buys a horse for $60 and then sells it for $70. The then purchases that same horse again for $80 and later resells it for $90. How much money did he make/lose on the transactions?

• A man buys a horse for $60 and then sells it for $70. The then purchases that same horse again for $80 and later resells it for $90. How much money did he make/lose on the transactions?

What path will the

marble follow

when it leaves

the curved tube?

Models:Circle of Thought

Models:Circle of Thought

•Occurs very quickly

Info-Processing ModelInfo-Processing Model

How is information mentally represented?

How is information mentally represented?

• Through– Concepts– Propositions– Schemas– Scripts– Mental models– Cognitive maps

• Through– Concepts– Propositions– Schemas– Scripts– Mental models– Cognitive maps

ConceptsConcepts

A mental grouping of similar things, events, and people that is used to remember and understand what things are, what they mean, and what categories or groups they belong to.

To “have a concept” is to recognize the properties or features that tend to be shared by and define members of the category, and to ignore those that are not.

They allow you to address each object or event you encounter, not as something new and unique, but as related to a category that is already known.

ConceptsConcepts• Formal

– Defined by a set of rules or properties so that each member of the concept Defined by a set of rules or properties so that each member of the concept has all of the defining properties and no nonmember does has all of the defining properties and no nonmember does

• Natural– have no fixed set of defining features but instead share a set of have no fixed set of defining features but instead share a set of

characteristic featurescharacteristic features.. – ““Fuzzy” boundariesFuzzy” boundaries

• Prototypes– A member of a natural concept, which possesses all or most of its A member of a natural concept, which possesses all or most of its

characteristic featurescharacteristic features

• Formal– Defined by a set of rules or properties so that each member of the concept Defined by a set of rules or properties so that each member of the concept

has all of the defining properties and no nonmember does has all of the defining properties and no nonmember does

• Natural– have no fixed set of defining features but instead share a set of have no fixed set of defining features but instead share a set of

characteristic featurescharacteristic features.. – ““Fuzzy” boundariesFuzzy” boundaries

• Prototypes– A member of a natural concept, which possesses all or most of its A member of a natural concept, which possesses all or most of its

characteristic featurescharacteristic features

NATURAL CONCEPTS

PropositionsPropositions

• Expresses a relationship between concepts.• Propositions can be true or false. • They can be expressed as sentences but

are a general idea that can be conveyed in any number of specific ways.

• They are part of the network of associations

• Expresses a relationship between concepts.• Propositions can be true or false. • They can be expressed as sentences but

are a general idea that can be conveyed in any number of specific ways.

• They are part of the network of associations

• Premise #1– Some professors wear

ties.

• Premise #2– Some men wear ties.

• Conclusion– Some professors are

men.– Does this follow logically?

• Premise #1– Some professors wear

ties.

• Premise #2– Some men wear ties.

• Conclusion– Some professors are

men.– Does this follow logically?

• Premise #1– Some scarecrows wear

ties.

• Premise #2– Some professors wear

ties.

• Conclusion– Therefore, some

scarecrows are professors???

• Premise #1– Some scarecrows wear

ties.

• Premise #2– Some professors wear

ties.

• Conclusion– Therefore, some

scarecrows are professors???

– Some A are B. Some B are C. Therefore some A are C. Is this logical?

– Therefore…if some women (A) are democrats (B) and some democrats (B) are men (C), then women (A) are men (C) ???

– Some Middle-Easterners (A) follow Islamic beliefs (B) and some followers of Islam are terrorist (C) therefore Middle-Easterners (A) are terrorists (C) ?????

– Some A are B. Some B are C. Therefore some A are C. Is this logical?

– Therefore…if some women (A) are democrats (B) and some democrats (B) are men (C), then women (A) are men (C) ???

– Some Middle-Easterners (A) follow Islamic beliefs (B) and some followers of Islam are terrorist (C) therefore Middle-Easterners (A) are terrorists (C) ?????

SchemasSchemas• Generalizations we develop about categories of

objects, places, events, and people. • Schemas help us understand the world and predict

life—creating expectations about objects, places, events, and people

• Generalizations we develop about categories of objects, places, events, and people.

• Schemas help us understand the world and predict life—creating expectations about objects, places, events, and people

ScriptsScripts• Schemas about familiar sequences of

activities. • People use scripts to interpret new information

and events, putting them into the familiar framework of the script.

• When scripts are violated, it is easy to misinterpret events

• A customer stormed out of a restaurant, leaving a small tip next to a largely uneaten meal. Why?

• Schemas about familiar sequences of activities.

• People use scripts to interpret new information and events, putting them into the familiar framework of the script.

• When scripts are violated, it is easy to misinterpret events

• A customer stormed out of a restaurant, leaving a small tip next to a largely uneaten meal. Why?

Mental ModelsMental Models

• Clusters of propositions that represent people’s understanding of how things (usually physical) work

– Why won’t my car start?

• Clusters of propositions that represent people’s understanding of how things (usually physical) work

– Why won’t my car start?

Are these pairs of objects the same or different?

Images and Cognitive MapsImages and Cognitive Maps• Images are mental representations of visual

information • What color is your car?

• Cognitive maps are mental representations of familiar parts of your world. As people move around an environment, they build a cognitive map, a mental representation of the spatial layout.

• How do you get to Kroger’s from here?

• Images are mental representations of visual information

• What color is your car?

• Cognitive maps are mental representations of familiar parts of your world. As people move around an environment, they build a cognitive map, a mental representation of the spatial layout.

• How do you get to Kroger’s from here?

ReasoningReasoningReasoning is the mental activity that involves operating on information in order to

reach conclusions.Reasoning is the mental activity that involves operating on information in order to

reach conclusions.

Formal ReasoningFormal ReasoningAlgorithmsAlgorithmsLogicLogic

Deductive Deductive ReasoningReasoningInductive Inductive ReasoningReasoning

Informal ReasoningInformal ReasoningHeuristicsInsightTrial and Error

AlgorithmsAlgorithms

• Set of procedures that is guaranteed to produce a solution

• Often laborious and time consuming

• Can be as complex as math formulas or as simple as a recipe

• Set of procedures that is guaranteed to produce a solution

• Often laborious and time consuming

• Can be as complex as math formulas or as simple as a recipe

Deductive ReasoningDeductive Reasoning

• If the premises are true, then the conclusion must be true

• Often the problem solver applies a rule or generalization to a new specific situation

• If the premises are true, then the conclusion must be true

• Often the problem solver applies a rule or generalization to a new specific situation

“Truthteller & Liar”You are visiting a very strange country in which there are just 2 types of people…truthtellers and liars. Truthtellers always tell the truth and liars always lie. You hail the first 2 people you meet and ask if they are truthtellers or liars. The first person mumbles something you can’t hear. The second says “He is a truthteller and so am I.” Can you trust the directions that these 2 men may give you?

“Truthteller & Liar”You are visiting a very strange country in which there are just 2 types of people…truthtellers and liars. Truthtellers always tell the truth and liars always lie. You hail the first 2 people you meet and ask if they are truthtellers or liars. The first person mumbles something you can’t hear. The second says “He is a truthteller and so am I.” Can you trust the directions that these 2 men may give you?

The HunterA hunter sees a bear 1 mile due south. He shoots, but misses and the bear runs off. The hunter walks that 1 mile due south, then walks 1 mile due east, and then 1 mile due north. At this point the hunter is standing in the exact same place where he fired the shot from his gun. What color was the bear?

The HunterA hunter sees a bear 1 mile due south. He shoots, but misses and the bear runs off. The hunter walks that 1 mile due south, then walks 1 mile due east, and then 1 mile due north. At this point the hunter is standing in the exact same place where he fired the shot from his gun. What color was the bear?

Turtle RaceTurtle Race• Four turtles, each from a different side of town,

were entered in the annual turtle race– The turtle from the East side won the race, and Daisy

came in second– Patsy is the sister of both the turtle from the East side

and the turtle from the West side– Fritz finished last, just after the turtle from the North

side– Daisy and Jake are from opposite sides of town– What was the order of finish, and what side of town is

each turtle from?

• Four turtles, each from a different side of town, were entered in the annual turtle race

– The turtle from the East side won the race, and Daisy came in second

– Patsy is the sister of both the turtle from the East side and the turtle from the West side

– Fritz finished last, just after the turtle from the North side

– Daisy and Jake are from opposite sides of town– What was the order of finish, and what side of town is

each turtle from?

North South East West

Daisy

Patsy

Jake

Fritz

1st: Jake (E)

2nd: Daisy (W)

3rd Patsy (N)

4th Fritz (S)

Inductive ReasoningInductive Reasoning

• The conclusion does not necessarily follow from the premises, although the premises support the conclusion; the conclusions may not be true

• Often the problem solving goes from the particular to the general

• The conclusion does not necessarily follow from the premises, although the premises support the conclusion; the conclusions may not be true

• Often the problem solving goes from the particular to the general

• What is the missing number in the sequences and why

– 5 9 13 ? 21– 120 99 ? 57– 1 4 16 ? 256– 8 ? 64 125 216– 12 9 3 6 3 1– 1 3 4 7 11 ?– 84178 41788 17884 78841

• What is the missing number in the sequences and why

– 5 9 13 ? 21– 120 99 ? 57– 1 4 16 ? 256– 8 ? 64 125 216– 12 9 3 6 3 1– 1 3 4 7 11 ?– 84178 41788 17884 78841

Imagine that you are serving on the jury of an only-child, sole-custody case following a relatively messy divorce. The facts of the case are complicated by ambiguous economic, social, and emotional considerations. You must base your decision entirely on the following observations

Parent “A”: average income, average health, average working conditions, a reasonable rapport with the child, and a relatively stable social life.Parent “B”: has an above average income, minor health problems, lots of work related travel, a very close relationship with the child, and an extremely active social life.To whom do you award custody?

Beware of Confirmation BiasBeware of Confirmation Bias

HeuristicsHeuristics

• A rule of thumb strategy that allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently. Usually faster, but more error prone than algorithms.

• Does not guarantee a correct solution

• A rule of thumb strategy that allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently. Usually faster, but more error prone than algorithms.

• Does not guarantee a correct solution

InsightInsight• Reorganizing a perception often produces

an “aha!!” experience, and the pieces suddenly fall together

• Rebuses: you just mestood

wellview

• Translate: YYURYYUBICURYY4ME

• Reorganizing a perception often produces an “aha!!” experience, and the pieces suddenly fall together

• Rebuses: you just mestood

wellview

• Translate: YYURYYUBICURYY4ME

The Desert DwellerThe Desert DwellerThere once was a wealthy desert dweller that was traveling with his caravan across the desert on a very long and hot day. As the caravan approached an oasis, the man said to 2 of his lieutenants “To the one of you whose horse gets to the oasis last, I’ll give you this camel loaded with riches.” They immediately stop. By the time the rear guard of the caravan reaches the 2 men, they have dismounted their horses and are waiting in the hot sun for the other to get so hot and thirsty that getting to the oasis can not be resisted. One of the guards sees the men and inquires about the situation. Shortly after, the guard says 2 words to the men. Suddenly, the 2 jump onto the horses and race toward the oasis. What 2 words were said?

Problem SolvingProblem Solving

• A test of our ability to use reason in an effective manner

• The Tower of Hanoi

• The task is to move the “tower” from the left peg to the right peg in the fewest moves possible. You may move only 1 disk at a time and never put a larger disk on a smaller disk.

• A test of our ability to use reason in an effective manner

• The Tower of Hanoi

• The task is to move the “tower” from the left peg to the right peg in the fewest moves possible. You may move only 1 disk at a time and never put a larger disk on a smaller disk.

• Flexible, rational thinking becomes even more difficult in times of stress and tension. {View of Enemy, Cuban Missile Crisis, Korean War Paratrooper, Friendly Fire incidents}

• We seldom take the time and effort to reason systematically. We just follow our intuition.

• Flawed reasoning can actually lead to correct conclusions!! {Doctors recognize patients symptoms, look at the similarity b/w the symptoms and a disease, and then proceed on a hunch.}

• Flexible, rational thinking becomes even more difficult in times of stress and tension. {View of Enemy, Cuban Missile Crisis, Korean War Paratrooper, Friendly Fire incidents}

• We seldom take the time and effort to reason systematically. We just follow our intuition.

• Flawed reasoning can actually lead to correct conclusions!! {Doctors recognize patients symptoms, look at the similarity b/w the symptoms and a disease, and then proceed on a hunch.}

Confirmation BiasConfirmation Bias

• The tendency to search for information that confirms our ideas and preconceptions, while ignoring information that opposes our beliefs

• The tendency to search for information that confirms our ideas and preconceptions, while ignoring information that opposes our beliefs

Hindsight BiasHindsight Bias

• Believing that the outcome was predictable all along

• Believing that the outcome was predictable all along

OverconfidenceOverconfidence• The tendency to be more confident than correct…

to overestimate the accuracy of one’s beliefs• Failing to appreciate the potential for error can

have devastating consequences, but so can a lack of self-confidence

• People who err on the side of overconfidence live more happily and find it easier to make tough decisions.

• The tendency to be more confident than correct…to overestimate the accuracy of one’s beliefs

• Failing to appreciate the potential for error can have devastating consequences, but so can a lack of self-confidence

• People who err on the side of overconfidence live more happily and find it easier to make tough decisions.

FixationFixation• The inability to see the problem from a new

perspective

– Matchstick problem

• Functional Fixedness• Perceive the functions of objects as fixed and unchanging

– How many uses can you come up with for a dime? A paperclip?– It’s 11p.m and somebody is pounding at the door. It turns out to be a rich old man in

a Rolls Royce involved in a scavenger hunt with some friends. He tells you he will give you $10,000 for a piece of wood about 3 ft by 7 ft, but you only have 1 minute to find it. What do you do?

• The inability to see the problem from a new perspective

– Matchstick problem

• Functional Fixedness• Perceive the functions of objects as fixed and unchanging

– How many uses can you come up with for a dime? A paperclip?– It’s 11p.m and somebody is pounding at the door. It turns out to be a rich old man in

a Rolls Royce involved in a scavenger hunt with some friends. He tells you he will give you $10,000 for a piece of wood about 3 ft by 7 ft, but you only have 1 minute to find it. What do you do?

Mental SetMental Set

• Tendency to approach a problem in a particular way, especially when the approach has been successful in the past

• Tendency to approach a problem in a particular way, especially when the approach has been successful in the past

The Lichens Jar ProblemThe Lichens Jar Problem(Mental Set)(Mental Set)

Avoiding LossAvoiding Loss

• People making decisions try to avoid or minimize risks and losses

– “A” : You’ve decided to see a Broadway play and have bought a $75 ticket. As you enter the theater, you realize you have lost your ticket. You can’t remember the seat number and have no other proof that you bought a ticket. Would you buy another ticket?

– “B”: You’ve reserved a seat for a Broadway play for which the ticket price is $75. As you enter the theater you notice that you’ve lost the $75 from your wallet. Would you still buy the ticket (assuming you still have enough money to do so)?

– Most people will buy a ticket after losing the money, but not after losing the ticket.

• People making decisions try to avoid or minimize risks and losses

– “A” : You’ve decided to see a Broadway play and have bought a $75 ticket. As you enter the theater, you realize you have lost your ticket. You can’t remember the seat number and have no other proof that you bought a ticket. Would you buy another ticket?

– “B”: You’ve reserved a seat for a Broadway play for which the ticket price is $75. As you enter the theater you notice that you’ve lost the $75 from your wallet. Would you still buy the ticket (assuming you still have enough money to do so)?

– Most people will buy a ticket after losing the money, but not after losing the ticket.

Missing $$Missing $$

SolutionSolution

Availability HeuristicAvailability Heuristic

• Exaggerate the Improbable • The tendency to judge the probability of an

event by how easy it is to think of examples or instances.

– Airline crashes, Jackpots at casinos, Welfare abuse cases, school shootings, the “Summer of the Shark”(2001), Post 9/11 Anthrax scares, Child abductions in Summer/Fall 2002, Sniper attacks (Fall 2002)

– Media often plays a vital role by providing a vivid portrayal of specific cases.{Asbestos in schools, Flu cases, SARS, AIDS, etc}

• Exaggerate the Improbable • The tendency to judge the probability of an

event by how easy it is to think of examples or instances.

– Airline crashes, Jackpots at casinos, Welfare abuse cases, school shootings, the “Summer of the Shark”(2001), Post 9/11 Anthrax scares, Child abductions in Summer/Fall 2002, Sniper attacks (Fall 2002)

– Media often plays a vital role by providing a vivid portrayal of specific cases.{Asbestos in schools, Flu cases, SARS, AIDS, etc}

Representative HeurtisticRepresentative Heurtistic

• A rule of thumb for judging the likelihood of things based on how well they match our prototypes; may lead us to ignore relevant information

– Who has a higher crime rate Dayton, OH or the Bronx in NYC?

• http://www.homefair.com/homefair/calc/crime.html

– Linda/Ernest/Poetry fan

• A rule of thumb for judging the likelihood of things based on how well they match our prototypes; may lead us to ignore relevant information

– Who has a higher crime rate Dayton, OH or the Bronx in NYC?

• http://www.homefair.com/homefair/calc/crime.html

– Linda/Ernest/Poetry fan

FramingFraming

• The way an issue is posed can significantly affect decisions and judgments

– Sale Prices– Effectiveness of birth control– Spending habits: how an expense is presented

can effect whether or not a purchase is made

• The way an issue is posed can significantly affect decisions and judgments

– Sale Prices– Effectiveness of birth control– Spending habits: how an expense is presented

can effect whether or not a purchase is made

Belief Perseverance Belief Perseverance

• Tendency to cling to one’s initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited

• Tendency to cling to one’s initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited

Belief BiasBelief Bias

• Tendency for one’s pre-existing beliefs to distort logical reasoning; sometimes by making invalid conclusions seem valid or valid conclusion invalid

• Tendency for one’s pre-existing beliefs to distort logical reasoning; sometimes by making invalid conclusions seem valid or valid conclusion invalid