Co-operative Leadership and Higher Education: four case ... · Co-operative Leadership and Higher...

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Co-operativeLeadershipandHigherEducation:fourcasestudies

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Lincoln,4thMay2017

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Introduction

Theaimofthisresearchistoassessthepossibilityofestablishingco-operativeleadershipasaviable

organisationalformofgovernanceandmanagementforHigherEducation,withtheintentionto

createaco-operativeuniversity.Co-operativeleadershipisalreadywellestablishedinbusiness

enterprisesintheUKandaroundtheworld(Ridley-DuffandBull2015),andhasrecentlybeen

adoptedastheorganisingprinciplebyover800schoolsintheUnitedKingdom(Wilson2014).The

co-operativemovementisaglobalphenomenonwithonebillionmembers,supportedbynational

andinternationalorganisationsworkingtoestablishco-operativeenterprisesandthepromotionof

co-operativeeducation.

HighereducationintheUKischaracterisedbyamodeofgovernancebasedonVice-

ChancellorsoperatingasChiefExecutivessupportedbySeniorManagementTeams(Shattock

2006). RecentresearchfromtheLeadershipFoundationforHigherEducationonNeo-collegialityin

themanagerialuniversity(Bacon2014)showsthathierarchicalmodelsofgovernancealienateand

de-motivatestaff,failingtotakeadvantageofresearch-basedproblemsolvingskillsofstaff

operatingatalllevels,andnotaccountingfortheadvantagestoorganisationswhenself-managed

professionalsinteractwithpeersonmattersofcommonpurpose,particularlyinknowledge-based

industries.

Theco-operativeleadershipmodelforhighereducationsupportstheambitionformore

activeengagementindecision-makingtofacilitatethebestuseofacademics’professional

capacities,butframedaroundamoreradicalmodelforleadership,governanceandmanagement.

Membersoftheco-operativeuniversitywouldnotonlybeinvolveddirectlyindecision-makingand

peer-basedprocessesthatmakebestuseoftheircollectiveskills,buthaveequalvotingrightsas

wellascollectiveownershipoftheassetsandliabilitiesoftheco-operative(Cook2013).Thismore

radicalmodelbuildsonworkdonerecentlyaspartofaprojectfundedbytheIndependentSocial

ResearchFoundation(ISRF)toestablishsomegeneralparametersaroundwhichaframeworkforco-

operativehighereducationcouldbeestablished(NearyandWinn2017aand2017b).Thesegeneral

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parametersaregroundedinasetofcatalyticprincipleswhich,weargue,arecentraltothe

developmentofaco-operativeuniversity.Thesecatalyticprinciplesare:knowledge,democracy,

bureaucracy,livelihoodandsolidarity.Knowledgereferstotheproductionofknowledgeand

meaningbytheorganisationasawhole;Democracyisconcernedwiththelevelsofinfluenceon

decisionmaking;Bureaucracymeansnotonlythetypeofadministrationbutasetofethicaland

moralprinciplesonwhichadministrationisbased;Livelihoodlooksbeyondwagestoincludeworking

practicesthatsupportthecapacitytoleadagoodlife,andSolidarityinvolvessharingacommitment

toacommonpurposeinsideandoutsideoftheinstitution.

Oneofthekeyissuesemergingfromthisresearchthatwewantedtoexplorefurtheristhe

significanceofco-operativeleadership-afocusofthispaper,andtheextenttowhichamodelofco-

operativeleadershipforhighereducationcanbesubstantiatedbythesecatalyticprinciples.

Thepaperdrawsoutlessonslearnedfromtheresearcharguingthatthetypeofco-operative

provisiondependsonlocalhistoryandcircumstances,emphasisingthatnewmodelsarenotonlythe

resultofrationalcalculationbutproducedbyworkingwithinandthroughdynamicandcontradictory

tensionsasawayofdevelopingalternativeformsofhighereducation.Thepaperdrawsona

theoreticalframeworkbasedoncriticalpoliticaleconomytosubstantiatethisassertion,focussingon

theconflictbetweenlabourandcapital.Whiletheresearchisframedwithinasetoftheoretical

assumptionsaswellasanalyticandstructuraldevices,theresearchhasrevealedwhatwealready

knew:institutionsarebuiltbypeoplebasedonloveandtrust,asenseofprideandcommitmentto

eachother,aswellasmanagingpersonaltensionsandantagonisms,morelikeafamilyorkinship

grouporcommunethanabusinesscorporation.

ResearchMethodology

Theresearchwascarriedoutborrowingfromtenetsestablishedbyanextendedcasestudymethod

(Burawoy1998).Thismethod“deploysparticipantobservationtolocateeverydaylifeinits

extralocalandhistoricalcontext.”(ibid,4)Itisareflexivemethodthataimsto“extractthegeneral

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fromtheunique,tomovefromthe‘micro’tothe‘macro’,andtoconnectthepresenttothepastin

anticipationofthefuture,allbybuildingonpre-existingtheory.”(ibid,5)Thepre-existingtheoryis

groundedinthe“powerofabstraction”(Marx1976,90),withaspecificfocusontheconceptof

labourincapitalism,asaneglectedcategoryforcriticalanalysis(DinersteinandNeary2002).

Recoveringthelanguageofpoliticaleconomy,andparticularlythecategoriesoflabourandcapital,

canworkasastartingpointforthedevelopmentofrealalternativestocapitalism,nottodevelopa

politicaleconomyfromthestandpointofcapital,butascritiqueoflabourincapitalism(Postone

1993).

ThisapproachisderivedfromanapproachtoMarxismknownasvalue-formtheoryinwhat

amountstoareappraisalofMarx’ssocialtheoryand‘anewreadingofMarx’(Postone1993;

Bonefeld2014).Value-formtheorypresentstherelationshipbetweenlabourandcapitalasa

dynamiccontradictionoutofwhichformsofsociallifeincapitalemerge,includingstrugglesagainst

thedestructivenatureofthecontradiction.Thistheoreticalframeworksuggeststhatco-operatives,

withtheirfocusonthecommonownershipanddemocraticcontroloftheirresources,areareal

alternativetocapitalismtotheextentthattheyseektoextendthepurposeoftheiractivitiesbeyond

theproductionofcapitalistvaluetoincludenewformsofsocialvaluebasedonthevitalityof

humansinthenaturalworld.Findingsfromthecase-studiesdemonstratetheextenttowhichthe

languageoflabourandcapitalaremeaningfulconceptsinthelifeofco-operativeenterprisesand

waysinwhichthedynamiccontradictionisrecognisedasacreativeprocessinthestruggleagainst

thenegativeconsequencesofcapitalistproduction(Winn2015).

AsignificantoutcomeofthecurrentresearchwillbetodevelopadiagnostictoolforHigher

EducationInstitutions(HEIs)torevealtheextentofco-operativeprovisionwithinanHEIandassess

ifaco-operativeleadershipmodelisviablewithinaninstitutionaswellashowitmightbefurther

developed.Thetoolwillbebasedaroundthesetofcatalyticprinciplesestablishedfromprevious

researchthatdistinguishco-operativeenterprises:Knowledge,democracy,bureaucracy,livelihood,

andsolidarity,andthecapacityforfurtherdevelopmentwillbediscussedasasetofpractical,

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pragmaticandpoliticalpossibilities.Thisapproachisclearlycountertothecurrentmanagement

strategiesbasedonperformanceandmetrics(Amsler2012;AmslerandBolsmann2012).

Thefourcase-studysitesfortheresearchwere:Lipson,aco-operativeacademyschoolin

England,fundedbytheDepartmentforEducation;Unicorn,aworkerco-operativegroceryin

Manchester,England;JohnLewis,anemployeeownedretailstoreinthenorthofEngland,partof

theJohnLewisPartnershipandMondragonUniversity,amemberoftheMondragonCo-operative

CorporationinSpain.Theresearchersspentbetweenfour-fivedaysateachsitedoingparticipant

observation,semi-structuredinterviews,participatoryworkshopsandgroupconversations,taking

fieldnotesandphotographs,recordinginterviews,aswellasdocumentaryanalysis.

Leadership:collegiateanddemocratic

Itisimportanttounderstandthenatureofuniversitymanagementandgovernancestructureswhen

consideringtheradicaltransformationofhighereducation.Theliteratureindicatesthatanumberof

incrementalpolicychangeshaveledtotheexistingcorporateformofuniversitygovernance,

including:theJarrattreview(1985),whichestablishedtheViceChancellorasChiefExecutive;the

Dearingreview(1997),whichreducedthenumberofmembersonthegoverningbody;andthe

Lambertreview(2003),whichstatedthatparticipatorygovernancebyacommunityofscholarswas

not‘fitformoderntimes’,andrecommendedavoluntarycodeofgovernancefortheHEsector

(Shattock2006;2008;2013).Eachofthesereviewsandsubsequentregulatorychangeshasbeen

conductedinresponsetothechanginghistoricalcontextofthecorporateformingeneral.Thus,a

historyofthedevelopmentofuniversitygovernanceandmanagementmustbeseeninthewider

contextofchangingcorporateformsandtheunderlyingdynamicofpolitical,economicandsocial

processes.Theseunderlyingdynamicshavebeenamovetowardsaneo-liberalmodelbasedonthe

financialisationoftheuniversitysector(McGettigan2013),andcriticismandresistancetothese

movesbysomeacademicsandstudents(Molesworthetal2011;BrownandCarasso2013;Hall

2015;Collini2017;BaileyandFreedman2011)

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FramingCo-operativeLeadership

Inthisresearch,wehaveframedourapproachtoleadershipthroughworkthatseekstoestablish

leadershipanddecisionmakingwithinveryclearparameters:workplacedemocratisation(Bernstein

2012),neo-collegiateleadership(Bacon2014)anddemocraticleadership(HallandWinn2017).

Threedimensionsofparticipation

Bernsteindiscussesleadershipthroughananalysisoftheinternaldynamicsofworkplace

democratisationbasedonanumberofcasesstudiesofprivatefirmsthatoperatewithvaryinglevels

ofdemocracyintheirgovernanceandmanagement.Acrosstherangeofhiscasestudies,he

identifiedthree“dimensionsofparticipation”(2012,47):

1. Thedegreeofcontrolemployeesenjoyoverasingledecision

2. Theissuesoverwhichthatcontrolisexercised,and

3. Theorganisationallevelatwhichitisexercised.

Focusingoncontrol,anorganisationwithminimaldemocracyintheworkplacewilloperateonthe

basisof‘consultation’,throughtechniquessuchasan‘impersonalsuggestionboxscheme’or

workersgiven‘priornotice’ofmanagement’sdecisionssothattheycanvoicetheirviewsand

perhapsstimulatereconsideration.Incontrast,anorganisationwithgreaterorevenfullworkplace

democracywillfeatureaworkers’councilthatissuperiortothemanagementbody,jointpoweror

partnershipwithmanagers,electedmanagementrolesandthepowerforemployeestoremove

peoplefrompositionsofmanagement.Abasicthresholdofdemocraticparticipationisthatworkers

areableto‘initiatecriticismsandsuggestions’anddiscussthemface-to-facewithmanagers.

Bernsteincallsthis‘co-operationorco-influence’.

Therangeofissuesthatemployeesmayhavedemocraticcontroloverstartfromtheir

physicalworkingconditionsandpersonalsafety,throughtosettingsalaries,promotingexecutives,

and(inthecontextofaprivatefirm)divisionoftheprofits.Bernsteingroupstheissuesintocontrol

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overtheworker’sownwork,controlovertheorganisation’smeans,andcontroloverthe

organisation’sgoals.

Finally,thedomainorlevelofparticipationreferstonotonlythelevelatwhichemployees

mighthaverepresentation(e.g.ontheBoardofGovernors),butalsotheextenttowhichtheycan

exerciserealpoweratthatlevel.Employeerepresentationattheupperlevelsofanorganisationis

moreeffective(i.e.theywieldmoredemocraticpower),whenallotherlevelsoftheorganisationare

alsodemocratised(i.e.‘gaps’are‘filledin’withmethodsofdirectandrepresentativedemocracy),so

thattheupperlevelisbroughtintomorecontactwiththerealissuesandconcernsofworkersinthe

organisation.Achievingdemocracyatalllevelsoftheorganisationmeansthatemployeesareableto

“exertinfluenceattheverypointswheretheyhavemostexpertise”(2012,54).

Thequalitiesofleadershipindemocraticorganisationsare,accordingtoBernstein,basedona

consciousrecognitionofthepowerthatthepersoninapositionofinfluenceholdsandhowthey

choosetousethatpower,basedonasetofvalues,personalgoalsandbeliefs.Thetraitsthat

Bernsteinidentifies(2012,98)asfosteringorfacilitatingdemocratisationare:

• Apolicyofeducatingthemanagedi.e.openaccesstoinformation(asopposedtosecrecy)

• Confidenceinothers–hence:willingnesstolistenandtodelegateresponsibility(ratherthan

anattitudeofmistrustandintensesupervision)

• Governingbymerit,explanation,andconsentofgoverned(ratherthangoverningfroma

formalpositionofpower)

• Awarenessofone’sownfallibility;admitserrorstomanaged(ratherthanthebeliefthatthe

leadermustsetanexampletoothersbyappearinginfallibleandhidingtheirmistakes)

• Reciprocity(ratherthanpaternalism);and

• Egalitarianvalues(asopposedtoadesiretomaintainexclusiveprerogatives).

Bernsteinnotesthatwell-intentionedmanagersmightselectoneortwoofthesetraitsofleadership,

butfindtheyconflictwithtraditionalvaluesofmanagerialprivilege.Whatisneeded,argues

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Bernstein,isrecognitionthateffectivedemocracyrequiresa“systemic”approachandthatthis

involvesachangeinthe“wholeconsciousness”ofleadersinpositionsofpower.

Collegiality

Bacondiscussesleadershipinhighereducationusingtheconceptof‘neo-collegiality’understoodas

‘astructuredformofcollaborativedecision-making.’Hearguesthat‘thevoiceofuniversities’

academicandprofessionalstaffoughttobeheardwithfargreaterdecision-makinganddecision-

influencingforcethaniscurrentlythecase’andconsequentlyfocuseson‘theformalizedstructuring

ofacollegialdecision-makingprocess’.(2014,3)Thisisdistinctfromadefinitionofcollegialityasa

formofbehavioursince,‘itistooeasyotherwiseforinstitutionsandindividualstocommittoorto

urgecollegialbehaviourwithoutanythingactuallychangingintermsofdecision-making.’Thefocus

therefore,isonestablishingstructuresandprocessesthatenableandprotectarenewedformof

democraticdecision-makingthattakesadvantageoftheresearch-basedproblemsolvingskillsof

staffoperatingatalllevels,accountingfortheadvantagestoorganisationswhenself-managed

professionalsinteractwithpeersonmattersofcommonpurpose,particularlyinknowledge-based

industries.

Baconoffersanumberofreasonswhysuchchangesareneeded(2014,24):toomanystaff

feelvoiceless;currentuniversitymanagementstructuresandpracticesareoftenoutdated;themost

recentmanagementliteratureemphasisesthedisadvantages,particularlyinknowledge-based

sectors,oftop-downhierarchicalstructuresandtheadvantagesoffrontlinestaffhavingincreased

autonomy.Hisresearchshowsthatthedesireformorecollegialdecision-makingiswidespread

acrosstheUK’suniversitysector.Notonlythat,collegialityimprovesdecision-making,bringingwith

itanawarenessofthefront-lineactivitiesandprioritieswhichmattermosttostudents.Thistypeof

decision-makingcantakemanydifferentforms,oftenenhancedbynewtechnology.

Baconconcludeshisresearchbydiscussingtwokeyprinciplesofneo-collegiality:

Institutionalinclusivity,wherethecontributionofallstaffandstudentsispromotedwithoutregard

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forestablishedhierarchies;andPromotingcollegiality,outsideofestablishedstructuresand

representativecommittees.Tothisend,Baconoutlines‘amenuofthepotentialformsthatmovesto

neo-collegialitymighttake.’(20),proposinginitiativestowardsgreatercollegialitywithina

university.Theseare:aconcordatoncollegiality,revivingexistingstructures,transparencyand

collegiality,collegialityondemand,consensuscollegiality,temporalvariations,subsidiarity,collegial

appointments,vetocollegiality,andsharedgovernance.

DemocraticLeadership

HallandWinn(2017)focusonalternativeformsofleadershipthatcanbefoundbothinsideand

outsidetheuniversity,representingeffortstoreorganise,reconceptualise,anddemocratisethe

productionofknowledge.Theypointout,followingDopsonetal(2016),thatthescholarshipon

leadershipinhighereducationislimitedandargueforaformofdemocraticleadershipbasedonan

understandingoftheuniversityasaself-criticalcommunityofacademicandstudentscholarswith

highlevelsofautonomy(NearyandSaunders2011)atatimewhenthiscriticalcommunityis‘being

disciplinedbyadominantcorporateagendathatincentivisesspecific,impactfulbehaviours’

(AlvessonandSpicer2012),withdevastatinglynegativeconsequencesforhumanityintheworld.

Thismeanssomethingmorethanthecreationofdecentralisedtechnology-richgovernance

networksordistributedleadershiplinkedtoproblem-solvingstrategies.Whilesuchschemesare

presentedaschangemanagementstrategiesthereisnofundamentalchangesincetheyare

‘designedtomakethecapitalistprojectfunctionmoresmoothlythroughthereductionofriskand

thegenerationofvaluableconnections,ratherthanemergingasastrategydesignedtocritiquethe

power-relationsthatexistinsidecapitalism,inordertooverthrowthem’(HallandWinn2017);not

basedontrust,sharingpowerandautonomy,butwheremanagementandgovernanceoperatesas

‘consentthroughcoercion’linkedtoperformancemanagementandcurriculumdataaswellas

knowledgetransferbasedoninequalityanddistrust.

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HallandWinnseehopeinleadershipasaformofcitizenship(Boldenetal2014)orcritical

performativity(AlvessonandSpicer2012).TheylinktheseapproachestoVirnoandotherwritersin

theautonomousMarxisttraditionandtheirconceptof‘massintellectuality’.Massintellectualityis

theappropriationofknowledgewhichhasbeenproducedasafactorincapitalistproduction,as

scienceandtechnology,forthebenefitofhumanityandnature.HallandWinnsuggestthat

academicsshouldfindwaystocreatetheseformsofradicalalternativessoastoreimaginetheidea

oftheUniversity‘inordertoproduceandcirculatenewformsofsocially-usefulknowledgeorways

ofknowingtheworld.’Allofthis‘impliesacritiqueoftheprevalentmodeof(knowledge)

production,theinstitutionswhereitissitedandtheoversight,managementandleadershipthat

arisesfromthesespaces.Theprocessofliberatingandreclaimingtheknowledge,skills,practices

andtechniquesthatareproducedinsidehighereducationalcontextsiscentraltomovingbeyond

exploitationandvalorisationinthemarket,andincreatingdemocratic,co-operativealternatives’.

(HallandWinn2017).Reflectingonexamplesofalternativeformsofintellectualleadership,Halland

Winnidentifysixthemesforacriticalanalysisofacademicleadership:Therelationshipbetween

leadershipandlabour;thelivedrealitiesofhegemonicformsofleadership;theexistenceof

alternativemodelsofleadershipasformsofcounter-hegemony;theattributesofcounter-

hegemonicleadership;theproblemswithalternativeformsofleadership;andthecontradictions

uncoveredwhendevelopingalternativeformsofleadership.

Inwhatfollowsareaseriesofextendedcase-studies(Burawoy1998)involvingaworkers’

co-operativegrocery,aco-operativeuniversity,astate-fundedco-operativeschoolandanemployee

ownedretailbusiness.Thesiteshavebeenpurposivelychosenasexemplarsofaparticulartypeof

co-operativeenterprise.

LipsonCo-operativeAcademySchool LipsonCo-operativeAcademyisasingleschoolfoundationtrustestablishedin2011,with1100

students,includingasixthformof230whichoperatesinpartnershipwithalocalconsortiumofnon-

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co-operativeschools,thePartnershipforLearningandEducation.Theschoolwasalreadyoperating

inaco-operativeandcollaborativemannerbeforetakingonthestatusofaco-operativeschool,with

astrongsenseofconnectionwiththelocalcommunity.Thismeantthattakingonaformalco-

operativestructuredidnotinvolveafundamentalchangeinthenatureoftheschool.

TheschoolisgovernedbyaBoardofGovernorsandmanagedbyaSupportandLeadership

Team(SLT).TheSLTincludes,thePrincipal,2VicePrincipals,3AssistantPrincipals,2Associate

AssistantPrincipalsandaBusinessManager.AdistinctivefeatureoftheSLT,demonstratingits

commitmenttoco-operativevalues,isthattheSLTistheSupportandLeadershipTeamratherthan

theSeniorLeadershipTeam,themoreusualdesignationinschoolswithahierarchicalmanagement

structure.

Theresearchwascarriedoutoveroneweekcomprisinginterviewswith20staffand3

workshopswithstudentsfromlevel7,8andthesixthform.Wealsoconductedclassroom

observationswithlevel7,9andsixthformaswellasobservationsofateacherCPDsession.The

intervieweesandobservationswereselectedbyaseniorleaderwhoactedasfacilitatorforthe

researchproject.Fromtherangeofresponsesgatheredtherewasnosenseinwhichthe

intervieweeswerechosenbecauseofanyattempttopresentaparticularviewabouttheschool.The

viewsexpressedbroadlymatchedpreviousacademicresearchdoneinthisarea(Woodin2015;

Davidge2014).

Co-operativeLeadership

Co-operativeleadershipatLipsonisgroundedinthepracticesandprinciplesofco-operative

learning,derivedfromthepedagogicalmodelthatisusedintheclassroom.Eachmemberofthe

schoolcommunity,atwhateverlevelacrosstheinstitution,isawareoftherolethattheyaretaking

andhowitcontributestothegoalofco-operativeeducation.Thisapproachtoleadershipdiffers

fromBernstein’sfocusontraitsofleadershipthatareintrinsictothepersonwhoisdoingthe

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leadership;theyare,rather,anexpressionofthenatureoftheorganisation,inthiscaseaco-

operativeschool.

Thisversionofco-operativeleadershipistakingplaceinahierarchicalgovernanceand

managementstructure,wheretheTrustisledbyaChairandVice-ChairandtheSchoolisledbya

PrincipalandtheSLT.Thehierarchicalcharacterofco-operativeschoolmanagementandits

consequenceshasbeenidentifiedintheacademicliterature(Davidge2014;Woodin2015).There

wasoneparticipantwhoexpressedtheviewthattheschoolwasnotasco-operativeasitcouldbe

andthatco-operativeschoolsdidnotfitwiththeacademymodel,butthisviewwasnotwidespread.

TheSLTjustifiesthishierarchicalapproachintermsoftheneedtoprotectstafffromstresses

createdbypressureofgovernmentpolicy.Oneimportantcontributiontothisdebateaboutthe

contradictorypositionofco-operativeschoolsinanacademypolicystructurehasbeenmadebya

formerVicePrincipaloftheschool.Shearguesnottobeafraidoftensionandcontradictionwithin

aninstitutionbuttorecognisethat‘itisactuallyatthispointofheightenedtensionandconflictthat

theobjectivecanbeco-constructedandsubstantialtransformationtakeplace.Thisisimportantasit

informsusthatweshouldaccepttheconflictandtensionratherthanseeingitasadysfunctional

measureofthedemocraticworkweareundertaking’(Jones2015,82).

Knowledge

KnowledgeatLipsonisnotsomethingthatissimplytransmittedbyteacherstothestudents,butis

producedinwaysthatsustainthepedagogicalandpastoralpracticesoftheSchool.Therehasbeena

prolongedcommitmenttoenablingteacherstoundertakeacademicresearchonpostgraduate

programmes.Thereisawell-developedContinuingProfessionalDevelopmentprocesswhere

teacherslearnfromtheprofessionalexperienceoftheircolleagues.Whilethisdoesnotequatetoa

processof‘massintellectuality’,certainlyasenseof‘intellectualleadership’beingpromotedamong

teachersaspartofa‘processofliberatingandreclaimingtheknowledge,skills,practicesand

techniquesthatareproduced…[for]...creatingdemocratic,co-operativealternatives’.(Halland

Winn2017).

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Democracy

Thereisawell-establisheddemocraticstructurewhichinvolvesallmembersoftheschool

community.Thisischaracterisedbyforumsforteachers,studentsandparentstoexpresstheirviews

andopinionsaboutawiderangeofissues,andbywhichseniorleaderscanbeheldtoaccount,and

so,followingBernstein’smodelexpress‘co-influence’overthegoalsoftheschoolTheseformal

eventsaresupplementedbyaninstitutionalschoolculturethatpromotesteachersandstudents

speakingupaboutmattersofconcern.Thelevelofawarenessaboutthesedemocraticstructuresis

highasistheunderstandingoftheirimportancefortheethosoftheschool.Thehighlevelof

democraticparticipationdoesnotmeanthatallmembersoftheschoolareinvolvedindecision

makingaboutallaspectsofthelifeoftheschool.Thereisaverycleardemarcationaboutwhatthe

typesofdecisionsthatareappropriatefordifferentlevelsofthemanagementandorganisational

structureoftheschool.Forexample,decisionsabouttheschooluniforminvolvethewholeschool;

whilebudgetsandfinancesaretheresponsibilityoftheGovernorsandSLT,middlemanagers:Heads

ofGuildandFacultyareconsultedaboutstrategiesthathavealreadybeenputinplace.Participants

feltthattheydidnothavetheexpertisetobeabletodecideoncertainmattersandsowerecontent

forthatresponsibilitytobetakenonbythosewithsufficientprofessionalexpertise.Inthatsense

participantsfelttheywereableto“exertinfluenceattheverypointswheretheyhavemost

expertise”(Bernstein2012,54),satisfyingBernstein’slevelofdemocraticparticipation.

Nevertheless,thisdoesnotmeanthatallparticipantsareabletodemonstrate,inBernstein’sterms

‘real’poweratthehighestlevelofgovernance,e.g.schoolgovernors.

Bureaucracy

TheschoolhasastrongethicalandmoralframeworkbasedontheprinciplesoftheInternationalCo-

operativeMovementandanassociatedsetofvalues,whichare:self-help,self-responsibility,

democracy,equality,equity,solidarity,honesty,openness,socialresponsibilityandcaringforothers.

Therewaswidespreadunderstandingbystudentsandteachersabouttheseprinciplesandwhatthey

meanandtheirimportancefortheworkingoftheschool.

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Livelihood

AstrongfeatureoftheschoolistheGuildsystem,wherebystudentschoosetobecomepartofa

Guild,whichareorganisedaroundsubjectareas.TheGuildsenablestudentstoengagewithother

studentsnotfromtheiryeargroup,andtoworkwithteachersoutsideoftheclassroom.TheGuilds

operateduringthewholeschooldayoutoflessontimes,beforeandafterthetimetabled

curriculum.TheGuildsalsoprovideagoodopportunityforpastoralsupport.TheGuildscontribute

totheidea,expressedbymanyoftheparticipants,thattheschoolwaslikeafamilyandinthisway

enhancedthequalityoftheirstudentlifeinwaysbeyondtheacademic.Thisenhancedsenseof

studentlifebeyondtheacademicisfurtherdevelopedbyanumberofco-operativesranbystudents

thatincludesaBigBandmusicco-operative,acateringco-operativeandaco-operativethat

advocateshumanrights.

Solidarity

Therewasastrongsenseofsolidarityfortheco-operativeethosoftheschool,andtoeachother:

students,teachersandprofessionalstaff.Thiscontributedtogenuinecollegialityacrosstheschool,

withnosenseof‘contrivedcollegiality’(Jones2015,74);ratherwhatBaconwouldrecogniseas

formsof‘neo-collegiality’(Bacon2014).Theschoolworkshardtogenerateasenseof,inBacon’s

terms,‘institutionalinclusivity’.However,therewasverylittlesenseofsolidaritywiththe

InternationalCo-operativeAlliance(ICA),eventhoughtheschoolprinciplesandethicsaretaken

fromthisorganisation.Thestudentswereveryknowledgeableaboutthemeaningandimportance

oftheICAprinciplesfortheschool,butknewlittleabouttheco-operativemovement.Studentslearn

aboutindividualswhopersonifytheprinciplesandpracticesofco-operativismratherthantheidea

ofco-operativismasaglobalsocialmovement.Therewasasenseofcommitmentandsolidarityto

otherco-operativeschoolsnationallyandintheregion.Theschoolisapartofanetworkof

supportingco-operativeschools.

Therewasaview,althoughnotcommon,thattheschoolcoulddomoretodevelopthis

relationshipofsolidaritywiththeglobalco-operativemovement.TheviewofamemberoftheSLT

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wasthatsuchashowofsolidaritywouldcompromisetheschool’spoliticalneutralityand,therefore,

putitscharitablestatusatrisk,i.e,theschoolshouldnottobeseentobeseekingtoinfluencethe

politicalviewsofthestudents.Therewasastrongsenseofsolidarityamongtheteacherparticipants

totheirtradeunion,reflectingthecultureoftradeunionismintheteachingprofession.Anyconflict

betweenthelabourmovementastradeunionism:collectiveandstatecentric,andthelabour

movementasco-operativism:autonomousbasedonworkerdemocracy,wasnotrecognised.The

conflictiswidelydiscussedintheliteratureandisseenashavingbeenabarriertotheprogressive

developmentofthelabourmovement(Yeo1988),withcallstocreateastrongersenseofsolidarity

betweentradeunionismandco-operativeworkers(http://1worker1vote.org).

Aco-operativeuniversity?

Therewassupportbyallparticipants,students,professionalstaff,teachers,seniorleaders,parents

andgovernorsfortheideaofaco-operativeuniversity.

JohnLewisEmployee-ownedcompany TheJohnLewisPartnershipwasestablishedasaretailbusinessin1929throughanactofirrevocable

settlementintrust,signedbyJohnSpedanLewis,thesonofJohnLewiswhofoundedtheoriginal

companyin1864.Thislegalframeworkextendedanalreadyestablishedprofitsharingscheme

implementedin1919sothatthebusinesswouldbegiventotheworkers‘presentandprospective’.

ThePartnershipwasbasedonaConstitutionwhichincorporatedanarrangementofdemocratic

structuresandprotocolsinwhatamountedtonothinglessthan“anexperimentinindustrial

democracy”(Cathcart2009).Thedemocraticstructureisbasedaroundthreegoverningauthorities:

thePartnershipCouncil,thePartnershipBoardandtheroleoftheChairman,sothatpowerisshared

amongitsmembers.

‘ThePartnershipCouncil,astherepresentativebodyofthemembersofthePartnership,

entrustsmanagementofthePartnershipbusinesstothePartnershipBoard,whichdelegates

itsmanagementauthoritytotheChairman’(rules3Constitutionp.9)

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Therearethreeotherlevelsthroughwhichdemocraticparticipationisorganised:DivisionalCouncil,

ForumandPartnerVoice.PartnerVoiceismadeupfromselectedandelectedpartnerscommitted

tofulfillingtheirrolewith‘thebestinterestsofthePartnershipinmind’(14). Allofthesefunctions

havetheresponsibilityofcarryingoutthePartnership’sconstitution.TheConstitutionremainsthe

centraldocumentaroundwhichtheworkingofthepartnershipisorganised,basedonthefirst

principlewhichencompassesthepurposesandthespiritofthebusiness:

Principle1‘ThePartnership’sultimatepurposeisthehappinessofallitsmembers,through

theirworthwhileandsatisfyingemploymentinasuccessfulbusiness.Becausethe

Partnershipisownedintrustforitsmembers,theysharetheresponsibilitiesofownershipas

wellasitsrewards–profit,knowledgeandpower.’

Atthecoreoftheconstitutionlietheprinciplesof‘power,gainandknowledge’andtheconceptof

‘criticalvoice’.AnimportantprincipleestablishedbySpedanLewisandstillmaintainedaskey

marketingmessageisthatthePartnershipis‘NeverKnowinglyUndersold’(Lewis1954).

TheJohnLewisPartnershipisnotapartnershipinthelegalsenseoftheterm(Snaith2014),

norisitaco-operativeassociation,althoughitscultureandpracticeisbasedonproducerco-

operatives(Lewis1954).Itis,rather,anemployee-ownedcompanywhereemployee‘partners’own

sharesinthebusiness(Ridley-DuffandBull2011).Thesearedeferredordinarysharesheldfor

partnersintrustbyJohnLewisPartnershipTrustaspartofthecapitalofthecompany.The

PartnershipTrust’smainroleistoprotecttheConstitutionanddemocraticnatureofthe

partnership.TheTrustismadeupoftheChairmanandDeputyChairmanandthreeelecteddirectors

whomeetasrequired.Thisarrangementmeanstheemployeepartnersreallyareownersinthe

companywheretheywork.Animportantpartofthisarrangementisthatpartnersnotonlyreceivea

salarybutthataportionofprofitsaredistributedannuallyamongthepartnermembers,alongwith

otherbenefits(BodenandWrightandCiancanelli2012).

ThePartnershipnowemploys88,000staff,orPartnersastheyareallreferredto,reflecting

theco-ownednatureofthebusiness.ThepremisesaremainlyintheUK,with46generalbranches

17

andbranchesthatfocusonsellingspecificitems,aswellasmorethan300Waitrosesupermarkets,

andnewinternationaloutletsinDubaiandAustralia.ThePartnershipisexpandingintootherareas

ofbusiness:insurance,currencyexchangeandopticiansinwhatisahighlycompetitiveretail

environment,exacerbatedbytheexponentialgrowthofonlineshopping.ThePartnershiphasdone

muchworktomaketherelationshipbetweeninBranchandonlineshoppingoperateeffectively

togethersoastocreateaconnectedconsumerexperience.Newshopshavebeenopenedrecently

butwiththegrowthofonlineshoppingthereisareluctancetoinvestheavilyinthebuilt

environment.

TheresearchwascarriedoutoveroneweekspentinageneralJohnLewisstoreinthenorth

ofEngland,comprising14interviewsand2workshopswithPartnersfromarangeofrolesacrossthe

business.Theintervieweeswereselectedbyamiddlemanagerwhoactedasfacilitatorforthe

researchproject.Fromtherangeofresponsesgatheredtherewasnosenseinwhichthe

intervieweeswerechosenbecauseofanyattemptpresentaparticularviewaboutthePartnership.

Theviewsexpressedbroadlymatchedin-housepartnershipsurveys,otheracademicresearchaswell

asviewsexpressedinin-housepublications(Cathcart2009).

Co-operativeLeadership

ThePartnershipexpectsPartnerstoputthemselvesforwardasleadersacrossalllevelsofbusiness

activity.Thereisastrongcommitmenttotheprincipleandpracticeofleadership,basedona

numberofprescribedbehaviourcharacteristics,whichextendbeyondthebehaviourexpectedby

Partners.AtJohnLewisbeingaleaderandtakingresponsibilityisaninherentaspectofbeinga

partner.TheresearchrevealedthataPartner’spotentialisrecognisedandfasttrackedthrough

professionaldevelopmentprogrammes.Theextenttowhichthesecharacteristicsaredemonstrated

isassessedannuallyaspartofindividualpartnerperformanceappraisals.TheJohnLewis

managementliteratureexplainsthatleadersatJohnLewisareexpectedtosetthedirectionofthe

businesswithcourageandconfidence,whileenablingandencouragingandmotivatingPartnersto

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embraceandliveuptotheresponsibilitythatco-ownershipbrings.Thismeanshowingstrategic

insightaboutcustomersandthebusiness,basedonbalancedreflection,communicationandsharing

knowledgeinawaythatimprovesperformanceandgeneratesintegratedsolutions;whileallthe

timeadaptingtochangechallengingthestatusquoandkeepinganeyeonthewiderretail

environment.Partnersareexpectedtosupportandtakeprideinco-ownershipthroughproactive

collectiveworking,inanhonestandrespectfulmanner,deliveringexcellentservicetocustomers

andsupportingotherPartnerswhileadaptingtoandembracingchange.

Thereisnothingunusualabouttheseprinciplesintermsofbusinesspractice,andmirror

whatBernsteinadvocatesaskeyprinciplesforco-operativeleadership.Whatisunusualisthesetof

principlesandvalueswhichunderpinthemsetoutinthePartnershipsConstitution.Following

Bernstein’sunderstandingofeffectivewaystodevelopculturesofleadership,therewasastrong

sensethatco-operativeleadershipbeachievedthrougha‘systemic’approachbasedonthe‘whole

consciousness’notonlyofseniorstaffbutstaffatalllevels.Thiswasmanifestthroughthe

continuingsignificanceandemphasisgiventothePartnership’sconstitutionanditsfounding

principles.

Knowledge

ThepowerofknowledgeiswellunderstoodandenshrinedinthePartnershipprinciples.Thereisa

transparentsystematicprocessofsharingbusinessinformationwithPartnersatalllevelsofthe

business.Forexample,weeklystaffmeetingswithallstaffbasedondepartmentsandfunctions,

wherefinancialdataandotherkeybusinessinformationisshared.Thesignificanceofknowledgeis

maintainedthroughthecompanypublicationswhichactivelyencouragestafftoraiseconcernsand

issuesaboutthebusinessintheformofwrittenletters,whichmustberespondedtobythemanager

withresponsibilityforthematterthatisbeingraised.Theseletterscanbesignedbytheauthorsor

writtenanonymously.Therewassomecriticismofthe‘corporate’wayinwhichmanagers

respondedtothesecomplaints,butnevertheless,theprocessdoessuggestthatthebusiness

encouragesacriticalvoice,asapracticeenshrinedintheconstitution.Intermsoftheframeworkset

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outbyHallandWinn(2017),whilethisrighttoexerciseacriticalvoicedoesnotamounttoacounter

hegemonicformofmassintellectualityitdoesprovidemorethanasemblanceofdemocratic

leadershipbasedonanunderstandingofthebusinessas‘aself-criticalcommunity’.

Democracy

DemocracyisenshrinedthroughtheconceptofPartnerVoicewhichallowsPartnerstorepresent

theirissuesandconcernsatalllevelsofthemanagementstructure.ThePartnersdohavethe

ultimatesanctionofbeingabletoremovetheChairmanattheAGMandso,followingBernstein’s

dimensionsofparticipation,dohaverealpoweratthehighestlevelofcompanycontrol.Moreover,

partnersareableto‘initiatecriticismsandsuggestions’anddiscussthemface-to-facewith

managers.Bernsteincallsthis‘co-operationorco-influence’.ThePartnervoiceframeworkmeans

that‘gaps’are‘filledin’withmethodsofdirectandrepresentativedemocracy,sothattheupper

levelisbroughtintomorecontactwiththerealissuesandconcernsofworkersintheorganisation.

Achievingdemocracyatalllevelsoftheorganisationmeansthatemployeesareableto“exert

influenceattheverypointswheretheyhavemostexpertise.”(2012,54)

Thereisastrictdemarcationaboutwhatdecisionsaremadeaboutwhatkindofissues.The

ChairmanandBoardhavecontroloverstrategy,financialmattersincludingthelevelofbonus.The

Chairmanrecommendstheirsuccessoronretirement.Therehasbeenatrendforstafftobe

consultedratherthanforformalvotingonissues,e.g,pensionsandworkingtimes.Intermsof

Bernstein’smodelof‘dimensionsofparticipation’themoveistowardsmoremanagementcontrol.

BernsteindidincludeJohnLewisasoneofhiscase-studiesinhisbookWorkplaceDemocratisation.

HereferstotheconcentrationofpowerinthepostoftheChairman,alongwiththeself-selecting

natureoftheseniormanagementgroup,aswellastherestrictionofcouncilpowerstoadviceor

recommendationsas‘seriousobstacles’todemocraticparticipation(36)Thereisan

acknowledgementbyPartnersthatbusinessdecisionsneedtobetakenbypeoplewithappropriate

levelsofexpertise,althoughthisdoesnotextendtothelevelofbonus,whichhasbeendecliningin

recentyears,orthediscrepancybetweenamountsofbonuspaidbetweendifferentlevelsof

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partnershipstaff.Thebonusesareworkedoutasapercentagesothehighestearningstaffreceive

considerablymoreinthebonuspayment.

IntermsofBacon’smodelofneo-collegiality,thereiscertainlyanattemptbythe

Partnershiptopromoteinstitutionalinclusivity,wherethecontributionofallstaffandstudentsis

promotedwithoutregardforestablishedhierarchies;andpromotingcollegiality,outsideof

establishedstructuresandrepresentativecommittees.WhattakesthePartnershipbusinessmodel

beyondCollegialityisthatitisnotjustaprincipleorpreferredpracticebutiswrittenintothevery

constitutionofthebusiness.

Thisisahighlycompetitivecommercialenvironment,withmajorchallenges,notleastthe

relationshipbetweenonlineshoppingforretailerswithasignificanthighstreetpresence.Thereisa

constanttensionbetweentheimperativeofcompetitiveforcesanddemocraticnatureofthe

company.Thiswasexpressedbythemanagementdiscourseoftheneedforconstantchange,along

withthepresentationofthecompanyfounderbyoneoftheparticipantsasa‘ruthlessbusiness

man’.

Bureaucracy

Theworkinglifeofthebusinessisunderpinnedbyamoralandethicalframeworksetoutinthe

businessconstitution,notleasttheconceptofPartnerhappinesswithinacompetitivecommercial

environment.ThereisacommitmentbythePartnersatalllevelstothisframework,aswellasthe

principleofpartnershipandco-ownershiponwhichitisbased.Theprinciplesarenotonlyfoundin

businesspublications,butdisplayedonthewallsinstaffareasandaroundthestore.Partnersfelt

thatenshriningthesevaluesasaformofbusinesspracticegavethePartnershipasawholea

competitiveadvantage.

Livelihood

AcoreprincipleofthePartnershipisthehappinessofPartnerswithinacompetitiveenvironment.

Thisprincipleismaderealbythesystemofbenefitsthataccruetostaffasaresultoftheiremployee

ownershipstatus.Thisincludesanannualbonus,holidaysinapartnershipownedlocation,in-store

21

diningfacilitiesatreducedpricesaswellasdiscountsatstoresandrestaurantsandentertainment

venues.

Solidarity

Therewasaclearsenseofsolidarityandcommitmenttocolleaguesinthestoreandtothe

Partnershipasawhole.ThiswasunderpinnedbyacommitmenttotheconceptofPartnership.

TherewassomeconcernthattheconceptofPartnershipisbeingunderminedbycontractingaspects

oftheworktooutsideagencies,particularlythecleaners.Thiswasnotjustintermsofthe

underminingofthePartnershipprinciplebutthelackofsanctionsbystorestaffifthecleanerswere

notperformingtheirworkeffectively.Thissenseofsolidaritywasunderminedbythecutsto

staffing,atthebackroomandshopfloorlevel,aswellasnumbersofpart-timestaffbeing

employed.Thismeansstressduetohighworkloads,andareductioninthesupportservicesforstaff.

TherewasaconcernbysomepartnersthattheawarenessofthePartnerships’cultureandhistory

wasbeingdiminishedamongnewstaffduetothelimitedtimenowspentonstaffinduction.There

wasnosenseofsolidaritytoworkerselsewhereintheretailtrade.Thegeneralviewwasthat

Partnerswereinafavourablesituationcomparedtootherworkersinretail,withmanyofthem

drawingonpreviousexperienceinotherretailers.TherewasgeneralagreementthatUnionswere

notrequiredatJohnLewisbecauseasPartnerstheyhaveconsiderableinfluenceonthedecision

makingprocess,basedontheirstatusasemployeeowners.


Therewasconsiderableinterestandsupportfortheideaofaco-operativeuniversity,withthe

caveatfromaSeniorManager,thatemployeeownedbusinessesarenotboundtoworkinevery

commercialsituation.

MondragonUniversity MondragonUniversity(MU)wasestablishedin1997asa‘co-operativeofco-operatives’,madeupof

alreadyexistingco-operativesforhighereducationinEngineering,establishedin1943,Businessand

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ManagementStudies,setup1970,andaHumanitiesandEducationco-operativeopenedin1976.

Wherepreviouslythequalificationsofthesehighereducationco-operativeswerevalidatedby

externaluniversitiestheywereconstitutedin1997asseparateFacultiesofMU,thevalidating

authority.MUwascreatedfollowingchangesinthelegislativeframeworkwhichallowedHigher

EducationinstitutionsinSpaintoawardtheirowndegreesandbytakingadvantageofregulatory

changesassociatedwiththeBolognaDeclarationandthecreationofEuropeanHigherEducation

Area(Wrightetal2011,47).ThedistinctivefeatureofMUisthattheFacultiesretaintheirautonomy

andindependenceasco-operatives,withMUactingasasecondaryco-operativetoawarddegrees,

supportandharmonisetheactivitiesofalloftheFacultyco-operatives,establishinggeneral

universitypoliciesandstrategicalignments.ThismeansthattheFacultiescannotbedictatedtoby

MUoritsmembers,noteventheUniversityRector.Thearrangementisentirelyvoluntarywith

Facultiesabletowithdrawatanytime,althoughtheverysuccessfulnatureoftheconsolidationof

theco-operatives,asalocaluniversitywithglobalrecognition,meansthisisnotlikelytohappen.

MUisamemberofMondragonCo-operativeCorporation(MCC),oneofthelargestmost

profitableco-operativesintheworld.ThesloganofthecorporationisHumanityatWork,which

emphasisesakeyprinciplefortheorganisationthatcapitalissubordinatetolabour.Mondragon

Corporationwassetupin1956initiallyasUlgor,manufacturingstoves,butquicklyexpandedalong

withtheestablishmentofotherco-operativesintheregion,includingFagorwhichmadedomestic

andcommercialappliances.TheCorporationisnowmadeupof257co-operativecompaniesand

organisations.Theseincludeabank,socialsecurityandachainofretailshops:EROSKI.Mondragon

employs75,000staff,witharevenueofover11billioneurosin2015.Mondragonprovidesarange

ofservicesaswellasproducingwhitegoods,bikes,machinetools,industrialcomponentsand

elevators;partofitsconstructionwingbuilttheFrankGehrydesignedGuggenheimmuseumin

Bilbao.TheCorporationisdividedinto3divisions:Industry,madeupoftwelveindustrial

departmentsmanufacturinggoodsandequipment;Finance,banking,insuranceandsocialwelfare;

Retailfoodandagriculture,includingEROSKI.Mondragonisintheprocessofdevelopinganew

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divisionofKnowledge,comprisingschools,researchcentresandMondragonUniversity.Mondragon

hasaninterestin94productionplantsoutsideofSpain,withplanstoextenditsinternational

activities,inresponsetoglobalisation.Anaspectoftheirinternationalprofileisthatworkersarenot

co-operativemembers(Errastietal2003)Thisinternationalreachinvolvesinstitutesofhigher

educationinColombiaandMexico.

EachFacultyofMUco-operativeisanautonomousandindependententerprise,sharingthe

samegovernancestructure.MUisasecondaryco-operativeestablishedtosupportthememberco-

operatives,toharmoniseprovisionandencouragecollaborativeworkingandco-operativismandto

facilitatetheoverallstructureandtoenhancestrategicandorganisationalcapacities.Thereare

threecategoriesofmembersofMondragonUniversity:academicandadministrativestaff;

collaboratingexternalmembersincludinglocalcompaniesandstudents.Theorganisational

structureismadeupofaFacultyGeneralAssembly,theFacultyGoverningBoardandtheFaculty

ExecutiveBoard.MUisaworker-co-operativeintermsofownershipandreward,butitsgovernance

isbasedonamulti-stakeholderstructure.

Theresearchwascarriedoutoveroneweekcomprisingofinterviewswith17members

acrossarangeofroles,includingtheFounderofMUand2workshopswithstudentsandacademics

fromtheEducationandEngineeringFaculty.Theinterviewsandworkshopswerearrangedbythe

ViceRectorwhoactedasfacilitatorfortheresearchproject.Fromtherangeofresponsesgathered

therewasnosenseinwhichtheintervieweeswerechosenbecauseofanyattemptpresenta

particularviewaboutMU.Theviewsexpressedbroadlymatchedfindingsfromotheracademic

literatureonMUandco-operativeeducation(Wrightetal2011).

Co-operativeleadership

MUpromotestheconceptofco-operativeleadershipwhichitcharacterisesastakingtheleadin

termsofco-operationandinter-co-operation,innovation,participation,socialresponsibility,

personaldevelopmentandsocialtransformation.Atthecoreoftheseprinciplesofleadershipare

24

socialvaluesforthesocialdistributionofwealthoftheco-operativeasahumanisticpracticeandfor

aunitedandequitablesociety.Thisco-operativemodelisnotsimplyhumanisticbutisregardedas

providingacompetitiveadvantage.

Thereisastrongsenseofcommitmenttothismodelofco-operativeleadershipamong

memberswithseniormanagementroles,andarecognitionthatthesehorizontalrelationships

requirehumility.Themodelofco-operativeleadershipchampionedbyMondragongoesbeyondthe

supportforasetofpersonalvaluesofmembersbut,asdefinedbyBernsteinarecognitionthat

effectivedemocracyrequiresa“systemic”approachandthatthisinvolvesachangeinthe“whole

consciousness”ofleadersinpositionsofpower.ThisismuchmorethanBacon’sfostering

institutionalinclusivity,orevenpromotingcollegiality;andclosertoHallandWinn’sunderstanding

ofleadershipastheneedtochallengeand‘critiquethepowerrelationsthatexistinside

capitalism…movingbeyondexploitationandvalorisationinthemarket,andincreatingdemocratic,

co-operativealternatives’.

Knowledge

KnowledgeisrecognisedasacoreactivitynotonlyofMUbutMCC,totheextentthatitisthebasis

foranewdivisionwithafocusonknowledgetogoalongsidethealreadyexistingdivisionsfor

industry,financeandfood.Thereisastrongsensethatknowledgeshouldbelinkedtotheneedsof

industryandthelocalregion.IntermsofHallandWinn’snotionofdemocraticleadershipbasedon

‘sociallyusefulknowledge’,thisincludesresearchdoneinsideMUbutalsotheresearchdonebythe

partnerco-operativesandexternalmembers.Thesignificanceofknowledgeproductionisextended

tothecurriculummodel:Mendiberri,whichisbasedonstudentstakingresponsibilityfortheir

learning,aswellasproblem-solvingthroughextendedprojectbasedlearning.MUhasitsownco-

operativeresearchandtrainingcentre,Lanki,basedintheFacultyofEducationandHumanities

whichpromotesandsupportsthedevelopmentofco-operativesacrossMU,theBasqueregionand

withcollaboratinggroupsintheGlobalSouth.LankiprovidesMUwithastrongsenseofcritical

reflexivity,anessentialfeaturefororganisationsbasedondemocraticleadership(HallandWinn

25

2017).ThiscriticalreflexivityisbasedonLanki’sattitudetowardsMUwhichamemberoftheLanki

instituteexplainedasbeingaffirmative,becauseinspiteoftheimperfections,Mondragonshouldbe

acknowledgedasavaluableexperienceinmanyways;itiscritical,becausetherearemanyaspects

thatcouldbeimprovedandidentifyingthemisthefirststep;anditisconstructive,becausethe

destructivecritiquelacksthecapacitytounderstandthecomplexityandambivalencesofrealworld.

Democracy

MUisaworker-owneddemocraticorganisationbasedononememberonevoteeveninthe

situationwheremembersarenottheowners,asinthecaseofstudentsandcollaboratingpartners.

MUispartofMCC,anorganisationbuiltonacomplexdemocraticstructurethathasbeendesigned

sothatateachstageoftheprocessmanagersandthosewhoaretakingexecutiveandoperational

decisionscanbeheldtoaccount.Incaseswherethedemocraticaccountabilityisrestrictedthereare

checksandbalancestoprovidesafeguardsagainstauthoritarianmanagerialism.Inallcasesthe

GeneralAssemblyisthesovereignbodywherealldecisionsareagreed.IntermsofBernstein’s

modelMondragonachievesthestatusoffullworkplacedemocracy,withaworkers’council,or

GeneralAssembly,thatsitsaboutthemanagementbody.

Foracademicstaff,therearevaryingdegreesofcommitmenttotheco-operativeethosof

MU.TheethosmeansthatMUislesshierarchicalthanotheruniversities,withcloseworking

relationshipswiththestudents,whichcanleadtoapressureofstudentdemandandexpectation.

TheacademicstaffsaythereisalessindividualisticcompetitiveenvironmentthaninotherSpanish

universities,eventhoughtheyworkundersamerequirementstoteachandtoresearch.Whilemany

highereducationinstitutionsmakeuseofpedagogicalparticipatoryprocessesMUisdistinguishedby

itspoliticalcommitmenttoco-operativismandtosocialjusticeandsocialtransformationandtothe

Basqueregionasapoliticalentity.

ThetitleofProfessorisnotusedinMUtodistinguishbetweenacademics.Itiscustomaryfor

administrativeworkerstoholdelectedpositionsontheGoverningBoard.TheRectorandVice-

RectorofMU,asmembersofthesecondaryco-operative,donothavethepowertomakedecisions

26

onbehalfoftheFacultyco-operatives.Therewasgeneralagreementthatthedemocraticdecision

makingsystemworks,althoughwithsomequalifications,mainlyintermsoftimetakentodecide

issuesaswellasdemocraticengagement,particularlybystudents.

Thedemocraticstructureappliestorelationsbetweenstudents,workers,academicand

administrativestaff,whichareveryhorizontal.Thedemocraticstructuresdonotresolvethetension

wheremembersatMUarebothownersandworkers.Thereisatensionbetweenroleofstudentsas

studentsandstudentsasmembersoftheco-operativeaswellasatensionbetweenMUstaffas

workersandMUstaffasownersoftheco-operativethatisnotresolvedbythemanagementand

governancestructures.Thedemocraticstructuresdonotapplytonon-memberworkersandto

contractworkersintheBasquecountryandthoseworkingininternationalcompanies(Bakaikoaet

al2004).

Thereissomeconcernexpressedintheacademicliteraturethatmanagerialauthorityis

becomingincreasinglycentralisedwithinMCC(Bakaikoa,ErrastiandBergiristain2004).Thisconcern

wasnotexpressedbyanyofthestudentsorstaffwhoformedpartofthisresearch.Thisdeclinein

democracyisnotsimplyastructuralissueortheresultofincreasingmanagerialismbutismanifest

asalackofattendanceatmeetingsandothertypesofdemocraticengagement.Therewasareal

concernaboutthelackofstudentengagement.Thiswasattributedtotheindividualismof

contemporarysociety,lackofcommitmenttoworkoreventheneedtoworkforstudentswhoare

supportedfinanciallybytheirfamilies.Wherestudentsdidengage,theyfeltcommittedtotheco-

operativeproject.Studentsfelttheycouldbeencouragedtoorganiseeventsandactivitiesinamore

autonomousway,withmoreinfluenceindecidingwhatissuesweretobediscussedinmeetingsand

otherforums.

IntermsofBernstein’smodelofdimensionsofparticipation,workermembershaveahigh

levelofpowerandcontrol,withthepowertoinfluencedecisionsatalllevelsofMUandMCC.

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Bureaucracy

Therewasastrongcommitmenttothewaysinwhichthebureaucraticstructuresoperateacross

MU,enablingautonomyandindependencewhile,atthesametime,harnessingthesupportingand

harmonisingpowersofMUassecondaryco-operative.However,theautonomousnatureofthe

facultyco-operativesmeantthatitwasdifficultfortheFacultiestoworktogetheron

interdisciplinaryprojects,forexample,establishingjointdegreeprogrammes.IntermsofBacon’s

notionofneo-collegiality:ThereisasenseofcollegialityatthelevelofFaculties,withformal

structurestopromotethisactivity,butthiscanworkagainstcrosscollegiatewaysofworking,for

example,whenarranginginterdisciplinarydegreeprogrammes.Thesebureaucraticstructuresare

underpinnedbyaclearpolitical,ethicalandmoralbaseexpressedinMondragon’sownco-

operativesprinciples.Theseprinciplesaremoreradicalthantheprinciplesestablishedbythe

InternationalCo-operativeAssociation,groundedinthesovereigntyoflabourovercapital.

Livelihood

TheworkersatMondragonUniversitydonotreceiveasalary,rathertheygetmonthlypayments,

anticipos,basedontheanticipatedearningsoftheirFacultyforthecalendaryear.Theseanticipated

revenuesareagreedattheannualGeneralAssemblyandvotedonbyworkers,studentsand

externalmembers.Aswellasbeingworkers,thestaffatMondragonowntheco-operative,eachof

theminvesting15,000euroswhentheirmembershipisconfirmed,usuallyafterhavingworkedin

theco-operativeforatwoyearprobationaryperiod.Acloseaccountiskeptoftheearnings

throughouttheyear,withinformationsharedwithallmembers,sothatinasituationwhere

revenuesarebelowwhathasbeenpredictedthemonthlypaymentscanbereducedafterageneral

agreement.Aswellasreceivingamonthlypaymentworkersreceiveanannualbonusbasedona

percentageoftherevenuesthataregenerated,calculatedintermsofemploymentgradesand

lengthofservice.Theworkersareeligibleforotherbenefitsincludingaccesstoprivatehealthcare,

chargedat20%oftheusualcost.

28

Unlikestaff,studentsdonotowntheuniversitybutareregardedasworkers,withstudies

organisedalongsideemploymentplacements,instillingtheideaof‘humanityatwork’,andthe

sovereigntyoflabourassetoutintheirco-operativeprinciples.MUinsiststhatstudentsarepaid

whileonworkplacementastheyarecontributingtothewealthofthecompany.Thestudentsdo

notmakeanyfinancialinvestment,orgainanyshareinsurplusesthatareproduced.

Theadvancedpaymentsarescaledsothatthehighestpaidworkergetsnomorethan1-4.5

ofthelowestpaid.Whilethelevelsofpayaresimilarandevenhigherfornewacademicsthanin

otheruniversitiesthestaffthatoccupyexecutivepositionsarelesswellremuneratedthanstaffwith

similarresponsibilitiesinotherhighereducationinstitutions.

TheUniversityisfederatedwithotherco-operativeorganisationsintheregion,likeAlecop,an

industrialco-operativeestablishedin1966toprovidestudentswithemploymentandtheexperience

ofworkinginaco-operativecompany.Alecopexemplifiesthespiritofco-operativismatMU,where

studentsareownersofthisco-operativealongwithtechnicalandadministrativestaff.Students

makeacapitalinvestmentof670euros,andearnanincomeof500amonth.Inthiscase,‘Students

areprotagonists:apowerfulforceineducationandsociety,atthecentreofasharedendeavour

basedonactivity,labourandeducation:‘a’,‘l’,‘e’asthe‘ale’inAlecop’(FoundingRector).Akey

featureoflivelihoodatMUisthatitexiststocreateemploymentmorethantomaximiseprofit.

Solidarity

Theextensivenatureofco-operativismatMU,MCCandacrosstheBasquecountrymeansthatthe

wholeregioncanberegardedasa‘solidarityeconomy’(Fernando2011).Allco-operativesin

MondragonCorporationpayapercentageoftheirannualrevenueintofundsthataredistributedfor

thebenefitoftheCorporationasawhole.ThereisanEducationFundtopayforinfrastructure

developmentsandnewtechnologies.WithinMUeachoftheFacultiescansupporteachother

throughthetransferofrevenuesifoneoftheFacultyco-opsisnotachievingitsanticipatedearnings.

Solidarityismuchmorethananeconomicrelation,itisasocialrelationandawayoflife,deeply

rootedinthelocalregionanditspoliticsaswellasfamilylife.

29

‘Wewereco-operatorsbeforewewereborn.Mymotherandfatherwereco-operators.Itis

somethinglikeaformofpredestination’(MemberofEducationandHumanitiesFaculty2)

Onereasonforthiswaningoftheco-operativespiritisafeelingamongsomemembersthatMU

doesnotpayenoughattentiontopromotingitsownco-operativeprincipleswithintheorganisation.


Therewassupportforthedevelopmentofanotherco-operativeuniversitybutmembersofLanki

statedthatthereisnotasinglemodelforco-operativehighereducationtobetransferred.It

dependsalotonthepeople,onthecontext,theculture,thecommunity.MondragonUniversity

sharesalotoftheirideasandexperiencesofco-operativehighereducation,butthemodelcannot

simplybecopied.Nevertheless,thereareuniversalvaluesthatcouldbereplicated:a)workingwith

peoplewhostronglybelieveintheco-operativemodel;b)thattheco-operativeuniversityshouldbe

rootedintheterritoryanditsworkshouldbealignedwiththekeyneedsandstrengthsoftheregion.

UnicornWorkerCo-operative

UnicornGroceryisaworkerco-operativelocatedinSouthManchester.Itwasfoundedin1996bya

workinggroupoffourmembersplusvolunteersbasedonacommercialblueprintofaddingvalueto

wholesalefoodsalesbybulkpackagingcommodities(Sawtell1985/2006)Withanannualturnover

of£7.5millionin2016,70membersandoccupyingasiteof10,000squarefeet,Unicornisoneofthe

largestwholesalegroceriesintheUK.Unicornsellsregionallyproducedseasonalfruitand

vegetablesaswellasfairlypricedorganic-produce,includingalcohol,environmentallyfriendlybaby

products,cosmeticsandhouseholdgoods.Unicornsupportslocalproducersbybalancing‘affordable

pricesforcustomerswithagoodreturnforgrowers’.Aswellastheshopthelocationincludesan

on-sitecar-park,warehouse,officespace,children’splayareaandroofgarden.

TherearethreecategoriesofworkersatUnicorn:full-timestaff,probationarystaffand

casualstaff.Individualswhoapplyforanadvertisedpositiongothroughaformalselectionprocess

andservea7monthprobationaryperiod,whichincludespeerreview.70%ofthecurrentmembers

30

werecasualstaffwhoareemployedfor12months,duringwhichtimetheygettoknowhowthe

businessworks.

KeyworkfunctionsatUnicornaredividedintoteamunits.Thecurrentworkteamsat

Unicornare,Deli,Veg,Alcohol,Fresh,Shop,Store,Secretariat,IT/Communications,Production,

Personnel,Training,HealthandSafety,OperationsPlanning,Maintenance,Cleaning,Educationand

Marketing,FinanceandAmbientBuying.EachTeamhastheirownfortnightlymeetingtodiscuss

mattersrelatingtotheirresponsibilityforday-to-dayfunctioningofaspecificareaofthebusiness

andcontributingtostrategyatMembershipMeetingsandAwayDay.Therearethreefull

MembershipMeetingsayear,oneAwayDayandoneVisioningDay.TheMembershipMeetingsare

responsibleforstrategyplanning,policy,buildingconsensus.ArepresentativefromeachTeam

attendsaForummeeting,heldeverytwoweekswhichimplementsstrategyandpolicyfrom

MembershipMeetingsandAwayDaysandtosupportTeamFunctions.

Animportantpartofthisstructureisthatteamunitsare‘family’or‘human’sized.Another

featureofthewayinwhichworkisorganisedatUnicornismultitaskingwiththepossibilityforall

memberstotakeonamixtureofmanualandoffice-basedtasks,aswellascreatingnewrolesfor

olderandnewmemberstotakeon.AtUnicornmanagingtheco-operativeisakeyaspectofthe

organisationofthebusiness,butformembersofUnicorn‘Managementshouldbeviewedasa

functionandnotasastatus’(StructureReview2015,5):

TheresearchwascarriedoutduringNovember2016,wheretheresearchermade4day-long

researchvisitstotheco-operative.Heconducted8semi-structuredinterviewsandobservedarange

ofmeetingsandtrainingevents.Thevisitwasfacilitatedbyamemberoftheco-operative.Fromthe

rangeofresponsesgatheredtherewasnosenseinwhichtheintervieweeswerechosenbecauseof

anyattempttopresentaparticularviewaboutUnicorn.

31

Co-operativeleadership

Leadershipisconsideredanimportantaspectoftheworkoftheco-operative,provideddynamism

andexpertise.Onememberspokeof‘organicleadership’,whenindividualswithaninterestor

talentemergeswhenaparticularfunctionneedstobefilled,whothenwithdrawoncethetaskhas

beenfulfilled;ratherthanapre-ordainedmanagementfunctiontowhichmembersaspire.There

wasaviewthattheconceptofco-operativeleadershipdidnotfitwithaworker-co-operativemodel

basedondemocraticdecisionmaking.Anotheropinionwasthatthosewhoshouttheloudestget

listenedto.UsingBernstein’sframeworkfordemocraticleadership,thismodelofleadershipisnot

basedonaconsciousrecognitionofthepowerthatthepersoninapositionofinfluenceholdsand

howtheychoosetousethatpower,basedonasetofvalues,personalgoalsandbeliefs;but,rather,

thesystemicnatureoftheco-operativeorganisationsothatitaffectsthewholeconsciousnessof

individuals.Onemightsaythattheworkersaredemonstratingorarebearersofaco-operative

consciousnessthatismanifestastheUnicorngrocery.

Knowledge

Allmattersrelatingtothebusinessoftheco-operative,otherthanconfidentialHRmattersincluding

businessinformationareshared.Thereisacommitmenttomemberssharingknowledgeoftheco-

operativethroughformaltrainingdays,whenmembersmakepresentationsaboutthehistory,

scienceandculturethatliesbehindtheproductstheysell.Unicornrunstrainingevents,toshare

practicalinformationandknowledgeinawaythatcanenhancetheoperationoftheco-operative,

forexample,withregardtowebbasedpoliciesandpracticesandsafetyandsecurity.Theyare

followingapracticeofdemocraticleadershipbysharing‘newformsofsocially-usefulknowledge’

(HallandWinn2017).Theseactivitiesarepresentedtotheco-opmembersasawholegroup,apart

fromthosewithimmediateshopfloorresponsibilities.Duringtheresearchanewpracticeof

decisionmakingbasedonproposalswasintroduced.Theseproposalwouldbewrittenuppriorto

meetingsonpro-formadocumentssettingoutrelevantinformationandrationalethatlaybehindthe

proposal.Majordecisionsareinformedbyknowledgeproducedbygroupsdelegatedtoresearcha

32

particularissue,e.g.,totestwhetherthecurrentUnicorndemocraticstructurewasstillfitfor

purposeafterarecentriseinmembernumbers,andbasedonresearchvisitstootherco-operatives.

Democracy

Thisisaco-operativemodelinwhichallmembersarefullyparticipatinginallaspectsofthe

business,satisfyingBernstein’sthreedimensionsofparticipation.Theideaofinstitutionalinclusivity

wentbeyondanysenseofpromotingindividualinclusivityorcollegialitybutiswrittenintothe

constitutionalfabricoftheorganisation.Thewaysinwhichdemocracyisexercisedthrough

consensualdecision-makingmeansthatUnicorniscriticallyreflexive(HallandWinn2017)making

foraneffectiveformofdemocraticleadership.Duringthevisit,Iwitnesseddemocracyatworkina

rangeofdifferentmeetingsforspecificareasofworkwithinthegrocerystoreaswellasgeneral

meetingsknownasForums,wheredecisionsweremadefortheco-operativeasawhole.Members

feltthatwhiletheprocessofdecisionmakingmighttakelongerduetotheconsensualnatureofthe

discussions,thequalityofthedecisionswasofahigherorderaswasthecommitmentofmembers

tothedecisionsthatwereagreed.However,democracycanbeexhausting,demandinghighlevelsof

engagementbymembersinaffairsofthebusiness.Allofthisismuchmorethanpromoting

institutionalinclusivity(Bacon2014).ThefunctionoftheGeneralAssemblyandForumsmean

operatinginplaceofanymanagementbodymeansthereisfullworkplacedemocracyinBernstein’s

terms.

Bureaucracy

Theco-operativeisgroundedinadistinctivesetofpolitical,moralandethicalvaluesandprinciples,

ratherthanthegenericframeworksestablishedbytheICA.Theprinciplesare:secureemployment,

equalopportunity,fairandsustainabletradeandSolidarityinCo-operation.Therewasastrong

senseamongmembersthatitisimportanttoestablishasetofcommonsharedvaluesandprinciples

formaintainingasenseofcommonpurpose.Aswellasarecognitionthatthebusinessdoesnotjust

runonprinciplesandvaluesbutisgroundedinhardworkandtrustofeachother.

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Livelihood

Allworker-membersarepaidthesamewages,£22kperannumbasedonanhourlyrate,including

probationarystaff.Casualsreceive80%ofthehourlyrate(orNationalLivingwage,whateveris

greater).Membersreceivequarterlybonusesbasedonhoursworkedandlengthofservicecapped

at10years.BeyondthisUnicornseekstoenhancethelifeofthelocalareabyfundingprojectsand

organisationswhichsharetheirvisionofcommunityandsocietyintheUK,andaninternationalfund

concernedwiththeimpactsofunfairworldtraderegulations,poverty,andunsustainableagriculture

intheGlobalSouth.Unicorndonates1%ofitswagesbilltoafundforlocalprojectsand4%for

internationalprojects.Aswellasthis,Unicornsupportsthedevelopmentofothergroceryco-

operativesthroughthe‘GrowyourownGrocery’guide,alongwithothercommunityactivitiesto

supportthedevelopmentofco-operativism.ThisworkisorganisedbytheEducationandMarketing

team.

Solidarity

TherewasastrongsenseofcommitmenttoothermembersofUnicornandtotheco-operative

movement,particularlyworker-co-operatives.Therewasarecognitionthatthestrengthoftheco-

operativeisitsindividualmembers.Therewasalsoarecognitionthatrelationshipsbetween

memberscouldbestrained,notonlyintermsofpersonaldisagreements,butalsowithregardto

contributionsmadetotheworkingoftheco-operative.Therewasasenseofloyaltyand

commitmenttocustomersandtoexternalsuppliers,butnodesiretoreconstituteasamulti-

stakeholderorsocialco-operativewheredecisionmakingwouldbesharedwithpeopleandgroups

whowerenotdirectlyemployedbytheworkerco-operative.Itwasfeltthatdecisionsmadeby

thesegroupsmightnotbebasedonthebestinterestoftheco-operativeasawhole.Forworkersat

Unicornthebusinessistheirlivelihoodandsothereistoomuchatstake.


Therewaswidespreadsupportfortheideatoestablishaco-operativeuniversitywhenitwas

describedtomembersofUnicornduringtheresearchvisit.Theywerekeentohearabouthow

34

MondragonUniversityworksandthenatureofitsco-operativism.Oneofthememberssaidthat

settingupaco-operativeuniversitywouldnotonlyrequiredecidingonwhattolearn,butalsoabout

developinga‘mind-set’of’howtooperateinaco-operativeculturethatworksonanadult

transactionallevel’.

Generaldiscussionandconclusion

Thereisnosenseinwhichtheseorganisationsarebeingevaluatedintermsoftheirownvaluesand

principlesoragainsteachother.Thepurposeoftheresearchistodevelopadiagnostictoolthrough

whichtheco-operativecharacteroftheseinitiativescanbedevelopedfurtherasanintrinsicaspect

ofhighereducation.Nevertheless,itisinterestingtoframetheseinitiativeswithintheterms

establishedbythemodelsofdimensionsofparticipation(Bernstein2012),neo-collegiality(Bacon

2014)anddemocraticleadership(HallandWinn2017).Andtoconsidertheseinitiativesintermsof

therelationshipbetweenlabourandcapital,theorganisingframeworkthroughwhichweare

conceptualisingthepracticeofco-operationandco-operativeleadership.

Unicornasaworkerco-operativefullymeetsthehighestlevelofparticipationsetoutby

Bernstein’sthreedimensionsofparticipation,inawaythatgoesbeyondcollegialitytoestablisha

verysolidstructurefordemocraticleadership.Unicornregardthemselvesasaworkerco-operative

committedtoeachotherasworkers,withnoplanstoextendmembershiptoconsumersorother

externalorganisations.Whilethisprotectstheirstatusasradicallabourorganisationcommittedto

thedemocraticcontroloftheirownlabourprocessestheydonotseektodissolvethecapital

relation.WorkersatUnicorndocreatealternativeformsofhumansociabilitybasedonsharingand

community,buttheirformalarrangementasaworker’sco-operativedoesnotstretchthesocial

relationsofcapitalistproductionandreproduction.

MondragonUniversityprovidesanotherexampleofcommitmenttodemocraticdecision

makingbyownersandmembersinwaysthatfullyillustrateBernstein’sthreedimensionsof

participation,beyondtheideaofcollegiality,providingasolidstructurefordemocraticleadershipin

35

waysthatarecriticallyreflexive.UnlikeUnicorn,Mondragonisaquasi-multi-stakeholderco-

operativewherenon-owners(i.e.studentsandlocalstakeholders)dohavetherighttovote.Thereis

averystrongcommitmenttolabourandworkasthebasisforhumandignityinwaysthatmake

capitalsubordinatetolaboursoastoinwaysthatbringprosperityandemploymenttotheBasque

region.ThereareconcernsthatthehighlycompetitiveenvironmentwithinwhichMUandMCCare

operatingmeansthatthemembershipmodelisbeingunderminedbyamoremanagerialistagenda.

ThelackofstudentengagementindemocraticinitiativesatMUareacauseforconcernforsome

whoseektorecoverthemoreradicalnatureofstudentpoliticsinpreviousperiods.Theinterviews

revealedadesiretoreinventtheco-operativemodelestablishedatMUalongthelinesofasocialco-

operativetorespondeffectivelytocurrentglobalemergencies.

TheJohnLewisPartnership,althoughnotaco-operative,wassetupwiththeprinciplesand

valuesofco-operativeproductioninmind.Itprovidesamodelofemployeeownershipthatmeans

partnerscanholdseniormanagerstoaccount,andthatstaffatalllevelshavetheopportunityto

engageinagendasettinganddemocraticdecisionmaking.Theseprocessesaregroundedinthe

company’sconstitution,whichprovidesthebasisforthecollectiveconsciousnessofthewhole

organisation.ThismodeldoesnotfullysatisfyBernstein’sthreedimensionsofparticipation:power

isconcentratedatthelevelofseniormanagement,withaconstantstruggleovertheprinciples

enshrinedintheconstitutionandthepressuresofcommercialcompetitionasexpressedthrough

seniormanagement.Nevertheless,thereisthespaceforcriticalengagementbystaffthrough

instrumentssetoutintheconstitution.Andthepartnersdoretainthepowertodismissthe

ChairmanthroughademocraticvoteatthePartnershipCouncil.Thereissomeconcernbypartners

ofthatthepartnershipprincipleisbeingunderminedthroughoutsourcingactivitiesandthe

increasedhiringoftemporarystaff.

Intermsoftherelationshipbetweenlabourandcapital,theframeworkforourapproachto

co-operativeorganisations,whilethecontemporarydiscoursedoesnotusethelanguageofpolitical

economy,thehistoryofthepartnershipanditsobjectiveistocontainlabourwithintheframework

36

ofcapitalismandestablishedthepartnershipmodelasabulwarkagainstcommunism.Thisisclear

fromthetitleofSpedanLewis’book,publishedin1954,FairerShares:apossibleadvancein

civilisationandperhapstheonlyalternativetocapitalism.

TheCo-operativeschoolisbasedontheco-operativeprinciplesoftheICA,andisgoverned

andmanagedthroughhierarchicalstructures.Thereareopportunitiesfordemocraticparticipation

butthisislimitedtocertainissuesrelatingtoperceivedlevelsofexpertise.Thehierarchicalnatureof

decisionmakingisjustifiedbytheSLTintermsoftheneedtoprotectstafffromthestressful

responsibilitiesofimplementinggovernmentpolicy.Thereisgeneralsupportamongstaffforthis

approachalthoughconcernwasexpressedbyonememberofstaffabouthavingsuchahierarchical

structureinaco-operativeorganisation.Thereareforumsforstaffandstudentstoraiseissuesand

tobeconsultedbutwithoutthepowertomakedecisions.Thislackofpowerintermsofdecision

makingwasinalimitedwayamelioratedbytherealsenseofcommunityandcollegiality,which

followingBacon’sframework,promotedinstitutionalinclusivitythrougharangeofwellorganised

formalandinformalprocesses.

Allofthecasestudiesagreedontheimportanceofco-operativeleadershipalthoughwith

differentapproachestowhatitactuallymeant.ItwasthemostproblematicforUnicorn,themost

strikingatMondragonintermsofthelimitsoftheRectorandViceRector’spower,themost

hierarchicalatJohnLewis,asonemightexpect,althoughunderpinnedbytheconstitution,andat

Lipsonacademywasenshrinedinapedagogicmodelthatcouldbeextendedtootherco-operative

organisations,andinparticular,thenewco-operativeuniversity.

Therewasgeneralsupportfortheideaofaco-operativeuniversity,asaprogressionfor

studentsattheco-operativeschool,andaspartofMU’scommitmenttosupportingco-operative

highereducationelsewhereintheworld.Therewasalsotherealitythatco-operativevaluesand

principlesmightnotbeappropriateforallformsofemployee-ownedbusiness,anditwoulddepend

verymuchonthelocalandpoliticalcircumstances.Thecatalyticprinciplesbasedonprevious

researchprovedtoberobustwaysinwhichtoframetheresearch.

37

KeylearningpointsarethewayinwhichJones,formerVicePrincipalattheschool,

expressedtheimportanceofworkingwiththecontradictionsthatconfrontthoseinvolvedwith

capitalistinstitutions.Althoughthisviewwasnotconceptualisedintermofthevaluerelation,as

advancedbythestrugglebetweenlabourandcapital,itverymuchfitsourwayofcriticallyand

practicallyworkinginsidehighereducationinstitutions(NearyandWinn2017b).Alecopenterprises

canbeusedtoillustratethepowerofstudentsasprotagonists,owingandrunningtheirown

enterprises,aswellastheviewexpressedbyamemberofAlecopfortheneedtodevelopnewforms

ofco-operativeenterpriseswhicharemoreabletodealwiththeveryrealemergenciesofthe

contemporaryworldnotonlyintermsofownEuropeancontextsbuttobesetalongsidelessonsthat

havebeenlearnedintheGlobalSouth.

Basedonourtheoreticalframingthatprioritisestherelationshipbetweencapitaland

labour,itispossibletoreconceptualisetheconceptofco-operativeleadership.Thedistinctive

featureofco-operativeleadershipthatemergesfromthisstudyisthatitisnotbasedonthe

charismaticcharacteristicsofcertainindividuals,norisittheoutcomeofdistributedleadership

throughoutanorganisation,noracomplexmatrixofhybridmanagerialforms,butisderivedfrom

thenatureoftheorganisationitself.Incapitalistenterprises,whicharebasedontheco-operationof

labouraswellasaspecificdivisionoflabour,leadersofallkindsemerge,empatheticandconsensual

aswellasauthoritariananddespotic,inresponsetobarriersthatneedtobeovercomeforthe

continuationofproductivegrowth;but,contratotheimperativesofcapitalistproduction,co-

operativeleadershipinacapitalistcontextwillemergeinresponsetothesocialisationoflabourthat

co-operationincapitalismimplies(solidarity),andforpurposesthatgobeyondthelimitsand

barriersofcapitalistproduction(livelihood)inwaysthatinvolvetheagreementofthewhole

organisation(democracy)basedonitscollectiveintelligenceandcapacity(knowledge)andina

mannerthatmembersoftheenterprisesupportandadhereto,asasetofmoral,ethicaland

politicalprinciples(bureaucracy).And,aswellasallofthat,theresearchhasrevealedwhatwe

alreadyknew:co-operativeenterprisesarebuiltbypeoplebasedonloveandtrust,asenseofpride

38

andcommitmenttoeachother,aswellasmanagingpersonaltensionsandantagonisms,morelikea

familyorakinshipgroupthanabusinesscorporation.

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