Government of Newfoundland and Labrador Department of Education Division of Program Development

CMC -Archive

Authorized by the Minister

Government of Newfoundland and Labrador Department of Education Division of Program Development

Authorized by the Minister

FOLK LITERATURE 3203

A Teaching Guide

Written by: Bill Butt Q 1990

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Teacher Expectations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Approaches to Folk Literature 3203: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

The Modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Introduction - Pan I: Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Introduction - Pan II: Methodology and Fieldwork . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Folk Speech I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Folk Speech II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Folktale I 17

Folktale II 21

Folksong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Ballad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

Recitations and Monologues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Folk Legend and Personal Experience Narrative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

Folk Drama . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

Research in Folklore: A Guide for Folk literature 3203: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

To the Teacher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

Pan I - Methodology and Fieldwork . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

Pan II - The Preparation of Fieldwork-Based Papers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

Biographical Data Sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

Note:A selection of References and Resources (where applicable) are cited at the end of each section of this guide.

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INTRODUCTION

This teachers' guide for Folk Literature 3203 is designed to address the following:

Clarify the conceptual framework of the course, including general and specific objectives and key themes and concepts.

Identify points of primary and secondary focus in each module.

Clarify potential misunderstandings.

Suggest approaches for teaching concepts and units.

Highlight teacher expectations.

Identify some additional resources.

The compilation of this guide has been difficult in that there has been a constant temptation to go beyond the mandate and intent of this work and to rewrite, simplify, edit and reorganize the entire course. However, that is in the scope of a course revision and not in that of a guide for existing materials.

In spite of this, it is important to remember that any program is a course to be navigated by teachers and students and must be modified and supported with a variety of other materials and creative approaches. The existing modules can be viewed in this light and, with some support materials and creative techniques, they can be enjoyable and successful for teachers and students.

The approach taken in the writing of this work has been to address the issues above without being prescriptive or restrictive. This is a course which should be enjoyable to both teachers and students and this guide is intended to facilitate such an approach. The public exam should not be viewed as an impediment since the objectives of the course as reflected by the exam can be achieved without stifling the approach once the key concepts are clarified.

It is a good idea to read through this entire guide before starting any particular module or topic since ideas found in one area may also be useful to other topics.

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TEACHER EXPECTATIONS

Teaching Folk Literature 3203 is a challenge for several reasons. While the course has been assigned to the language and literature area of curriculum, it could just as easily and justifiably be assigned as a social study. I am not advocating that this be done but mention the point for another purpose. The course obviously relates closely to literature and certain aspects of understanding the course require such a perspective. However, many of the concepts and ideas inherent to the study and appreciation of folk literature deal with cultural factors and understandings. These factors are certainly not foreign to literature teachers but are also commonly studied by anthropologists, folklorists, sociologists and others. For example, function, context, group dynamics, performance, and cultural change are topics commonly studied by the social sciences.

This discussion is not intended to imply that an academic approach is required for this course but that an interdisciplinary approach which strikes a balance between literature and the social studies might best achieve course objectives. In future, a revision of the course along a thematic scheme rather than the current genre-based approach would facilitate this balance more readily. However, teachers who are aware of this will be quite capable of incorporating this into their daily teaching.

A thematic approach will also serve to unite the various aspects and genres of folk literature study more readily and enable students to see greater continuity and connections between the current modules. Ideally, the different genres should not be seen or studied in isolation from one another since legends, folktales, songs, jokes, riddles, and other forms rarely occur in this manner in context. The informal and ad hoc manner in which the various forms are intertwined must be appreciated if students are to have any understanding of this part of the literary heritage of many of the peoples of the world. This is undoubtedly the biggest drawback of the current organization of the course by genre and separate modules.

Creativity and student involvement are the keys to success in teaching Folk Literature 3203. Participation is key and students need to be involved both in and out of class. This is sometimes difficult to achieve given the size of classes and the weak academic ability of many of the students placed in this course. There are, however, a combination of approaches which can accomplish this.

In order to get students involved in this course, the items of folk literature being used as examples have to come off the printed page and come alive. An item of folk literature exists only in performance in a context. Reading the transcript is doing just that; no more and no less. Enjoyment, appreciation, and understanding of folk literature will come only if students can experience it. This is not to suggest that teachers should entertain students in each and every class with oral performances of their own. However, some of this will be necessary if students are to be expected to do the same. This may be especially necessary in the early going if the walls and inhibitions to this kind of participation are to be successfully removed.

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The teacher who can create an imaginary setting for the performance of some items for students will be taking a major step in capturing the students' interest This will help create mood and atmosphere for the performance and increase appreciation of the form. It is an excellent opponunity to draw on the literary background in a different way.

All students like to be read to, even those at level three. Take some time to read interesting tales, legends, and other forms to them. This will pay off immensely when the time comes to make sense of the concepts and ideas relating to a particular genre or idea.

There are a number of good resources to draw on as well. A wide variety of print, audio recordings, video tapes, and other media exist which can be used to enhance this course. A number of suitable resources are cited at the end of each module. Remember that the examples given in the modules do not have to be covered to realize the objectives of this course. Other examples of the same types of material can just as easily be used to accomplish our goals. Do not feel bound to 'cover' the examples in the modules if other more appropriate ones are available.

Also, local persons can be incorporated into the class from time to time. The research ·project is a strong feature of this course and enables students to do some actual fieldwork. The fieldwork project has to be adapted to the ability level of the students. Ways of achieving this are suggested in the Research in Folklore pan of this guide.

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APPROACHES TO FOLK LITERATURE 3203

THE MODULES

The following discussion of the modules for the course will clarify key concepts and ideas, clarify confusing terminology, distinguish primary information from secondary information, and suggest some approaches, questions and activities. As much as possible, I have kept the discussion to point form for quick reference and clarity. Points discussed under each module may be considered to be the more important and salient ones unless otherwise stated. Points not discussed which appear in each module may be considered to be of a secondary nature.

Except for headings dealing with terminology, those used in this guide correspond to those in the modules for quick and easy reference.

There is no real recommended sequence for doing topics or modules. The sequence in which the modules are discussed here will work well but there will likely be changes each teacher will want to make for the particular class and situation.

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INTRODUCTION PART 1: OVERVIEW

This module is a very difficult one because of the language level used and the information which is not provided. The writing assumes a good deal of knowledge of folk literature on the part of the teacher which is generally not the case. This is not a criticism of teachers since training in this area has not been a very common practice. For the purposes of a high school course, extensive training should not be required. The following points clarify some of the unnecessarily complicated language. References are included for further reading for teachers who may want to gain fuller understandings of some of the ideas expressed in the module.

Terminology

Folk Literature - refers to the oral folklore of all people of the world and includes all forms of stories, songs, jokes, rhymes, riddles and other verbal art It can also refer to the study of these items.

Motif - Folk narratives can be broken down into simple details or elements which, when put together, form the basic ideas around which a story can be told. These details are called motifs and they can be categorized into three main groups: characters, objects and incidents. (See Folktale II section in this guide for a more detailed discussion)

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Genres I

This is a straightforward discussion which can be adequately covered with little problem. Clarify any confusion about the term and introduce the four main genres and their divisions or sub-genres. There is no need for memorization of this since students will become quite familiar with the important categorizations as the course proceeds.

The chart on page 5 is good and should be referred to each time a new type of item is introduced so that students can see relationships between items and where each fits in the overall scheme. This chart is handy for review purposes at the end of the course, not to be memorized, but as a reference.

Characteristics of Folk Literature

Essentially, there are only a few key characteristics common to all types of folk literature which are necessary to students of this course. These explain the main differences between written literature and folk literature. They are:

No Known Author - the discussion provided here is clear. Instead of using the term 'author', it is good to get students in the habit of using words like story-teller, narrator, singer, reciter, and so on as appropriate. This may seem an insignificant point but it is important to have them think folk literature.

Multiformity - This explains type and version. The discussion on pp. 8-9 is reasonable. Simply put, it means that the type is the idea of an item and how it goes and version is the actual choice of words a performer uses in a context. The words, style, context and other features of the performance can change but the idea is the same. Ideas are abstract so we cannot represent the exact or correct type of a folklore item in writing. The type represents all possible versions of the same idea. The best we can do is give it a title and discuss it in a general way.

This latter point can be expanded on further if desired though it is not essential. All forms of folk literature exist only in performance. A written text of a song someone sings, for example, is only a text or written version of an actual performance. The item existed as folk literature only in its live form with all aspects of context such as style, atmosphere, mood. setting, audience, interaction and so on present. Getting the items off the page and into life is the greatest challenge in teaching this course.

Textual Characteristics - these are outlined quite well on pp. 10 - 11 and explain many of the common features of folk literature.

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The Textual Characteristics of Folk Literature

As an introduction, you may run through these feablres and then leave them for later since they will become an integral part of the course and will be extensively studied in the modules on the folktale. This is a good section and can be referred to as convenient and necessary throughout the year.

Context

The discussion here is unnecessarily elaborate. Do not have students read this. For the purposes of this course, it is sufficient to distinguish only between the general context and the performance context

General Context - refers to the overall features of a society and culture; in other words, all the different features that make a society what it is such as music, art, language, dialect, entertainment, recreation, occupations, religion, etc. In the study of folk literature, an understanding of the general context in which particular forms occur is essential to understanding the functions they serve.

Performance Context - refers to the specific context in which an actual item (song, story, joke, etc.) of folk literature is performed. The performance context includes the setting, mood, atmosphere, audience, interaction, and other features of performance situations.

Function

This explanation is poor in that it assumes a considerable knowledge of folk literature. In simple terms the four functions of folk literablre are:

1) to entertain

2) to educate

3) to validate culture; to reinforce beliefs, practices, and social behaviours accepted by a society. For example, legends, moral tales, and proverbs serve this purpose.

4) to maintain acceptable social behaviours; that is, folk literature serves to exercise social pressure and control on individuals who may deviate from the norm. Warnings of this nature may be contained, for example, in story, song, jokes and in the form of popular culture known as graffiti.

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Folk Literature and Written Literature

This segment is a scanty treatment of an extremely interesting topic. It is not of great significance to the course now since Beowulf was dropped, however, more appropriate versions of Beowulf or Arthurian Legends can be found. This would allow this section to be revitalized with some elaboration in simple terms.

In my own teaching of the course, students invariably liked the section on Beowulf best of all and we continued to do it after it was officially dropped. It is not difficult for weaker students to understand if presented in an enjoyable manner nor is it necessary to wade through a difficult and academic version of Beowulf to achieve success. A good approach would be to read a story version to a class first followed by an examination of a few passages from a literary translation to illustrate the oral composition process. I would recommend that a revision include a good section on oral composition for it is really an interesting study of human creativity.

Dr. Gildas Roberts' version of Beowulf (St. John's: Breakwater Books, 1984) is excellent and would provide an interesting approach. Combined with a teacher reference copy of Robert Nye's storybook version, students would thoroughly enjoy the topic.

The story of Beowulf is very appropriate to folk literature as it is a splendid example of oral composition. It also illustrates how written literature is often derived from oral literature since Beowulf was in circulation many years, perhaps centuries, before it was actually recorded in writing. It can also be used to illustrate type and version and textual characteristics.

Time spent on Beowulf would not make the course impossible to complete because it will allow other topics to be covered in less time since it can be used to teach a number of the important ideas and themes found in other modules.

The Study of Folk Literature: A Historical Sketch

Discussion here is again scanty. It is worthy of some discussion as it is useful to have some knowledge of how the study of any subject evolved. Adequate treatment of this would have to be incorporated in a revision. As well, questions on this type of topic do not fit well into the current exam format. Revision of the exam fonnat would allow for some interesting and general questions on folk literature which would not have to be tied to a particular genre.

Summary

A number of potentially interesting discussions of folk literature ideas are alluded to here. However, there is not enough information given to make anything of it. A revision along thematic lines would allow for greater incorporation of some of these ideas and add to the general interest of the course.

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REFERENCES

Bascom, William. "Four Functions of Folklore", in The Study of Folklore, ed. Dundes. pp. 279-98.

Coffin, Tristram Potter, ed. Our Living Traditions: An Introduction to American Folklore. New York: Basic books, 1968.

Dundes, Alan, ed. The Study of Folklore. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1965.

Dorson, Richard M. Folklore and Folklife: An Introduction. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1972.

Fowke, Edith, ed. Folklore of Canada. Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 1976.

Fowke, Edith and Carole H. Carpenter. Explorations in Canadian Folklore. Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 1985.

Goldstein, Kenneth S. and Neil V. Rosenberg. Folklore Studies in Honour of Herbert Halpert: A Festschrift. St. John's: Memorial University of Newfoundland, 1980.

Halpert, Herbert. A Folklore Sampler From the Maritimes. St. John's: Memorial University of Newfoundland. Folklore and Language Publications, 1982.

Halpert, Herbert and Neil V. Rosenberg. Folklore Studies at Memorial University: Two Reports. St. John's: Memorial University of Newfoundland, 1978.

Halpert, Herbert. Folklore and Newfoundland: An Informal Introduction to the Materials and Methods of Folklore. St John's: Memorial University of Newfoundland, 1981.

Lord, Albert B. The Singer of Tales. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1960.

Nye, Robert. Beowulf: A New Telling. New York: Dell, 1968.

Olrik, Axel. 'Epic Laws of Folk Narrative", in The Study of Folklore, ed. Dundes. pp. 129-41.

Roberts, Gildas. Beowulf: A . New Translation into Modern English Verse. St. John's: Breakwater, 1984.

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INTRODUCTION PART II: METHODOLOGY AND FIELDWORK

My recommendation here is quite simple: don't use it It is an overly complicated explanation of a relatively simple process. The information is good if someone were doing university work and interested in becoming a professional researcher. However, at the high school level in a folk literature course, an exposure to the process is sufficient Methodology and fieldwork is a course in itself. The Research in Folklore section prepared to accompany this guide should provide most of the information needed for our purposes.

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FOLK SPEECH I

This module is generally easy to work with and is an excellent one to start with after doing the main ideas in the introduction (Part I) because students will all have some knowledge of proverbs, rhymes and riddles. It is a good way to introduce them to the idea that everyone knows folk literature and participates in its processes regardless of what part of the world they come from, whether or not they live in cities, or how young or old they are.

Folk literature is not old stuff poked away in dusty books in a library. It is an ongoing part of life from the natives of the Canadian North to the floor of the Tokyo Stock Exchange. If you can have your students come to this realization, you will probably have achieved most of the other objectives along the way.

Terminology

Folk Speech - may be defined as traditional, and often figurative and colourful forms of language passed on by word of mouth in a culture. Although there are other forms, the three main forms are proverbs, rhymes and riddles.

Proverbs - See p. 2

Rhymes - are traditional verses in which the words at the end of each line are similar in sound.

Riddle - is a clever way of describing something which usually suggests something very different. They are used to confuse and test the wits of others.

Proverbs

Focus on function in this section. Have students work with and discuss examples from the text and other sources. Students are often one of the greatest sources of this information. A collection from the community is a good way to involve them from the start. You may wish to have them collect a number of proverbs on file cards and compile a class collection. These will be useful to draw on for discussion and to refer back to from time to time.

Proverbs can often serve a number of functions. Do not have students get into thinking that certain proverbs may only serve particular functions as the module tends to imply. They are only intended as examples. Try having students create contexts in which certain proverbs might be used. You may wish to have them recall an actual account or create a fictitious one in which a proverb would be used. Then ask them to discuss why the person who used the proverb might have chosen that particular one.

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It may be best to do this without looking at the functions suggested in the module. The answers students give will likely cover all or most of them but in somewhat different language. Then you could go to the module and show them that they already knew most of this anyway. One purpose of this is to get away from having students memorize word for word the functions as they are written in the module. There is no need for memorization here and it was never intended to be that way. Sending students into a public exam with the functions of proverbs memorized is a recipe for disaster.

The other purpose in this approach is to have teachers and students enjoy the course.

Proverbs are often used to expand lateral thinking. Let's use some lateral thinking in understanding proverbs. You don't really need a module to teach this in this way.

At the end of this section, students should be able to look at most proverbs, explain what they mean, think of a situation in which they could be used, and suggest why it would be used (its function!)

Structure of Proverbs

This topic provides an interesting opportunity for a class discussion on the use of words and language. It is not necessary to memorize any or all of the structures or definitions. Questions like this should never appear on a public exam. This is not a course in literary terminology. It is suggested that some of the examples here might be used to reinforce function and purpose.

Range of Proverbs

Again, use this as a fun exercise. Use it only to illustrate the extent to which some proverbs are in common usage.

Proverb-Related Genres

Here is an opportunity to have a look at many of the colourful expressions which come from Newfoundland culture. It is not necessary to emphasize these definitions too much. Go through them and have some fun with them. These should only appear as items on the scholarship exam.

Rhymes

Focus on category and function. While category is not particularly important, it is a very good clue as to what the possible functions are. This section is simple and self-

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explanatory.

Riddles

This is a great section to have fun with and to have students do some collecting. It is an opportunity to do some creative thinking and to discuss creative thinking as a function of riddles. Through activity and discussion, familiarize students somewhat with types of riddles but don •t stress memorization.

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REFERENCES

Abrahams, Roger D. Riddles Which Tell Stories, in Folklore Studies in Honour of Herbert Halpert: A Festschrift, ed. Goldstein and Roseneberg, pp. 31-53.

Dawe, Tom. Angishore, Boo-Man and Clumper. Sl John's: Harry Cuff Publications, 1985.

Dawe, Tom. Alley-Coosh, Bibby and Cark. St. John's: Harry cuff Publications, 1987.

Fowke, Edith. Folklore of Canada. Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 1976.

Halpert, Herbert. A Folklore Sampler From the Maritimes. St. John's: Memorial University of Newfoundland Folklore and Language Publications, 1982.

Opie, Iona and Peter Opie. The Lore and Language of School Children. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1959.

Simpson, J.A. The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Proverbs. Oxford: Oxford University press, 1982.

Story, G.M., W.J. Kirwin and J.D.A Widdowson. The Dictionary of Newfoundland English. Toronto: Toronto University Press, 1982.

Widdowson, J.D.A. Form and Function in Traditional Explanations of Weather Phenomena, in Goldstein and Rosenberg, eds., Folklore Studies in Honour of Herbert Halpert. pp. 353-76.

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FOLK SPEECH II

This is a simple module to deal with since there is really not a lot here that requires much time. The amount of time spent on this will depend on student interest. Some observation of younger children involved in these games and recording of the verses will add greatly to the interest. The essentials of this module can be dealt with in a few lessons.

Terminology

Game Rhymes and Singing-Games - We already have our definition of rhymes.

Characteristics of Game Rhymes

These particular rhymes are used with particular games or activities.

This section addresses the functions which game rhymes serve and most of the characteristics relate directly to a function served. For example, the second characteristic in the list directly describes one of the things children learn from using game rhymes which is really the purpose or function served. Many of the others do the same.

It is not necessary to have students remember all of the characteristics which these rhymes serve. Many are obvious and knowledge of two or three will serve the purpose.

Kinds of Game Rhymes

Familiarize students with some of the different kinds of rhymes. This will be much easier if they realize that the kind of rhyme is directly linked to the kind of activity it is used for. Category is not important in itself, but some understanding of the category is a good lead to understanding the purpo~. ·

The Function of Game Rhymes and Singing Games

A good summary of the kinds of things children learn from game rhymes is provided on page 17. It is worthwhile to discuss this for a class period and review the points made in light of some of the examples cited in this short section.

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REFERENCES

Abrahams, Roger D., ed. Jump-Rope Rhymes: A Dictionary. Austin: University of Texas/American Folklore Society, 1969.

Gomme, Alice Bertha. The Traditional Games of England, Scotland, and Ireland. 2 vols. New York: Dover, 1964.

Halpert, Herbert. A Folklore Sampler From the Maritimes. St John's: Memorial University of Newfoundland Folklore and Language Publications, 1982.

Knapp, Mary and Herbert Knapp. One Potato, Two potato. ... New York: Norton, 1976.

Opie, Iona and Peter Opie. Children's Games in Street and Playground. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1969.

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FOLKTALE I

The Folktale 1 module is relatively well done except that there are some sections that are best left out or for which other materials may be substituted. A lot of student interest is possible in the study of the folktale.

Terminology

Folktale - see definition, p. 1

Characteristics of the Folktale

It is best to leave this part out. Many students will find it confusing due to an inherent inconsistency. For the most part, the 'formal features' of this section are simply another way of describing the textual characteristics of folk literature from the Introduction - Part I. This is a serious incongruity within the course materials. Experience has shown that it is best to use the textual characteristics in folktale analysis and to omit this part. If you do chose to do this, focus on the stylistic and aesthetic features as further clarification of some of the differences between folk literature and written literature.

The Study of Folktales

Some interesting questions are raised here about folktales, their origins and how they circulate. This part should be expanded in a revision since it would be a very interesting topic. However, this would involve some extensive reorganization which is not within the scope of this guide. If anyone wants to read further on the topic, Thompson's The Folktale contains some interesting discussions of the topic. Without some background, this section can be used as a way in which to get students thinking but answers will be speculative.

Types of the Folktale

This is a good section, well-organized and easy to follow. Study each of the types and their characteristics and have students read some examples from one of the references. As part of this study, select several marchen to start with and have students analyze them according to the textual characteristics of folk literature. You may have to do several as examples with the class first, then assign several folktales to the class as assignments and/or seatwork. To check to be sure that your students have this concept, assign them each a different tale to analyze as an assignment. This will take you some time to correct so allow for it. It is worth devoting considerable class time to this topic since the ideas learned are transferable to other forms of folk literature and enhance students understanding

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of the course.

I would not recommend having students attempt The Seven Gold Mountains on pp. 6-11 as it is a verbatim transcription of a dialect found on the Port au Port Peninsula with which many students will not be familiar. You may want to give them some appreciation of verbatim transcriptions by having them record a friend or classmate telling (not reading) a short story or joke and then have them write it out containing all the pauses ( ... ), slang, repeated words and phrases, false starts and so on. This is an interesting and worthwhile activity which will build on the differences between written literature and folk literature. This theme should be maintained throughout the course.

You may or may not wish to do Sweetheart Roland. If not, substitute a tale from Folktales Told Around the World or another reference.

Realistic Tale, Animal Tale and Endless Tale

These sections are straightforward and interesting. They can be used as they are and you may want to select other examples from a reference if class time permits.

The Folktale in a Changing Society

This is a topic with a good deal of potential. I would like to see a lot more made of this in the course and would consider it to be a major topic or chapter in a revision. It is through the kinds of ideas raised in this section that many of the links between folk literature and many forms of popular entertainment can be drawn.

On television, for example, there are numerous soap operas, nighttime dramas, cqmedy shows, and movies which use elements of folk literature extensively in their plots. In fact, on close examination it is difficult to see much difference between these programs and what we are studying as folk literature in this course. In fact, the question then becomes, "Are these forms of entertainment really forms of folk literature which have been transformed due to technology?"

Indeed, there is room here to get students interested and involved in the pursuit of these topics. Analysis of an episode of a soap opera, comedy show or other production using the textual characteristics of folk literature is a good exercise to use. Similar questions can be raised using folksong when we consider the impact that recording has had on our definition of folksong since the 1920s. This raises the question, "What is the influence of technology on our view of folksong?"

Similar arguments and questions can be raised in our study of humorous tales, folk speech, drama and so on. This is one of the serious shortcomings of the genre approach to this course and of the current prescriptive exam format. Many of the most interesting topics of discussion and study do not fit well into this approach. In spite of this, teachers can use this section as a basis for some study of these ideas and you will find you are

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limited only by time and imagination.

For Further Reading and Discussion

It is not necessary cover any of the stories here. I would recommend selecting other examples from written collections. Verbatim transcriptions should be used only when the taped versions are available to play along with them.

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REFERENCES

Thompson, Stith. The Folktale. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1977. Reprint.

Dorson, Richard M. Folktales Told Around the World. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1975.

Desplanques, Marie-Annick. Folktales from Western Newfoundland. France: Universite de Rouen, 1985. (Available from Dept of Folklore, Memorial University of Nfld.)

Owens, Lily, ed. The Complete Brothers Grimm Fairy Tales. New York: Avenel books, 1981.

Clarkson, Atelia and Gilbert B. Cross. World Folktales. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1980.

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FOLKTALE II

Folktale II deals with humorous tales. These are treated separately from the forms in Folktale I apparently because they do not fit precisely into a particular category or classification. They can be found in a number of types mainly because humour is a very popular theme for a variety of stories.

The heading at the top of page 1 indicates the focus on humorous tales with the subcategories of jokes, or jests, and anecdotes. This module should be very interesting for students and there is plenty of opportunity for collection of humorous stories and jokes and active class discussion.

Fitting Humorous Tales into the Folktale Picture

Don't worry too much about the categorizations or sub-categories discussed here in terms of having students know them. It is sufficient to have students understand that categorizations are only convenient ways of organizing stories for comparison and that humorous stories are so popular and numerous that it is difficult to categorize them.

The activity at the bottom of page 1 is good. You might want to expand it into a class collection activity where each student could collect several jokes or humorous stories and put them on cards. Then it might be interesting to have each student present his items and, as a class, discuss and record the themes and id;eas in each. There may be a number of common ones. This information should be kept for reference throughout the module when you study the universal themes and ideas for comparison with the local examples. It is this kind of involvement and participation which will lead students to understand and appreciate folk literature and the commonalities that exist universally.

Motifs in Humorous Tales

The modules don't adequately define or clarify the idea of motif, however, it is a very simple concept. Folk narratives can be broken down into simple details or elements which, when put together, form the basic ideas around which a story can be told. These details are called motifs.

There are three main classes of motifs. The frrst includes the actors or characters in a tale such as gods, witches, fairies, cruel stepmothers and so on. The second consists of important objects or ideas in a story such as magic objects, strange beliefs and customs, and others. The third category is the largest. This includes the single incidents which take place in tales.

There are a number of specific details which appear in a lot of different stories. This is why a Motif-Index of Folk Literature was compiled by Stith Thompson. It makes it easier to compare stories using only the key ideas in them. Thompson categorized motifs according to common features they had and organized them by letter and number codes.

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For example, several of the major categories in the motif index are:

A. Mythological Motifs

B. Animals

C. Tabu

D. Magic

E. The Dead

F. Marvels

and so on. Under these categories are sub-categories. Under category A we would find, for example, a section coded:

AO- A99. Creator

Under this section we would fmd specific examples such as:

A.21.1. Male and female creators A.31. Creator's grandmother

Section B. contains as a sub-category:

B200-B299. Animals with Human Traits

In this section we find the examples:

B211. Animal uses human speech B211.3 Speaking horse B230. Parliament of animals

Thompson's Motif-Index of Folk Literature is an extensive work in six volumes compiled over many years of work. However, its entire structure is the same as the examples given above. What makes it so large is the sheer number of examples.

One might wonder what the use of all of this is. Well, it makes it easy to compare tales which come from all over the world. They can be broken down into codes using the Types of the Folktale index and the motif index and compared in a much simpler form than examining lengthy texts. This is especially interesting when tales which were recorded long ago in far different parts of the world are compared. Often, similar patterns appear, and yet, some of these tales are from cultures which had no contact with each other.

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This raises interesting questions about the nature of man, cultural adaptation, thought processes and themes that are universally entertaining. It is not in the scope of this course to speculate on answers to these questions but it is interesting to raise them as they are of interest to anthropologists, sociologists, psychologists, folklorists, archaeologists, and other social scientists as well as literary scholars.

It is not necessary for students to know all this in detail but this will enable them to understand what motifs are and why they were identified An interesting exercise for some students might be to identify a folktale by its tale type and then identify a few motifs. You would not need to have either of the indices for this purpose. Stith Thompson's The Folktale contains some entries from each in the appendices at the back. You could select several tales which fit into the tale types given and assign them as an exercise. Again, I would use this as a light exercise to illustrate the idea. 'Getting it right' is irrelevant.

The background given here should help to make much more sense of the Story of John and Janet and the discussion which follows it in this section.

Themes of Humorous Folktales

Discuss the four main themes given in this section and the examples used to illustrate them. Students should become familiar with several of these. As in the case of the discussion of the 'Folktale in a Changing Society' in Folktale I, this is an excellent place to go with some very contemporary material. Television sit-coms illustrate these themes very well and examples are so numerous that I need not suggest any. Students will provide examples in short order once you raise the topic. At this point, it would be interesting to refer back to the collection made earlier to see if similar themes appear in the stories they collected. The merits of this approach are obvious.

Jokes, Jests and Anecdotes

This section should serve as a fun section. Details of specific definitions are not critical, however, an understanding of what tall tales and anecdotes are is important.

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REFERENCES

Briggs, Katherine M. A Dictionary of British Folk-Tales. Part A, 2 Vols., Folk Narratives Part B, 2 Vols. London, 1970, 1971.

Halpert, Herbert. 'The Cut-Off head Frozen On': Some International Versions of a Tall lJik, in Fowke and Carpenter, eds., Explorations in Canadian Folklore. pp. 157-73.

Fowke, Edith. In Defence of Paul Bunyan, in Fowke and Carpenter, eds., Explorations in Canadian Folklore. pp. 189-99.

Russell, Ted. Tales From Pigeon Inlet. Elizabeth (Russell) Miller, ed., St. John's: Breakwater Books, 1977.

Thomas, Gerald R. Other Worlds: Folktale and Soap Opera in Newfoundland's french Tradition, in Goldstein and Rosenberg, eds., Folklore Studies in Honour of Herbert Halpert. pp. 343-51. '

Various Contributors. "Folk Narratives", in Halpert, ed. A Folklore Sampler from the Maritimes. pp. 1-35.

RESOURCES

Yarns of Pigeon Inlet, Canadian Broadcasting Corp., Videocassette, 12 30-minute programs. Adaptations of writings by Ted Russell. (Available for purchase on video from Instructional Materials, Dept. of Education)

While others Are Yarnin' ,(Art Scammell), Videocassette, 16 minutes, Department of Education, Instructional Materials.

24

FOLKSONG

This should be an very enjoyable unit and the possibilities are endless. As an introduction, focus on the question "What is a folksong?" The best place to start is with your students' notion of what songs they regard as folksongs and why they do. As this discussion proceeds, the answer will not be as clear and simple as one might think. Issues to consider will include:

Must a folksong come from oral tradition only to be considered a folksong?

Can any song become a folksong? (Including rock, pop, etc.)

Can only certain singers compose or sing folksongs?

Can folksongs be composed about certain topics only?

Has technology, such as radio, recording and other communications forms changed the folksong process?

These topics should produce a lively debate in class to which there will not likely be any consensus. The discussion and points made can then be reviewed in light of the definition given in the module. The purpose of this is not to give definitive answers to the above questions or others but to raise awareness of the topic and interest students in further study and debate.

It is a good idea to use some examples of different kinds of music to play as you discuss these topics. Selections should be made from professional recordings by people like Stan Rogers, Simani, and Ryan's Fancy on the traditional end to some of the popular music of the 1960's and '70's or earlier which are now considered classics as well as some very recent selections. Are some of these selections folksongs? Have some of them become folksongs over time? Will some of them perhaps become folksongs in the future? This will add greatly to the fun of this topic.

You may want to briefly outline some of the major trends in music and recording in this century since recording really began to increase in the mid-1920's. Obviously, not all music that was around before the time of recording was folk music or folksong but the issue was much easier to define than it is today. Some of the earliest popular recordings were made of Appalachian songs or hillbilly music by artists like Bill Monroe. Popularity of recorded music spread rapidly as radio became widespread in the 1920's and 30's. Other forms of music were popularized from existing traditions or evolved including spiritual, country, bluegrass, soul, rhythm and blues, jazz, rock and roll, pop, rock and so on up to and including today's forms. This is worthy of some discussion since the whole development of music has been a process. Each phase has been dependent on what came before.

~ particular, it may be useful to focus on discussion of the impact of radio on music

25

in Newfoundland. Why did country music develop such a rapid and widespread popularity here? One major influence was the impact of a radio station in Wheeling, West Virginia which could be picked up on radio in Newfoundland if the atmosphere wasn't too heavy and you had a good battery. This station had the call letters WWV A and played mostly country music. Of course, the fact that it was on didn't necessarily mean that people would like it. The topics of these songs had appeal to Newfoundlanders because of their style. Many of the ballads and songs popular in Newfoundland had a plain style, were simple inverse and language, and dealt with ordinary topics common to everyone. Country music filled the same bill in many ways and needed little exposure here to catch on.

In your discussion of this topic, focus on the working definition of folksong and the three main classifications of folksongs.

Lyric Folksongs

This part is clear and straight-forward. Students will need some time and practice with examples to be able to discuss the themes and imagery of such songs. Examples from another source with music is preferable. Remember that it is not necessary to do any of the examples in the modules to teach the ideas. Other examples for which you are able to provide music, several versions, or other support materials will accomplish the desired results.

Use this to reinforce literature concepts and approaches while also emphasizing function as a key idea.

Descriptive Songs

The discussion of descriptive songs is fairly easy to deal with as well. Again, using other examples for which recordings are available is important The definitions are easy and the examples are generally simple.

Other Classes of Folksongs

One point to clarify here is that these are sub-categories of the previous song categories. This is not necessarily obvious from the module but can be seen somewhat from the genre chart in Introduction -Part I. Note that sentimental songs, love songs and courting songs will usually end up in the lyric folksong category.

There's an opportunity to have some fun with these by having students bring in songs or records which are of these types. It is amazing how many useful examples from home students can find if asked.

The definitions here are relatively simple since the names give clues to the song type. There appears to be little difficulty with these on previous public exams based on the chief

26

marker's reports. However, it is best to have students understand the category descriptions rather than to have them memorize written definitions from the text.

Folksongs and Other Kinds of Songs

This section is rather scanty and will probably be better addressed as you do some of the introductory activities for this module suggested in this guide.

27

REFERENCES

Greenleaf, Elizabeth Bristol, and Grace Yarrow Mansfield. Ballads and Sea Songs of Newfoundland, Hatboro, Pa., 1968. Reprint.

Leach, MacEdward. Folk Ballads and Songs of the Lower Labrador Coast, 2 Vols., Ottawa: National Museum of Canada, 1965.

Lomax, Alan. The Folk Songs of North America, New York: Dolphin Books, 1975. Reprint.

Mercer, Paul. Newfoundland Songs and Ballads in Print: 1842 - 1974, St. John's, Memorial University of Newfoundland, 1979.

Peacock, Kenneth. Songs of the Newfoundland Outports, 3 Vols., Ottawa: National Museum of Canada, 1965.

Rosenberg, Neil V. Country Music in the Maritimes: Two Studies, St. John's: Memorial University of Nfld., 1976.

Taft, Michael. 'That's Two More Dollars': Jimmy Line~ar's Success With Countty Music in Newfoundland, in Taft, Travelling the Outports: Two Studies in Newfoundland Itinerant Culture, St. John's: Memorial University of Nfld., 1981.

Taft, Michael. A Regional Discography of Newfoundland and Labrador: 1904 - 1972. St. John's: Memorial University of Newfoundland, 1975.

28

RESOURCES

Songs of the Newfoundland Outports, Pigeon Inlet Productions, 1984. L.P. Recording with Song Texts.

Turnaround, (Stan Rogers) Fogarty's Cove Music, 1978. L.P., Cassette. (Oh, No, Not I)

For the Family, (Stan Rogers) , L.P., Cassette. (The Badger Drive)

Fogarty's Cove, (Stan Rogers), Fogarty's Cove Music, 1976. L.P., Cassette. (The Maid on the Shore, Make and Break Harbour)

Famous Songs of Newfoundland, (Omar Blondahl) Canadian Cavalcade, 1967. L.P. (The Maid on the Shore)

16 Songs of Newfoundland, (Omar Blondahl) Banff. L.P. (She's like the Swallow)

Piggy Duff, Posterity Records. L.P., Cassette.

Towards the Sunset, (Pat and Joe Byrne with Baxter Wareham) Pigeon Inlet Productions, 1983. L.P., Cassette.

A Time with Ryan's Fancy, Audat. L.P.

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BALLAD

The ballad module examines the third main category of folksongs which is the ballad. The module centres on the identification of the various types of ballads and the time periods they are associated with and goes on to suggest some reasons for the changing forms. Begin with a good general defmition of what a ballad is and proceed to look at the classical ballad. It is best to enhance this module with recorded examples and versions where possible.

The Classical Ballad

These are the oldest of the ballads. A discussion of the European cultures these grew out of might be interesting. In this regard, some students might want to do some background research on these pre-industrial cultures.

The definition of the classical ballad should be made clear with the three key points stressed.

In order to understand the concept of classical ballads, students will need to work through a number of examples of their own after you have done several examples with the class in detail. It might be best to work through the example "Young Bicham" with the class discussing it as a piece of folk literature before giving students other examples to do.

The Subgenres of Anglophone Classical Ballads

Familiarize students with the three major subgenres of classical ballads. Make reference to the others but the frrst three are sufficient for the purposes of this course. These three are easy to deal with because the classification title is descriptive of the type of ballad.

Young Bicham

Take some time to go through this ballad first making sure that students fully understand the story. Paraphrase the events verse by verse if necessary. Then work through the sections on "Young Bicham" as folk literature, ballad, and romantic ballad. This type of activity should be very much like any study of literature.

Once these have all been studied, discussed and clarified in class, students should have a grasp on the type and will be ready to deal with some generalizations about ballad style. You may decide to give them another example to work on before going on depending on how well they have grasped the concepts.

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Ballad Style

Some of the stylistic features of these ballads are discussed here. It is not necessary that students know this inside out but it does talk about some of the textual characteristics of folk literature which are displayed by ballads. It is worth reviewing this to make the point.

The 'For Discussion' item in this section can make for a good class discussion.

Changes in the Classical Ballad in the New World

There are several ballads given here which can be reviewed and analyzed as classical ballads if students need further practice. This section should also be used to reinforce the idea of type and version.

The Broadside Ballad

Outline the societal changes which gave rise to the broadside ballad. This is an early example of how tradition was changed by technology and can be approached in light of the discussion in Folktale II.

The working definition in the last paragraph should be clarified with examples so that students have a clear idea df what to look for from the beginning.

The Broadside Ballad in the New World

Point out that there are subcategories for the broadside ballad as well. Again this was done to make them easier to study and compare. It will not be necessary for students to know these in detail.

The examples given here are good ones and students should be able to see how they are broadside ballads according to the defmition. Other examples can be used if desired.

The Modern Ballad

This type of ballad evolved as a result of changes in technology and lifestyle just as technology today influences our entertainment forms. Give students a good working definition. This should include the 'plain' style (which uses simple words, phrases, rhyme schemes and common themes and tunes), and topics which are occupational or from local incidents.

There are numerous modem ballads in Newfoundland and Labrador many of which have been recorded. Any examples which can be brought in as illustrations will be useful.

31

REFERENCES

Greenleaf, Elizabeth Bristol, and Grace Yarrow Mansfield Ballads and Sea Songs of Newfoundland. Hatboro, Pa., 1968. Reprint.

Leach, MacEdward. Folk Ballads and Songs of the Lower Labrador Coast, 2 Vols. Ottawa: National Museum of Canada, 1965.

Lomax, Alan. The Folk Songs of North America. New York: Dolphin Books, 1975. Reprint

Mercer, Paul. Newfoundland Songs and Ballads in Print: 1842 - 1974. St. John's, Memorial University of Newfoundland, 1979.

Peacock, Kenneth. Songs of the Newfoundland Outports, 3 Vols. Ottawa: National Museum of Canada, 1965.

Rosenberg, Neil V. Country Music in the Maritimes: Two Studies. St. John's: Memorial University of Newfoundland, 1976.

Taft, Michael. 'That's Two More Dollars': Jimmy Line~ar's Success With Countzy Music in Newfoundland, in Taft, Travelling the Outports: Two Studies in Newfoundland Itinerant Culture. St. John's: Memorial University of Nfld., 1981.

Taft, Michael. A Regional Discography of Newfoundland and Labrador: 1904 - 1972. St. John's: Memorial University of Newfoundland, 1975.

RESOURCES

Songs of the Newfoundland Outports, Pigeon Inlet Productions, 1984. L.P. Recording with Song Texts.

Turnaround, (Stan Rogers) Fogarty's Cove Music, 1978. L.P., Cassette. (Oh, No, Not I)

For the Family, (Stan Rogers) , L.P., Cassette. (The Badger Drive)

Fogarty's Cove, (Stan Rogers), Fogarty's Cove Music, 1976. L.P., Cassette. (The Maid on the Shore, Make and Break Harbour)

Famous Songs of Newfoundland, (Omar Blondahl) Canadian Cavalcade, 1967. L.P. (The Maid on the Shore)

Piggy Duff, Posterity Records. L.P., Cassette.

Towards the Sunset, (Pat and Joe Byrne with Baxter Wareham) Pigeon Inlet Productions, 1983. L.P., Cassette.

32

RECITATIONS AND MONOLOGUES

This module is well organized and relatively easy to follow. Start off with a basic definition of the recitation. Your students will likely be familiar with some recitations and will know some. It might be easier to explain that monologues are a subcategory of recitations. The monologue is a special type of recitation which must have very specific characteristics while the recitation covers a much wider range of types. The defmition on p. 1 is quite clear.

Terminology

This part simply outlines some of the various types of subcategories of the recitation. It is not necessary to cover this in detail but to illustrate that these exist.

Recitations and Monologues as Folk Literature

Here we have an interesting topic for we are dealing with a type of material that does not fit into folk literature as clearly as other forms. Authorship is often known for these and there is usually only one version. Goldstein makes a noteworthy point here when he states that the key factor in determining whether or not something is folklore is how the material is ultimately circulated. This may be a useful point to throw into your discussion about what folksongs are. While this argument may be debatable, it does certainly make a strong point about the importance of communication to mankind through the ages and that technology influences very significantly the way we view things.

Performance Styles

Familiarize students with the two major performance styles for monologues and recitations in the English-speaking world. This section is fairly good but it may be useful for you to extract the key points out for your students.

Performance Contexts

It is not necessary to focus on the detail and terminology given here. What is important is to emphasize the notion of context and to have students visualize, re-create or experience some recitation contexts. Remember, these items exist as folk literature only in performance and this appreciation should be the thrust of the section and any activities which relate to it You may have some students who are willing to do a small skit or play which incorporates some pieces of folk literature of various types. This would be a fun exercise at any point in the course but toward the end of the course the students would have more types to draw on.

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Themes

A good topic and simple to understand. Familiarize students with the kinds of topics that monologues and recitations deal with.

Recitation and Monologue Texts

There are a number of good examples here which you may want to have students perform. Some of them are available in recorded versions which is also very useful. This section provides a good opportunity to have some fun with the topic.

34

REFERENCES

Russell, Ted. Tales From Pigeon Inlet. Elizabeth (Russell) Miller, ed., St. John's: Breakwater Books, 1977.

Service, Robert W. Collected Poems. New York: Dodd, Mead and Co., 1966.

Wareham, Wilfred W. The Monolo~e in Newfoundland. in The Blasty Bough. Clyde Rose, ed., St John's: Breakwater Books, 1976.

RESOURCES

The Tales that Fishermen Tell. Pigeon Inlet Productions. L.P.

Monologues and Recitations, Department of Education, Instructional Materials. Videocassette, 16 min.

Tales of the Yukon, (Hank Snow: Recitations of Robert W. Service), RCA. L.P.

35

FOLK LEGEND AND PERSONAL EXPERIENCE NARRATIVE

This module is an excellent one to do in Newfoundland and Labrador. Legends abound in practically every community and a rich storytelling tradition makes for many exciting personal experience narratives as well. Students should be one of your best sources of information and discussion for this topic and a class collection project of some examples of each will prove interesting. Again, collections such as this should be kept in short form on file cards for quick reference.

What is Folk Legend?

Develop your working defmition using this section. There are many kinds of legends but generally they are stories that are told as true even if the storyteller does not believe every detail himself. Legends are generally told as the truth, often believed to be true and can neither be proven true nor false.

The Functions of Legends

Classification of legends is fairly easy to keep straight since they are classified according to the function they perform. Some of the classifications or functions are cited here and many examples are given in the module. It will be good practice to classify the legends your class collects.

Characteristics of the Folk Legend

It is not necessary to have students remember this information in detail. Use it as a way to give them a flavour for the style of legends and to illustrate the differences between legends and other forms of narrative.

The activities at the end of this section give some excellent ideas for collections students may undertake.

Types of Folk Legends

This entire section is well done. Examples of each type of legend are provided and you may want to compare them to some local examples where possible. The activities at the end of this section are also useful.

36

PERSONAL EXPERIENCE NARRATIVE

What is a Personal Experience Narrative?

The defmition provided here is simple and should pose no problem.

Content

Considerable work has been done on the personal experience narrative by various scholars. The criteria presented here for a narrative to be worthy of telling is one view. There is also the view that certain personal experience narratives are told and are worthy of telling not because they are unusual or strange in the narrator's experience but because they are similar experiences which other people have had. This view represents the idea that often people tell stories about very similar and often ordinary experiences and it is this common experience that makes them interesting to people.

The point of this is to illustrate that it is not necessary to get your students caught up in criteria for personal experience narratives. The key ideas to deal with are in the sections on function and characteristics on pp.16-17. Have students think about the functions here in light of stories they have heard or tell themselves. Also compare the functions for these narratives with those of legends and other forms of narratives.

Examine the characteristics noting the main similarities and differences between these and the characteristics of legends.

Examples for this study are best brought in from local sources. You may also want to use the ones in the module.

37

REFERENCES

Briggs, Katherine. A Dictionary of British Folktales, 2 Vols. London, 1971.

Christ, Henry I. Myths and Folklore. New York: Sadlier-Oxford, 1968.

Ives, Edward D. 'The Man Who Plucked the Gorbey': A Maine Woods Le&end, in Fowke and Carpenter, eds., Explorations in Canadian Folklore. pp. 174-88.

Janson, William Hugh. "The Raison d'Etre of Some Local Legends", in Goldstein and Rosenberg, eds., Folklore Studies in Honour of Herbert Halpert. pp. 259-69.

Saunders, Gary L. Rattles and Steadies: Memoirs of a Gander River Man. St. John's, Breakwater Books, 1986.

38

FOLK DRAMA

In some ways, this is one of the more difficult modules to handle because folk drama is not as prominent in today's society as other forms of folk literature. This makes it more difficult to relate the past forms to modem ones. The main ideas covered here can be done in relatively short time. One suggestion is to do this module some time in December and use the more recent form of Christmas mummering as a main point of interest. From this, it is possible to generate some discussion and appreciation for the older forms presented in the module.

A course revision might include more examples from other cultures around the world which still use formal types of folk drama actively.

Elements of Folk Drama

In bringing students to an understanding of these, make some comparisons between folk drama and other forms. You may want to use theatre, movies or different types of television productions. You will also note that implicit in some of the elements are some of the textual characteristics of folk literature. Approaching the topic in these ways will make the study more meaningful and enjoyable.

The Mummers' Play

This is as good a place as any to introduce mummering in the informal house-visit type which is now more prevalent in Newfoundland and Labrador. You may want to have students discuss the characteristics which are common to this type of mummering. They should be able to generate many of the characteristics. These can then be used to compare with the elements at the beginning of the module.

The following summarization of mummering in Newfoundland is provided to assist in handling this topic. The common features of this type of mummering are underlined. (This is an edited version of an answer which was provided by an associate setter for a public examination.)

Mummering in Newfoundland

Mummering, which is dressing up in dis~uise during Christmas and going around from house to house, is a centuries-old tradition. The ~ for mummering (or janneying) is between Christmas night and Old Christmas Night (January 6). Disguises were very creative and made of almost anything that one might fmd around the house, stage

39

or bam. The purpose was to change the appearance of a person enough so that even close friends would have difficulty guessing identities.

Mummers usually start as a small group and visit from house to house gathering members as they go. Upon knocking on a door, they would ask in disguised voices if any mummers were allowed in. If the answer was yes, they would all enter and the hosts would try to &DW identities. Treats (alcohol, syrup, cake, cookies, soup, etc.) would be offered to the mummers. Mummers were expected to perform a dance, song, or play an instrument before they left. Then, it would be off to the next house with perhaps a few people added to the group.

The characteristics of the Hero-Combat Plays can then be examined and you may want to look at one of the examples given in the module. It should be interesting to speculate about the functions which these kinds of plays served in different cultures. Some clues are given to this in the text. Some understanding or discussion of the possible functions should lead to a greater understanding and appreciation of this form of folk literature.The unit can then wind up with a study of the characteristics and functions of miracle plays.

40

REFERENCES

Halpert, Herbert and G. M. Story, eds. Christmas Mumming in Newfoundland. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1969.

Helm, Alex. The English Mwnmers' Play. London: The Folk-Lore Society, 1980.

Lovelace, Martin I. Christmas Mummine in En eland: The House-Visit, in Goldstein and Rosenberg, eds., Folklore Studies in Honour of Herbert Halpert. pp. 271-81.

Lovelace, Martin I., Carol Welch and Shirley Lind, Notes on the Christmas Season, in Halpert, ed., A Folklore Sampler From The Maritimes. pp. 203-20.

RESOURCES

Fortune Bay Christmas, Land and Sea (CBC), Videocassette, 30 mm. Available for purchase from Dept. of Education, Instructional Materials.

A Job's Cove Christmas, Land and Sea (CBC), Videocassette, 30 min.

Christmas With Billy Leaman, Land and Sea (CBC), Videocassette, 30 min.

41

RESEARCH IN FOLKLORE

A GUIDE FOR FOLK LITERATURE 3203 ·

Written by:

Bill Butt

c 1990

RESEARCH IN FOLKLORE

A GUIDE FOR FOLK LITERATURE 3203

To the Teacher

This part of the guide is written for students to read and use. This material may be copied for each student.

In handling fieldwork or collection projects, you will have to gauge your students. In some cases, you may feel that a major project is too difficult. If this is so, I suggest that you assign these students to smaller collections of a variety of items at different times in the year. File cards may be a good way to make such collections. In this way, weaker students will not have as much analysis or writing to do at one time but can have it spaced through the year. The extent of detail provided with any one project will also be reduced.

This is a matter of judgement and discretion. However you handle you class projects, the purposes and methods of research outlined in the following pages can be followed and used as a guideline for evaluation.

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PART I- METHODOLOGY AND FIELDWORK

Terminology

Before discussing research projects, we will need to become familiar with a few terms often used in folklore research.

Fieldwork - usually refers to research,(in this case, folk literature research) which is conducted away from the researcher' s home, family or community.

Collecting - usually refers to research which is conducted in the researcher's home community or familiar surroundings.

Informants - refers to people from whom researchers gather frrst-hand information.

Rapport - is a word which is simply used to describe a good relationship which has been established between the researcher and informant(s ).

Introduction

One of the most enjoyable aspects of folklore studies is the field trip or collecting project. Through this kind of activity, the student of folklore arranges to meet and interview people, sometimes strangers, to gather information of a folkloric nature which has been accumulated through life's experiences. This can be threatening if you are undertaking it for the first time. However, it is comforting to know that experience shows that the great majority of collectors come away from interviews with very positive feelings about their experiences.

It is of importance that you approach the project with a positive attitude since this can have a great effect on how people being interviewed react and, therefore, on the success of the interview. There is no one way to approach people since everyone is different. A simple piece of advice to bear in mind is that you are dealing with people who are giving their time to aid you in your work. Be courteous and considerate.

Many of our fears regarding interviews get quickly pushed aside once the interview starts and both the collector and the informant(s) begin to relax. Don't avoid such an opportunity due to "shyness". Remember! No one is born a great conversationalist or interviewer. These skills have to be developed through experience and practice like many others. The collecting project is an ideal opportunity to practice such skills since it is inevitable that we must all face unfamiliar situations as we undertake new ventures in life.

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The Potential Benefits of Fieldwork

As a student, you can benefit tremendously from a fieldwork experience, perhaps more than from any other part of this course. Consider some of the following:

1) You may be somewhat confused by terms like context, function, performance and others which you have met in this course. These concepts can be difficult to grasp and explain since they represent abstract ideas. First-hand experience is the best way to understand what such words really mean and to help you appreciate folk literature more fully. Through your collecting project, 'you will be able to understand and enjoy other parts of the course more fully and set needless frustration aside.

2) You have probably heard by now that a written piece of folk literature is just that and that a particular item exists only in living performance. Through doing your own research followed up by a transcription of your interview, you will know for yourself how different it is on paper than on tape; and how different it is on tape than in context! You will have gathered your own folk literature materials for interpretation, analysis and appreciation.

3) Up to this point in your schooling, you have probably done all your papers and research from secondary sources, that is, from books, encyclopedias, and information that other people have gathered together and written about. Through this project, you will use information from primary sources, that is, information that you have obtained frrst-hand. You will have greater appreciation and understanding of what research is, the different kinds of sources of information and will likely become much better at this kind of work.

4) As briefly mentioned before, you will be forced to deal with a new and challenging situation. Don't be afraid of the interview. Accept the challenge and go do it. This is an opportunity for some real personal growth.

Planning Your Research

Fieldwork or collecting is an acttvlty that requires some preparation. While it is neither possible nor desirable to control and plan for everything that you will encounter, there are some guidelines which will help ensure the success of your trip.

One of the most important things to do is to decide what topic you will choose for your research and to think about why you have chosen it. Ask yourself what it is that you think you may accomplish through this research. In other words, what is your goal? Some examples will illustrate.

Suppose you set out to collect some folksongs. Try to think beyond this very broad objective and to narrow down some ideas. For example, you may set out to try and determine the kind of singing that takes place in your community at various gatherings and how the tradition may have changed over a period of time.

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Another example could be to determine the extent to which belief in the supernatural exists or existed in your community. This will make your work much easier than just deciding to collect "ghost stories".

You may wish to give your topic a very contemporary focus. For example, you may want to focus on folk speech and make a collection of various fad phrases, expressions or graffiti used by teenagers or other groups and suggest some reasons for the popularity of such usages. This would a better focus than deciding to collect some sayings.

What each of these examples illustrates are ways of giving yourself some direction from the outset of your project. As you might do in a science experiment or case study, give yourself a problem to solve. Speculate on possible reasons for certain things and set out to discover whether you are right or if something else is actually the case. This advance preparation is important and will assist you greatly in writing about your research afterwards. If you avoid this preparation, you may find yourself rambling in your written work.

The list of choices for fieldwork or collecting is endless. You are limited only by your imagination.

Once your topic and purpose are established, consider the following:

1) Where will you do your research? Most likely, you will choose your home community. However, this does not have to be the case and it may be preferable to go to another community where you may have friends or relatives.

2) What information needs to be gathered and who will be interviewed in order to gather the information? The research guide which accompanies this module will give some valuable ideas about the general kinds of things you will need to ask. Of course, there are always questions which come up in any research project which cannot be foreseen. Your teacher will be able to make some suggestions in this regard

3) How will the information be gathered? The tape-recorded interview is probably the most common method of gathering data. However, other useful methods for the purposes of this course include taking field notes or the inclusion of photographs. (to quote an old saying, "A picture is worth a thousand words!") Remember that any combination of the above techniques may be used in your project. Decide on the methods which best suit your purpose given the equipment you have to work with.

4) How much time is required to do the work? Remember that the research itself is only part of the work and much remains to be done after you have gathered your data. A well-written paper must be completed in order to present your materials, supporting information (such as community background, informant's background) and conclusions in a way that others can appreciate. The writing of such a paper invariably takes much more time than the research!

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Ensuring Your Own Success

There are a number of things you can do to ensure success in this type of research. Certainly, one factor to consider is how well you are able to communicate with your informant(s). H good rapport is established, your task will be enjoyable and, most likely, very successful.

As well, most of us prefer to use the tape-recorded interview as a means of recording data. Tape recorders do provide a much better account of the dialogue than we can recall, although they obviously fall short of capturing the context. Don't make the common mistake which most novice fieldworkers make by thinking that all that has to be done is to tum on the tape recorder and the work is done. You will have to be responsible for observing the performance and context aspects of your interview and making notes where necessary. H you don't think it is appropriate to make notes during the interview then write your observations down as soon as possible after the interview; don't wait too long, though, or you may find you have forgotten a lot of the details.

Another way to record an interview is to use a video recorder. This may be fine if your informants are comfortable with it, however, be careful not to impose it. You need to be very sensitive in this regard for a video camera is a very noticeable presence in a room and you may run the risk of creating an "artificial" interview. Remember, it is important to try to interview your informants in a natural context. It is better to have an audio recording of a natural situation than a video recording of people who are not comfortable with it

General Use of the Tape Recorder

In using tape recorders, many unnecessary mistakes are made which produce all sorts of problems from noisy tapes to recordings which are completely useless. This can happen to anyone and it is very easily done. There is nothing more frustrating to have had an excellent interview only to return home and find that you didn't get a usable recording of it. Here are some points regarding the use of tape recorders which can help minimize the chance of recording problems.

1) Use a tape recorder of good quality. Poor machines usually produce poor tapes which may be of no use at all.

2) Use tapes of reasonable quality. Under no circumstances should cassettes of lengths greater than C-90 (90 minutes) be used. Longer tapes are made of much thinner material and are extremely prone to breaking or tangling in the recording mechanism.

3) Familiarize yourself with the operation of the tape recorder you are using. Practise using the machine and know where all the controls are at a glance. It is distracting to have to fumble around to find the right button during an interview. Try your recorder and mike with background noises to find how sensitive it is at

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different ranges.

4) It is advisable to use an external microphone instead of those built in to the machine. Frequently, built-in mikes pick up motor noise from the recorder which can be very annoying to listen to. This will depend on the machine and is something you have to test for yourself. Another advantage to using an external mike is that it enables you to place the recorder in an inconspicuous place and may help your informant feel more at ease since the mike is less obvious. Don't hold the mike in your hands. Often, the slight movements of your hands on the microphone surface will sound like thunder on the tape! As well, it is good to place the mike on something that will absorb sound (a book) to avoid picking up tapping noises and other sound that may travel through a table.

5) Be aware of background noises which can ruin your tape and try to avoid them. Microphones pick up all sounds and do not unconsciously filter out unwanted sounds as humans can sometimes do. Background sounds which can ruin your recording include television, radio, stereo, furnace or wood-stove blowers, background conversations, scuffing feet, tapping on a table, telephone rings, and a host of others. You have to use your own discretion in minimizing the chance of such noises and in making your informant(s) aware of the problems that these noises can cause.

6) Take along an extension cord and/or good quality batteries. They may come in handy!

7) Don't forget to turn on the recorder! This may sound ridiculous but it is easily done and there are a number of ways it can happen. You could simply forget to turn it on. More likely, though, you could accidentally push the 'pause' button or forget to release it. Also, it is quite possible to forget to turn on the switch on the external mike.

8) Keep an eye on the amount of tape you have left. Parts of interviews have often gone unrecorded because the interviewer dido 't notice that the tape had run out.

9) The tape and the paper cassette case liner should be clearly marked as to the contents of the tape. This includes:

a) date of interview b) place of interview c) _informant's name d) interviewer's name e) topic of the interview

10) Complete a tape table of contents to include with your paper. See the sample on page 53.

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Field Notes

Taking field notes can be a very useful way of recording data and is a method often used by researchers. All you need to take notes are paper (preferably a small notebook), a pen, and your own observation skills. The latter is the most important by far! A researcher has to be very observant during an interview in order to note style and techniques used by an informant, the context and atmosphere or mood. and reactions and comments made by others present at the interview. The reactions of others may provide you with some of the most valuable insight that you will get about your topic. For example, you may get clues as to the function of an item.

Field notes should be taken during the interview or as soon as possible afterwards. Use your discretion. If you want to take notes during an interview, clear it with your informants first. They should have the last word!

Photographs

It is not the intention here to attempt to teach anything about photography. However, if you do intend to use photographs do not glue, staple, or otherwise affix them to your paper as these procedures often ruin photographs. The most appropriate way top present them is to place each one in its own envelope with any necessary information about the photo written on the envelope. It is a good idea to number the back of the photographs and the corresponding envelope.

Information on the envelope might include: 1

a) names of people b) description of objects c) community or place where photo was taken d) make and model of camera used e) interviewer's name

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PART II - THE PREPARATION OF FIELDWORK-BASED PAPERS

(This is a modified version of a guide originally prepared by Bill Butt and Dave Penney in 1982)

Points to Remember

This guide is intended to provide a good general format for paper preparation and presentation and to help students decide on the kinds of things which are appropriate to discuss under each section. Papers should include the following section headings:

a) Introduction b) The Community c) Fieldwork/Collection Experience d) The Performance and the Performer e) The Repertory f) Conclusion g) Appendix (if necessary)

The use of this format will give papers organization and help in determining appropriate questions. Depending on the topic, students may need to add or omit a section or perhaps change one. For example, a paper on sayings would probably have a short section on performance but would discuss functions in more detail. Students should consult with teachers when in doubt about the appropriate format for their papers.

As you look through the Outline for Papers which follows, you will note some examples of the kinds of questions which are appropriate to ask under each heading. Bear in mind that this is a general guide and that each individual project will take its own shape and will have some unique questions and concerns which need to be dealt with. Students should use discretion and judgement and consult with the teacher when in doubt.

The guide should be studied thoroughly before the actual research begins. This will allow students to become familiar with the kind of research required and help formulate questions appropriate to the interview. It is advisable that each student submit a brief proposal to the teacher before finalizing a topic and doing any interviews. The proposal should outline the topic and/or purpose of the research and provide a list of questions which need to be asked. Research should begin only when the teacher has approved the proposal.

Outline for Papers

I. INTRODUCTION

- Discuss the specific problem or research task on which based.

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the fieldwork was

- What was the purpose of the fieldwork? (i.e. to see if a tradition exists in a community and/or to what extent it has changed/is changing.

II. THE COMMUNITY

Include several paragraphs describing the community, where located, when settled, changes in the community's name (if any), main occupations (past and present), religious denominations, and any other information of general interest.

IlL BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF INFORMANTS

- Write several paragraphs about your informant(s). Include brief life history (where born, schooling, places lived, occupations, family, etc.). Some of this information will be recorded on the Biographical Data Sheet included with this guide. This should be filled out either by the informant(s) for you or while you conduct your interview.

IV. FIEWWORK EXPERIENCE

- Discuss how your research was done. Include the following:

- how you prepared - how you arranged the interview(s) - how rapport was established - your feelings about the fieldwork experience - the informant's feelings and attitudes - techniques you used to gather information (interviews, how you conducted

interviews, notes, photos, etc.) - any problems encountered - who was present at the interview(s). (Include audience)

V. THE PERFORMANCE AND THE PERFORMER

- Describe the performance context. - Did anyone other than the informant(s) take part in the performance? - Was there any discussion about an item (song, story, etc.) after the

performance? If so, what was said? - Did anyone refer to other versions of an item? - What were the distinguishing features of the performer's style (intonation, voice

rhythm, pitch, pauses, gestures, facial expressions, etc?). - How did the audience react to the performer?

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VI. THE REPERTORY

Include a transcription of the tape or of certain sections you want to highlight (songs, stories, etc.) and a Tape Table of Contents (See sample, p. 53). For each item you collected, consider and discuss the following:

- How did the informant refer to the item? (Did he/she have a specific name for it?)

- Is it still performed in oral tradition? -How, when, where, and from whom was it learned? - Why does the informant perform a particular item? - What significance does an item have for the informant? - Does the informant know or know of other versions of the item or does it exist

in another form? (a story may also be told in song, etc.) - Has the informant made any conscious changes with regard to a particular item.

VII. CONCLUSION

- what is the significance of the item(s) you collected in the community and/or culture?

- What has been learned through this experience? - Has the specific problem or research task been answered?

VII. APPENDIX

- It may be necessary to include and appendix or several appendices with your paper. These would include things such as:

- Biographical Data Sheets for informants and interviewers. - Photographs. - Maps. - Sketches or drawings. - Other supplementary items.

Titles of Papers

It is standard practise in folklore studies to use descriptive titles for papers rather than literary ones. For example, a paper about Aunt May growing up in Outport Cove would be titled "Reminiscences of Life in Outport Cove" rather than ''Tough Times and No Money".

Potential Topics

It should be noted that folklore research need not be equated with older people or things of the past. This seems to be a common assumption but it is a popular

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misconception. It is quite appropriate to interview or observe primary school children using games and game rhymes, to record or write down jokes or other forms of expressions used by school mates, or to record expressions of popular culture used by certain age groups. Any of these topics, as well as many others, can form the basis of very interesting papers.

Remember, people of all ages and from all cultures know folklore. It can be found from the Aborigines of the Australian Outback to the lunch room of the Kennedy Space Centre. It can be found in people of all ages, from all cultures and at anytime. Bear this in mind and the potential for topics will be endless and extremely interesting!

Transcribing Tapes

Transcriptions of tapes are very useful when someone else is listening to your material and trying to understand it. (In this case, your teacher when grading your work!) In some cases, it may not be possible to completely transcribe lengthy tapes and it might be best to do only those Sections which you want to highlight, for example, the lyrics of a particular song. Consult your teacher about the extent of your transcriptions.

Note that the process of transcribing tapes is very time-consuming and is a factor to consider. In all cases, a Tape Table of Contents should be included with your paper. (See next section.)

Tape Tables of Contents

Tape tables of contents are useful for any tape but especially those which are lengthy and which cannot be completely transcribed. These tables give the listener an idea of where to find a particular thing on a tape in relation to other items. Complete one regardless of how short or long your recording is. Imagine what it would be like if tapes, records or discs you bought of your favourite music group didn't give the contents! The same applies here. Use the following sample a guide:

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TAPE TABLE OF CONTENTS

Tape Counter No. Topic

010 - 135 Growing Up in Outport Cove

036 - 17 4 Discussion of Aunt May' s Schooling 075 - 116 ''Times" in Outport Cove

117 - 148 Story about the local midwife

148 - 177 "Uncle Jake's Close Call"

178 - 204 Superstitions in Outport Cove

205 End of Tape

This recording was done using a Sony Model 150 recorder.

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Folk Literature 3203

Biographical Data Sheet

Collectors are asked to get as much of the data below on each person interviewed as possible. However, the wishes of those who do not want to give certain pieces of information should be respected. One of these forms should be completed for each person interviewed as well as the collector(s).

Collector __________________________________________________________ __

Place of Interview - ------------------------------------------------

Date(s) of Interview ---------------------------------------------------

Name ____________________________________________________________ __

(PRINT full name and any nicknames of person interviewed)

Place of Birth ________ _ Date of Birth ------------------------

Community lived in as a child/adolescent-----------------------------------

Education ---------------------------- Religion --------------------

Principal place of residence ---------------------------------------------

Other places of residence ------------------------------------------------

Occupation(s) ------------------------------------------------------­

Father: Birthplace------------------- Home community ______________ __

Ancestors came to Newfoundland From-------------------------------------

When

Mother: Birthplace-------------------- Home Community---------------

Mother's Maiden Name -----------------------------------------------

Ancestors came to Newfoundland From ·------------------------------------

When

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- - - - - - - - - -

Other information

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REFERENCES

lves, Edward D. The Tape-Recorded Interview: A Manual for Field Workers in Folklore and Oral History. Knoxville, Tennessee, 1980.

Goldstein, Kenneth S. A Guide for Field Workers in Folklore. Hatboro, Pa.: American Folklore society, 1964.

RESOURCES

Fieldwork and Methodology, (Folk Literature 3203) Department of Education, Instructional Materials, Videocassette, 30 minutes.

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DATE DUE

BRODART Cat. No. 23-221