Closing the gap clearinghouse - ACER

Summary• EngagementorparticipationineducationisakeyfactoraffectingthelifechancesofallAustralians.ItisparticularlyimportantforIndigenousAustralianswhohavelowerlevelsofeducationalattainmentthannon-IndigenousAustralians.

• Regularschoolattendanceisimportantforachievingcoreskills,suchasliteracyandnumeracy,andachievingadequatelevelsofeducationisoneofthekeyfactorsthatislikelytoreduceIndigenousdisadvantage.

• Acombinationofhome,schoolandindividualfactorsareinvolvedinstudents’absencefromschool,althoughtherelativeimportanceofthevariouscausesiscontested:– parentsandstudentstendtostressschool-relatedfactors(forexample,poorteachingandfailuretoengagestudents);educatorstendtostressparentalattitudesandthehomeenvironment(forexample,poorparentalattitudestoschool).

• Theavailabledataonattendanceandretentionarelimited,thoughthereisevidencethatYear7/8toYear12schoolretentionratesforIndigenousstudentshaveimprovedoverthelast10years(from35%in1999to45%in2009).

• TheavailabledataalsoshowthatthegapinschoolattendanceandretentionbetweenIndigenousandnon-Indigenousstudentsislarge:– theproportionofstudentsattendingschoolissome10percentagepointslowerthannon-Indigenousstudentsandthisgapincreasesasthelevelofschoolingincreases

– theretentionratefromYear7/8toYear12in2009was45%forIndigenousstudentscomparedwith77%fornon-Indigenousstudents.

• Thispaperprovidesinformationonthedifferentapproachesthathavebeenusedtoimproveattendanceand/orretention,includingprogramsthat:– directlyaddressattendanceand/orretention,forexamplethroughapplyingincentivesorrewardsforattendanceorsanctionsfornon-attendance

– indirectlyaddressattendanceandretentionissues,forexamplethroughattemptstoimproveliteracyandnumeracyoutcomes;improveteacherquality;developculturallyrelevantcurricular.

• Areviewoftheliteraturethatevaluatedwhichprogramsworktoincreaseattendanceorretentionfoundthattherewereveryfewhigh-qualityevaluationsthathadbeenconductedinthisarea.TheevidenceaboutattendanceandretentionstrategiesthatworkforIndigenousstudentsis,therefore,notstrong.

• Acommonfeatureofsuccessfuleducationalprograms,however,wasthatofacreativecollaboration,whichbuildsbridgesbetweenpublicagenciesandthecommunity,oftenbyengagingparentsorcommunity-basedorganisations.

• Althoughitisimportanttocontinuesmall,contextualisedinvestigationsofparticipationandengagementissues,morelarge-scaleresearchisneeded.

• Itisrecommendedthatanynewprogramsorstrategiesforimprovementshouldbuildinmonitoringandevaluationcomponents.

clearinghouseClosingthegap

SchoolattendanceandretentionofIndigenousAustralianstudentsIssues Paper No 1producedfortheClosingtheGapClearinghouseNolaPurdieandSarahBuckley,September2010

SchoolattendanceandretentionofIndigenousAustralianStudents

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ContentsSummary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Reasonsfornon-attendanceandcausesofthegap. . . . 2

Measuresofschoolattendanceandretention . . . . . . . . 4

Whathasbeentried?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Whatworks? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Implicationsforpolicyandresearch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Abbreviations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Terminology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Acknowledgements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

IntroductionEngagementorparticipationineducationisakeyfactoraffectingthelifechancesofallAustralians,anditisparticularlyimportantforIndigenousAustralianswhohaveanoveralllowerlevelofparticipationineducationthannon-IndigenousAustralians.Higherlevelsofeducationalattainmentimproveemploymentopportunities,areassociatedwithhigherincomeandpromoteparticipationinallsocietalactivities.Educationincludespreschooleducation,primaryandhighschooleducation,tertiaryeducationandvocationaltraining,aswellaseducationandtrainingoutsideaformalinstitutionalframework.Thisissuespaperdealswithschoolattendanceandretention.

ThispaperdrawsuponkeynationalandinternationalliteraturepertainingtobothIndigenousandnon-Indigenousstudents.IthighlightstheissuesinanalysingIndigenousandnon-Indigenousschoolattendanceandretention;thegapinschoolattendanceandretentionandthecausesofthisgap;andthesuccessorotherwiseofthevariousprogramsandinitiativesdesignedtoreducethegap.Issuesinthequalityofthedataandresearcharealsodiscussed.

Akeypurposeofthepaperistoevaluatethequalityofavailableevidenceregardingstrategiesforimprovingschoolattendance.Thispapergivesmoreweighttoresearchthatishigheruptheevidencehierarchy.Evidencehierarchiesreflecttherelativeauthorityofvarioustypesofresearch.Thestudiesleastlikelytoproducegoodevidenceforpolicyandpracticearesinglecasestudies,followedbydescriptivestudiesthatmayprovidehelpfullistsofquotationsbutdonotoffer

detailedanalysis.Greaterweightisgiventoconceptualstudiesthatanalysedataaccordingtoconceptualthemesbutthesestudiesmaybelimitedbyalackofdiversityinthesample.Studiesusingconceptualframeworks,appropriatesamplinganddataanalysistechniques,andthatcanbegeneralisedtoawidercontextareconsideredtoprovidethebestevidenceforpolicyandpracticedevelopment(Dalyetal.2007).

MethodologyAninitialliteraturesearchwasconductedusingseveralkeydatabases:FamilyandSociety,AustralianEducationIndex(AEI),EducationResourcesInformationCentre(ERIC),AmericanPsychologicalAssociationdatabase(PsychINFO),SocINDEXDatabase(SocINDEX).Keysearchtermsincluded:schoolattendance,schoolretention,schoolparticipation,schoolreadiness,educationalparticipation,educationalaspirations,absenteeism,truancy,attendancepatterns,dropouts,andschoolholdingpower.

RelevantAustralianandinternationalliteraturepublishedinthelast10yearswasidentified.Thiscoreliteraturewassupplementedwithliteratureidentifiedthroughinternetsearches,andreferencelistswithintheinitialpublicationsconsulted.Theidentifiedliteratureincludedreportsoflarge-scaledatacollectionsandinterpretationsthereof,aswellassinglecasestudiesthatwereessentiallyqualitativeinnature,andwhichmayhaveadoptedanaction-researchapproach.

Inaddition,relevantpersonnelinstateandterritoryeducationjurisdictionsandindependentorganisations/foundationswerecontactedtoseekmaterialthatwasnotpubliclyavailablebutwhichdocumentedstrategies,programsandpracticesthathadbeenimplemented,andevaluationsofthese.

Reasonsfornon-attendanceandcausesofthegapAcombinationofhome,schoolandindividualfactorsareinvolvedinstudents’decisionstomissschoolalthoughthecausesofnon-attendancearecontested.Whileparentsandpupilstendtostressschool-relatedfactorsasthemaincause,staffineducationjurisdictionsandteacherstendtobelievethatparentalattitudesandthehomeenvironmentaremoreinfluential(Gray&Partington2003;Malcolmetal.2003).

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Causes of non-attendanceNationalandinternationalresearchindicatesthatthecausesofnon-attendanceareconstantlychanginginaccordwithdevelopmentsinmodernlife.Acrosscountries,thereisaconsistencyinthereasonsthataregenerallypresented.Reid(2008)hassummarisedthesecauses,asshowninBox1.

Box 1: Causes of non-attendance (from Reid, 2008)

1. Parents and carers:• parental-condonedabsenteeism,parentsfailingtoaccepttheirlegalresponsibilities

• poorparental/carerattitudestowardsschools• ‘them’and‘us’attitudebetweenschoolsandparents

2. Society:• insufficientlyvaluingeducation• inadequatewelfaresupportpractices,especiallyintheearlyyearsofschooling

3. Schools:• poorteaching• inconsistentapproachtoabsenteeismbetweenandwithinschools

4. Government:• lenientapplicationoflaw• unsuitablecurriculumforsomepupils• toofewout-of-school/alternativecurriculumplaces

5. Students:• bullying,peerpressure,‘cool’toskipschool• lackofcareeraspirations• lowself-esteem

6. Education jurisdictions:• inconsistentpoliciesandpracticesoflocalschoolsandeducationwelfareservices

• inconsistentreferralpoliciesbetweenschools• differencesbetweenjurisdictionandschools’policydocumentsonattendance

• poorinter-agencypractices• confusedroleofsocialservicesinnon-attendancecases

7. Local economy:• localunemployment,poverty,poorcommunityfacilities

8. Cultural diversity:• differencesbetweenboys’andgirls’aspirationsandachievements

• riseofdisaffectedyouth,gangculture,antisocialbehaviour

9. Research:• toolittleevidenceofgoodpractice• littleimprovementinoverallattendancefiguresdespitearangeofinitiativesoverthelast20years

Indigenous-specificreasonsfornon-attendancehavebeenproposed(Biddleetal.2004;Herbertetal.1999;Schwab2001)—themajorityofwhichrelatetoalackofrecognitionbyschoolsofIndigenouscultureandhistory;failuretofullyengageparents,carersandthecommunity;andongoingdisadvantageinmanyareasofthedailylivesofIndigenousAustralians.

Consequences of non-attendanceChildrenwhoregularlymissschoolarelikelytoexperiencesignificantdisruptiontotheireducation.Astudentwhomissesmorethanonefulldayperweekonaveragewouldlosetwoyearsofeducationovera10-yearperiod(WesternAustralia:OfficeoftheAuditorGeneral2009).Manyreportshighlighttheimportanceofregularschoolattendanceinordertoachievecoreskills,suchasliteracyandnumeracy,andnotethatachievingadequatelevelsofeducationisoneofthekeycontributorstoovercomingIndigenousdisadvantage.

TwokeyWesternAustralianresearchstudiesbytheInstituteforChildHealthResearch(Zubricketal.2005;Zubricketal.2006)haveshownthatastudent’slevelofschoolattendancehasamajorinfluenceontheiracademicachievement.Thesestudiesconcludedthatachild’seducationisatriskiftheyfrequentlymissmorethanhalfadayofschoolaweek(lessthan90%attendance).Attendanceabove90%isconsideredregularattendance.

TheNational Report to Parliament on Indigenous Education and Training, 2002(DEST2003)andthereportKatu Kalpa(SenateReferenceCommittee2000)claimthatthewell-documentedproblemofpoorschoolattendanceisthemostimportantfeatureaccountingforthedisparitybetweenIndigenousandnon-Indigenousliteracyandnumeracyoutcomes.

Studentswithhighratesofnon-attendancearemorelikelytoleaveschoolearlyandarelesslikelytoundertakealternativeeducationandtrainingpathways(Wheatley&Spillane2001).Researchhasalsoshownastrongpositiverelationshipbetweentruancyandcrime(Beresford&Omaji1996)aswellasbetweenfailuretocompletehighschoolandcriminalactivity(Chapmanetal.2002).

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School attendance and retention of Indigenous Australian Students

Measures of school attendance and retentionThis section provides a brief summary of current official figures related to school attendance and retention. It must be noted that there are deficiencies in the official statistics—these are outlined below.

The difficulties in collecting, collating and comparing information on school attendance and retention at a national level have been well documented (Boulden 2006; Bourke et al. 2000; Gray & Partington 2003). Reasons for this difficulty, especially as it relates to attendance information, revolve around the different ways in which student attendance/absenteeism is recorded in the different states and territories and across the different education jurisdictions. More detailed information on the broader concepts of participation and engagement is even harder to locate.

There are sufficient data to indicate a gap between non-Indigenous and Indigenous school attendance rates, although the data are insufficient to demonstrate if the gap has increased or decreased over time. In addition, apart from statistics that indicate, on average, the gaps in attendance and retention are greater in remote locations, the data are insufficient to show if there are pockets where gaps are less pronounced or non-existent.

Attendance dataMCEECDYA National Report on Schooling in AustraliaThe National Report on Schooling in Australia is published by the Ministerial Council for Education, Early Childhood Development and Youth Affairs (MCEECDYA). The report presents information about the number of actual full-time equivalent ‘student days’ attended as a percentage of the total number of ‘possible student days’ attended. This percentage is the attendance rate of enrolled students.

In this report for 2008 (MCEETYA 2008), school attendance by Indigenous students was consistently lower than non-Indigenous students, with a difference of up to 10 percentage points in the proportion of days attended in the past year across government schools in all states and territories. This gap tended to increase in the later years of schooling. However, in the Northern Territory (NT) and Western Australia (WA), the difference was well over 10 percentage points across all years, rising to over 20 percentage points by Year 10. This pattern of lower attendance by Indigenous students was also present in Catholic schools (See Table 1).

Table 1: School attendance (a) of enrolled students by Indigenous status in government and Catholic schools, NSW, Qld, WA and the NT, 2008

NSW Qld WA NT

Per cent

Year 1

Government schools

Indigenous 89 85 78 70

Non-Indigenous 94 93 93 92

Catholic schools



Year 10

Government schools



Catholic schools



(a) The number of actual full-time equivalent ‘student days’ attended as a percentage of the total number of ‘possible student days’ attended over the period.

Source: MCEETYA 2008. National Report on Schooling in Australia.

In 2007 and 2008, aggregated student attendance data was reported in the National Report on Schooling for Indigenous and non-Indigenous students in Years 1 to 10, by school sector, by state/territory. Future similar reporting will enable monitoring of attendance over time.

Data issuesThe National Report on Schooling in Australia, published annually by the MCEECDYA, includes information on student attendance for Years 1–10 that is derived from data that the state and territory education jurisdictions collect.

The data are reported:• by school sector, by state and territory• separately for each of the agreed year levels• for Indigenous and non-Indigenous students• by gender.

The figures on student attendance and participation need to be interpreted with care. Although the student attendance measure agreed by MCEECDYA is the number of actual full-time equivalent student days attended as a percentage of the total number of possible student days attended in the first semester (as defined by each state and territory’s school calendar), it has not yet been possible to obtain this consistent measure.

For example, in the government sector in 2008, most jurisdictions measured student attendance over the

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School attendance and retention of Indigenous Australian Students

entire first semester in the school calendar year; the remaining jurisdictions measured attendance over the term that included the month of May and the Catholic and independent school sectors collected data over a 20-day period, in the month of May.

The student attendance data collection is in a transitional phase until all sectors have the capacity to be able to report using the agreed standard. Each jurisdiction and sector provides explanatory notes about the method used to collect and report on student attendance data.

Table 2 shows 2006 Census data on school attendance rates for students aged 15–17 years by remoteness area. The Census data on Indigenous and non-Indigenous school attendance show a similar result as the data from the MCEETYA National report on schooling. The gaps between Indigenous and non-Indigenous school attendance were over 10% and some more than 20%. The Census data also show a general decline in school attendance from metropolitan areas (major cities) to remote areas. This decline is particularly marked among Indigenous persons.

Table 2: Secondary school attendance (a) by remoteness area by age, 2006

Age in years

Major cities

Inner regional

Outer regional Remote

Very remote

Per cent

Indigenous

15 77 77 76 67 53

16 60 58 60 49 34

17 44 38 37 29 16

Non-Indigenous

15 90 89 89 88 82

16 82 79 77 75 61

17 68 62 58 52 39

(a) Number of persons attending school as a percentage of all persons (excluding school attendance not stated).

Source: Derived from Population characteristics, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians, Australia, 2006 (ABS 2010).

ABS dataThe Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) measured school attendance differently. The ABS used data from the 2006 Census of Population and Housing to calculate the proportion of school-aged children who are enrolled in a school, either full time or part time.

The ABS publishes Schools, Australia. The statistics in these annual publications are obtained from the National Schools Statistics Collection (NSSC), which is the product of a collaborative arrangement between Australian education authorities and the ABS, designed

to bring together consistent and comparable statistics on primary and secondary education in Australia.

According to Rossiter and Duncan (2006), the NSSC is currently the most authoritative source of data on student involvement in education. These authors contend that participation rates are important in understanding school attendance within the wider context of all education and labour market opportunities for young Australians. They maintain that the majority of education policy issues can be substantially addressed by the informed use of participation rates.

Data issuesThe ABS provides a number of warnings with respect to its schools data collections. The accuracy of ABS data collections is influenced by other factors, including changes in scope and coverage over time. The methodologies employed in compiling the government sector aggregates, on which the statistics are based, vary between the different state and territory Departments of Education. They range from accessing central administrative records to direct collection of data from establishments.

The ABS warns that comparability of statistics between states and territories and between government and non-government schools in any one state or territory can be affected by a number of factors: differences in the organisation of grades/year levels (for example, there is no Australia-wide standard method of allocating students and classes to a certain year of school education); policy on student intake and advancement; flows from secondary to vocational education; and the recruitment and employment of teachers.

The relatively small populations in some states and territories can promote apparently large movements in rates and ratios, which may be based on relatively small movements in absolute numbers.

Retention dataAnother measure of the degree to which students engage or participate in the school education system is the apparent retention rate. This is a measure of student progression through school. Rates are described as ‘apparent’ because they estimate the proportion of students who continue studying to a certain year at school, based on the respective cohort group in a base year. For example, for the 2009 apparent retention rate for Year 10 to Year 12, the cohort group in the base year would be the number of Year 10 students in 2007, and the designated year level of education would be the number of Year 12 students in 2009.

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Table 3: Apparent rate of retention from Year 7/8 to Year 12, Indigenous and non-Indigenous students

1999 2004 2009

Indigenous 35 40 45

Non-Indigenous 73 77 77

Source: ABS 2009.

AlthoughIndigenousstudentretentionratesareincreasing,theyarestilllowerthanthoseofnon-Indigenousstudents.In2009,theapparentretentionrateforfull-timeIndigenousstudentsfromtheirfirstyearofsecondaryschoolthroughtoYear12was32percentagepointslower(comparedwitha38percentagepointdifferencein1999)fornon-Indigenousstudents.Nevertheless,Table3showsthatthegapbetweenIndigenousandnon-Indigenousrateshasnarrowedslightly.From1999,theapparentretentionratetoYear12increasedby10percentagepointsforIndigenousstudentsand4percentagepointsfornon-Indigenousstudents(ABS2009).Thereisconsiderablevariationacrossthestatesandterritories.

Data issuesTheABSwarnsthatthemethodofcalculationofapparentretentionratesdoesnottakeintoaccountarangeoffactors,suchasstudentsrepeatingayearofeducation,migrationandothernetchangestotheschoolpopulation.Atlowerlevelsofdisaggregation,additionalfactorsaffectingthedata,suchasenrolmentpolicies(whichcontributetodifferentage/gradestructuresbetweenstatesandterritories),inter-sectortransferandinterstatemovementsofstudents,arealsonottakenintoaccount(ABS2009).

Insmalljurisdictions,relativelysmallchangesinstudentnumberscancreateapparentlylargemovementsinretentionrates.Inaddition,‘theratesinthesmallerjurisdictionsmaybenoticeablyaffectedbychangesinsuchfactorsastheproportionofungradedand/ormature-agedstudentsfromyeartoyear.Theinclusionorexclusionofpart-timestudentscanalsohaveasignificanteffectonapparentretentionrates,especiallyinSA,TasandtheNTwhichhaverelativelylargeproportionsofpart-timestudents’(ABS2009:32).

Whathasbeentried?Inthissection,wepresentexamplesofinitiativesorprogramsthataimtoincreasetheattendanceandretentionofIndigenousAustralianstudentsinschooling.Wehaveattemptedtoprovideinformationaboutthe

sourceoftheprogram,thetypeofprogram(thatis,thekeycomponents)andtheextenttowhichtheprogramcanbesaidtobeachievingitsaims.

The approach usedSource of initiative or programOnewayofcategorisingprogramsisbasedonadistinctionbetweengovernment-basedprogramsandthoseinitiatedbyindependentorganisations.Government-basedprogramsaredesignedanddeliveredbynational,stateandterritoryeducationdepartmentsorjurisdictions,orschoolswithinajurisdiction.Broadlyspeaking,approacheswithineducationjurisdictionsaretwo-fold.Thefirstincludesstate-wide,departmentallydesignedandfundedprograms.Theseprogramsareoftendevelopedinresponsetobroaderpolicyconsiderationsaroundsocialinclusion.Thesecondapproachincludesprogramsdevelopedandimplementedattheschoollevel,particularlyinschoolsinruralandremoteareas.Whilethemajorityofgovernmentprogramsfocusondirectprogramdeliverytostudents,thereisalsoattentiontosystem-levelpolicy,professionaldevelopment,andculturalchange.

IndependentprogramsoperateundertheauspicesofphilanthropicfoundationsorAboriginalorTorresStraitIslandercommunities.Governmentfundingalsosupportssomeindependentprograms.

Type of initiative or programCategorisationofprogramsinto‘types’isdifficultbecausethevariouscomponentsofprogramscanbetargetedindividuallyortheycanbecombinedindifferentways.Someprogramsspecifyimprovementsinattendanceand/orretentionratesasoutcomes,whereasothersspecify,forinstance,improvementsinliteracyornumeracy,usingafocusonattendanceasastrategytoachievetheoutcome.Insuchinstances,theattendancestrategymaybespelledoutindetailoranimprovementinattendanceratesmaysimplybelistedassomethingthatmustbeachievedifliteracyistoimprove.

AccordingtoPatterson(2006),researchandpracticeindicateanumberofkeycomponentsforincreasingengagementinlearningandthereforeschoolretentionoverthelongerterm.Thesecomponentsincludethosethatarespecificallyschoolfocused,thosethatarecommunityfocused,andthosethatareinteragencyfocused.

School-focusedcomponentsattempttomakelearningenvironmentsmoreresponsivetotheneedsofyoungpeopleby:ensuringstudents’voicesareheard;

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modifyingschoolingpractices;developingmodelsforcommunityaccesstoschoolresources;increasingtheavailabilityandqualityofcareeradvice;providingqualityalternativelearningopportunitiesforyoungpeopleatriskofdisengagingorwhohavealreadydisengagedfromeducationandtraining;andensuringyoungpeoplereceivethenecessaryindividualandspecialistsupporttoremainengagedinlearning.School-basedandschool-designedprogramstargetat-riskstudentsthroughpresentationofrelevantandengagingcurricularresponsesto‘themanycomplexitiesofthesestudents’livesandtherealitythattheroleofandidentityasa“student”isonlyoneofmanyandoftentheleastmeaningfultothem.Somearehighlycasespecific,othersarecohortorcommunityspecific’(Nicholls2006).Twokeyfeaturesoftheseprogramsincludetheirembeddednessinanenvironmentofhighexpectations,andthebeliefbyteachersthatallstudentscanachieve.

Community-focusedcomponentsinvolve:increasinglocalcommunityinvolvementininnovationsthatsupportschoolretentionoutcomesatalocallevel;connectingyoungpeoplewiththeircommunitiesmoreeffectivelybyfacilitatingyouthdevelopmentandyouthparticipation;andpromotingandrecognisingcommunity-basedlearning.

Interagencyapproachesmightincludeimprovingcross-agencylinkagesandthesharingofgoodpracticeacrossagencies;providingsupporttofamilies(withchildrenintheearlyyears)throughthedevelopmentofawhole-of-governmentearlychildhoodstrategy;andtheimplementationofearlychildhoodservices.However,accordingtoReid(2008)thereisverylittleresearchevidenceintotheefficacyofthemulti-agencyapproachworking.Moreover,becauseeachagency(forexample,education,health,socialservices)hasitsownpriorities,thereareinevitabletensionscreatedbymodelsofmulti-agencyfunctioningthatmaynotbeconducivetobestpolicydevelopment.

Achievement of aimsIndicatorsofthesuccessorotherwiseofschoolattendanceandretentionprogramsinclude:increaseddailyattendancerates;increasedprogressionratesthroughtoYear12;improvedachievement,suchasinnationaltesting(NationalAssessmentProgram—LiteracyandNumeracy(NAPLAN));jurisdictioncertificatesofeducationandschool-basedtests;successfultransitionsfromschooltofurthereducationoremployment;andtheextentofdemandforprograms.

Thefollowingsectionprovidesexamplesofprogramsusingbothtypeandsourceheadings.Theseheadingshavebeenusedsothatkeyfeaturescanbehighlighted.

Scholarships, financial support and support structuresInthepast10years,hundredsofIndigenousstudentshavebeeneducatedinbigcityschoolsunderscholarshipprograms.IndependentschoolnetworksandprivatephilanthropicgroupsmostlyruntheseprogramswithsomefundingsupportfromAustralian,stateandterritorygovernments.

Alsoincludedinthiscategoryofprogramsandinitiativesistheprovisionoffinancialsupport(forexampleABSTUDY)andthesettingupofstructurestoassistIndigenousstudentstoremainineducation.

Thefollowingbriefdescriptionofinitiativesandprogramsinthiscategoryareprovidedasexamples.

The Australian Indigenous Education Foundation (AIEF)TheAIEFisanindependentfundthatcoordinatesscholarshipsforIndigenousstudentsfromremotelocations.AIEFmodelsitsworkontheIndigenouseducationboardingschoolprogramatStJoseph’sCollege,HuntersHill(asuburbonthelowernorthshoreofSydney,NSW).AIEFcurrentlyhaspartnershipsinplacefortheAIEFScholarshipProgramwith10schoolsinNSWandQld,withanapproximatelyevenmixofboysandgirls.ThefoundationbelievesthatbestpracticeinthisfieldisforitspartnerschoolstohaveacloseanddirectrelationshipwiththeIndigenousfamiliesandcommunitiestheyworkwith.

Thefoundationissupportedby$20millioninAustralianGovernmentfunding.

For more information see:<http://www.aief.com.au/>

EvaluationNoformalevaluationsofthescholarshipprogramhavebeenconducted.The2009AnnualReport(AIEF2009)notesthatinthelastfiveyearsatAIEFpartnerschools,therehavebeen149Indigenousstudentsenrolledattheschools,ofwhom127(85%)haveeithercompletedYear12orarestillattheschools(inadditionto13otherYear12completionsbefore2005)and22IndigenousstudentsleftbeforecompletingYear12.However,thesefiguresarenotforAIEFscholarshipsbutforthecollectivehistoricalratesfortheoverallIndigenouseducationprogramsatAIEFpartnerschoolsoverthelastfiveyears.

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Cape York Institute Higher Expectations ProgramTheHigherExpectationsProgram(HEP)supportsAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderstudentsfromCapeYork,PalmIslandandYarrabahcommunitiestofinishhighschoolandgoontouniversity.HEP(secondary)fundsasmallnumberofstudentstoattendoneofnineboardingschoolsinQueensland.Fundingcoverstuitionandboardingfees.Fundingisalsoavailabletosupportthedevelopmentofindividualleadershipplanningandleadershipworkshops,mentoring,orientationactivities,extracurriculumandstudytours.Inaddition,theprogramprovidesculturalawarenesssessionswithallstaffindirectcontactwithIndigenousstudents.

AlthoughonlyafractionofCapeYorkstudentsareabletoparticipateintheprogram,theinstituteexpectsthatstudents’completionofsecondaryschoolandenrolmentintertiarystudieswillgreatlyimpactCapeYorkschoolretentionstatisticsandprovideCapeYorkcommunitieswithapoolofeducatedfutureleaders.

For more information see:<http://www.cyi.org.au/hep.aspx>

EvaluationThereisnoavailableevaluationmaterial.

The Yalari FoundationYalarirunstheRosemaryBishopIndigenousEducationScholarshipProgram.ThescholarshiphelpsAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderstudentsfromremoteorregionalareasattendaprivateboardingschoolfortheirsecondaryeducation.Studentsareselectedonthebasisofavarietyofqualitativefactors,includingagoodattitudetoeducation,enthusiasm,consistentachievementinallschoolactivities,andacommitmenttocompleteYear12.YalarifundsthefinancialdifferencebetweentheABSTUDYdesignatedallowanceandthescheduledboardingfees,uniforms,textbooks,andlaptophire.Parentsarerequiredtopay$600peryear,aswellasthecostofstudenttraveltoandfromschool,schoolexcursionsandstudent’spersonalrequirements,includingsportingequipment.

For more information about the Yalari Foundation see:<http://www.yalari.org/>


The Catherine Freeman FoundationTheCatherineFreemanFoundationisanot-for-profitorganisationestablishedin2007withtheaimof

‘creatingpathwaystoabrighterfutureforIndigenouschildren’.Thefoundationworksinpartnershipwithcommunityorganisations,businesses,schoolsandotherphilanthropistsinfacilitatingeducationalopportunitiesforyoungIndigenousgirls.ThecurrentfocusofactivityistheremoteIndigenouscommunityofPalmIslandinfarnorthQueensland.

Anumberofprogramshavebeenimplemented,includingatargetedtruancyprogram.TheNon-TruancyProjectpresentsmountainbikestostudentswhoshowthebiggestchangesinattendance,academicachievement,attitudetopeers,behaviourinschoolandmanners.

Otherprogramsincludeanafter-schoolactivityprogram,ascholarshipsprogram(inpartnershipwiththeAustralianIndigenousEducationFoundation),andaneducationalandaspirationstoursprogram.

For more information see:<http://www.catherinefreemanfoundation.com/>

EvaluationAccordingtoinformationontheproject’swebsite,overthepast2years,theprogramhasresultedina20%increaseinattendanceratesatlocalschools.Thereisnootheravailableevaluationmaterial.

Future Footprints ProgramThisisaninitiativeoftheAssociationofIndependentSchools,WesternAustralia.ItisanadditionalsupportstructureforIndigenousstudentsfromregionalandremoteareasofWAattendingresidentialschoolsinPerth.ThegoalofFutureFootprintsistosupportstudents’engagementineducationandtoenhancetheirtransitiontoandfromschool,tofurthereducationandemploymentortraining.

Specificgoalsoftheprogramareto:increaseretentionofIndigenousstudentsfromYear10toYear12;increasethelevelofsuccessfulYear12completions;ensureIndigenouschildrenarereadyandinspiredtolearnintheschoolenvironment;andstrengthenthecapacityofparentsandthecommunitytoworkwithschoolstoimproveeducationaloutcomesforIndigenousstudents.

Theprogramcurrentlyemploystwoliaisonofficers,whoprovideregularsupportivecontactwithstudentsinareassuchas:homeworkandstudy;accesstoscholarshipsandotherfinancialsupport;vocational/careerinformation;transitionalissues;recreationalactivities;living/familyissues;andpeerrelationships.

For more information see:<http://www.ais.wa.edu.au/future-footprints/>


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SanctionsOnecontroversialapproachinitiatedasatrialbytheAustralianGovernmentatthecommencementofthe2009schoolyearattachesschoolattendanceconditionstoincomesupportpaymentstoparents.TheImprovingSchoolEnrolmentandAttendancethroughWelfareReformMeasure(SEAM)aimstoensurethatchildrenofcompulsoryschoolageareenrolledinandattendingschoolregularly.

TheSEAMinitiativewasaresponsetothefindingthatanestimated20,000Australianchildrenofcompulsoryschoolagearenotenrolledinschool,andmanyothersdonotattendregularly(FaHCSIA2009).SEAMlinksschoolenrolmentandattendancetoCentrelinkincomesupport.Ifparentsdonotenroltheirschool-agedchildren,orareassessedbyCentrelinkasmakinginadequateeffortstogettheirchildrentoschool,paymentscanbesuspended.Thetwocomponentsofthemeasure—enrolmentandattendance—areimplementedasseparateprocesses.

TheSEAMpolicyisbased,inpart,onresearchthathasestablishedlinksbetweenloweducationaloutcomesandanumberofundesirableoutcomes,suchasincreasedlikelihoodofwelfaredependency,unemploymentandinvolvementinthecriminaljusticesystem.

AlthoughnotIndigenous-specific,themeasureisbeingtrialled,monitoredandevaluatedinpredominantlyIndigenouscommunities.SEAMcommencedonatrialbasisinsixNorthernTerritorycommunitiesduringthe2008–09financialyear.ItwasextendedtoanumberofsitesinQueenslandfromthebeginningofTerm4,2009.

Criticsofincomemanagementapproachestostudentenrolmentandattendance(forexampleCampbell&Wright,2005)claimthattheyplaceonchildrenanincreasingburdenofresponsibilityforfamilies’receiptofincomesupportandconsequentlytheirfinancialwellbeing,despitealongertermpotentialtoimprovechildren’sskillstodecreasewelfaredependencyinthefuture.CampbellandWrightclaimthatprogramslinkingwelfarepaymentstoschoolattendancearebasedonassumptionsofquestionablevalidity,includingthefactthattheyimplicitlydefinetheproblemasoneofparentalorstudentnegligence.

Otherliterature(Cortisetal.2008)noteskeydifferencesbetweenwelfarereformssuchasSEAMandthoseinothercountries.AccordingtoCortisetal.reformsintheUnitedStatesofAmericaprioritisecoercivebehaviouralchangeandcaseloadreductionwhereastheUnitedKingdomapproachincludesbehaviouralincentivesandanemphasisonpromotingoutcomesforchildrenthroughinvestmentinchild

careandearlyyears’services.Cortisetal.alsoclaimthatAustraliadoesnothavethelayeredfinancialandservicesupportavailableintheFrenchandNorwegiansystems.HalvorsenandJensen(2004)arguethatpeersupportprogramssuchasthoseinNorwayhelpwelfarerecipientstomaptheirneeds,raiseself-esteemanddevelopnetworks(throughforexample,attendingclassesonchilddevelopmentorsocialoutings)beforeplansareputintoaction.

For more information see:<http://www.facs.gov.au/sa/families/progserv/welfarereform/Pages/ImprovingSchoolEnrolmentAttendance.aspx>

EvaluationTherearenopubliclyavailableevaluationsoftheSEAMinitiative,althoughaqualitativeevaluationoftheSEAMtrialswasconductedbyUrbisin2008-09.EvaluationoftheSEAMtrials(stagetwo)isproceeding.

‘Hooks’, incentives and rewardsIncontrasttoinitiativessuchasSEAMthatapplysanctionsforrecalcitrantbehaviour,someprogramsapplyincentivesandrewardstoincreaseschoolattendancerates.Sportingprograms,schoolnutritionprograms,and‘noschool,nopool’policiesareexamplesofusing‘hooks’toattractnon-attendingstudentstoschool.

Indigenousstudentshavebeenparticularlytargetedthroughprogramswithastrongsportingelement.Forinstance,programsprovidedbytheClontarfFoundationhavetargetedboysthroughinvolvementinAustralianRulesFootball.BothboysandgirlsaretargetedthroughtheAcademyofSport,HealthandEducationinShepparton,whichisapartnershipbetweentheUniversityofMelbourneandtheRumbalaraFootballandNetballClub.TheAustralianFootballLeague(AFL)Kickstartprogram,supportedbytheAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderCommission,wasinitiatedin1997forIndigenousyouthacrossremotecommunitiesinNorthernAustralia.

For more information see:<http://www.aflvic.com.au/index.php?id=116>

MostofthesportsprogramsnowcomeundertheauspicesoftheSportingChanceProgram,whichisanAustralianGovernmentinitiativeoriginallyannouncedinthe2006–07Budget.In2010,atotalof22providerswerefundedtodeliver59projects(54school-basedsportsacademiesforapproximately5,000students,andfiveeducationengagementprojectsforapproximately5,000students).SportingChancehastwoelements:school-basedsportsacademiesthatprovidesports-focusedlearninganddevelopmentopportunitiesto

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secondaryschoolIndigenousstudentsandeducationengagementstrategiesthatprovidearangeofsport,recreationandeducationactivitiesforprimaryandsecondaryschoolIndigenousstudents.

For more information see:<http://www.deewr.gov.au/Indigenous/Schooling/Programs/SportingChance/Pages/default.aspx>

Becauseofthemultiplicityofthesesportingprograms,wedescribeonlyonehere—thatdeliveredthroughtheClontarfFoundationAcademies.

The Clontarf FoundationTheClontarfFoundationdevelopedoneoftheearliestandbestknownofthesportingprograms.SpeakingintheNational Times(17January2010)theprominentAboriginalleaderMickDodsonreferredtotheClontarfFoundationprogramasanexampleofwhatisworkinginIndigenouseducation,oneoftheinspiringchinksoflightthatare‘upagainstsomeappallingexamplesofforgottenkids,forgottenplaces’(Dodson2010).

TheClontarfFoundationprogramsaredeliveredthroughanetworkofacademies,eachofwhichoperatesinpartnershipwith—butindependentof—aschoolorcollege.Theprogramsaimtoimprovehealth,educationandlifeskillsoutcomesforyoungmen.TheyencouragestudentstostayonatschoolforthecompletionofYear12andrequireregularschoolattendanceasaconditionofcontinuingenrolment.FootballisusedtoattractIndigenousyoungmalestoschoolandthenkeepthemthere.Aswellasdeliveringafootballprogram,academystaff(manyofwhomareex-AFLplayers)actasmentorsandtrainerswhoaddressmanyofthenegativesthathaveanimpactonparticipants’lives.

Bytheendof2009,thefoundationoperated23academieslocatedon27schoolcampuses.EightnewacademiesopenedinFebruary2010.Approximately2,200boysareenrolled.

For more information see:<http://www.clontarffootball.com/>

EvaluationAccordingtoa2004WADepartmentofEducationandTraining(DET)evaluationoftheprogram(unpublished),itisthestaffcommitmenttotheparticipantsandthestrengthofrelationshipsthatunderpinsthefoundation’ssuccess.Otherspecificsuccessfactorsmentionedinanevaluationoftheprogram(Purdie&Stone2005)include:thedevelopmentofanappropriatecurriculum,includingasignificantvocationaleducationandtraining(VET)component;anattitudebymembersofstaffthatallstudentscansucceed;theprovisionofappropriatestructuresandsupport;thestrongsenseofbelonging

experiencedbystudents;clearvisionandgoalsettingbymembersofstaff;theprovisionofassistancetostudentstosetandachievetheirowngoals;theprovisionofadequateandappropriateresourcesandopportunities;thepromotionofhealthylifestyles;theemploymentofcommittedstaffmembersasmentors;andtheuseofdatatoinformpolicyandpractice.BoththeDET(2004)unpublishedevaluationandthePurdieandStone(2005)evaluations,however,werecasestudiesandnotbasedonattendanceandretentiondata.

The2009AnnualReport(ClontarfFoundation2009)providedattendanceandretentionevaluationinformationacrossallacademiesasbeing:• attendance—77%• 110studentscompletedYear12• 76%ofYear12studentsachievedafullyrecognisedgraduation

• 75%ofgraduatesinfull-timeemploymentwithin1yearofgraduation.

Nolongitudinaldatawerepresentedinthe2009AnnualReport.

Cultural relevanceOneapproachtoengagingIndigenousstudentshasbeentouseeventsorprogramsthathaveafocusonbuildingculturalidentityandprideinthatidentity,aswellasafocusonpromotingeducation,trainingandvocationalpathways.TheKeyIndicators2009report(SCRGSP2009)presentedtheCommunityFestivalsforEducationEngagementprogramasanexampleofwhatworksinincreasingattendanceforIndigenouschildrenatschoolinthisway.

For more information see:<http://www.deewr.gov.au/Indigenous/Schooling/Programs/Pages/CommunityFestivals.aspx>

TheCommunityFestivalsprogram(anAustralianGovernmentinitiative)targetseventsthatencouragestudents,particularlyAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderstudents,toattendschoolandleadhealthylifestyles.In2008,fiveorganisationswereresponsiblefor15festivalsaroundAustralia,includingthoseheldinremotelocations.Studentsparticipateinconcertsandculturalactivitiesthatendorseeducation,health,cultureandpotentialvocationalpathways.

Formoreinformationsee:MusicOutbackFoundation;BroomeAboriginalMediaAssociation;WakakirriLimitedTechnicalandFurtherEducation(TAFE)NSW;andVibeAustralia.

TheAustralianCouncilforEducationalResearch(ACER)assistedwithasurveyofteachersfollowingtheVibe

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Australiacommunityeventsin2008.VibeAliveisatwo-dayfestivalforstudentsofallculturesandbackgrounds,incorporatingmusic,sport,danceandartinahigh-energy,youth-friendlysetting.Thefestivalisdesignedtoencourageschoolattendance,retentionandhealthylifestylesforallyoungAustralians,particularlyAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderstudents.

VibeAlivealsoaimstofacilitatetheconnectionofstudentswithsuitableAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderrolemodels,andtoprovideinformationandresourcespromotingeducation,trainingandvocationalpathways.

EvaluationThemajoraimoftheVibeAliveteachersurveywastogaugeteachers’perceptionsoftheimpactonandawarenessbystudentsofthemessagesassociatedwithVibeAlive.Onthewhole,teachersjudgedtheeventstobehighlysuccessfulandavaluablesourceofencouragementandinspirationsforstudents,teachersandcommunitymembers.However,therewasinsufficientdatatoassesswhetherstudentattendanceactuallyincreasedfollowingtheeventsand,ifso,whetheranyeffectsweresustained.

System-based initiativesInthissectionwehighlighttwotypesofsystemicapproachestoaddressingtheattendanceandretentionofIndigenousstudents—strategicplansandspecificprogramsthatincludeafocusonattendanceandretention.Thelattermaydrawonastrategicplanbuttheymaynotaddressallspecifiedtargets,actions,andoutcomes.

Strategic plansMosteducationjurisdictionshavearticulatedpoliciesinrelationtotheattendanceandretentionofallstudents.Inaddition,jurisdictionshavedevelopedspecificstrategicplansforimprovingeducationaloutcomesforIndigenousstudents.Theseplansareimportantforanumberofreasons—theyhavebeendevelopedinconjunctionwithIndigenouseducatorsandinconsultationswithcommunitiesthathaveoccurredovermanyyears;theygenerallyspecifyIndigenousparentandcommunityinvolvementintheimplementation,continualdevelopmentandmonitoringofthestrategies;andtheyinvolveinteragencycollaborations—allcharacteristicsthathavebeenidentifiedasimportantinimprovingattendanceandretentionrates.

Weprovideoneexampleofanattendance,participationandretentionstrategicplan(Table4)drawnfromtherelevantsectionoftheSADepartmentofEducationandChildren’sServices(SADECS)AboriginalStrategy2005–2010,whichdetailsthetargets,priorityactionsandoutcomespertainingtoitsAboriginalstudents.

For more information see:<http://www.decs.sa.gov.au/docs/documents/1/DecsAboriginalStrategy2-1.pdf>

EvaluationTheDECSAboriginalStrategy2005–2010notesthateacheducationdistrictreportsannuallyonitsprogressinachievingthestrategytargets.Theyarebaseduponevaluationandreviewprocesses,whichincludethecollectionandanalysisofrelevantdata.However,noinformationisprovidedabouttheoutcomesofsuchprocesses.

Specific programsTheFollowtheDream:PartnershipsforSuccessProgram(FTD:PFS)isaprogramdesignedtohelpaspirantAboriginalsecondarystudentsachieveasuccessfultertiarydestination.Theprogramoperatesin24sitesacrossWA.ElevenofthesesitesworkinpartnershipwiththeGraham(Polly)FarmerFoundation.

For more information see:<http://www.det.wa.edu.au/aboriginaleducation/detcms/navigation/teaching-and-learning/attendance-and-retention/follow-the-dream/partnerships-for-success-outreach-program/?oid=Category-id-7348879>

TheDepartmentofEducationandTrainingdesignedtheFTD:PFSprogramtoincreasetheopportunitiesforsuccessofsecondaryAboriginalstudentsinWAschools.ThekeyintendedoutcomeoftheprogramisanincreaseinthenumberofAboriginalstudentsstayingatschoolandgoingontouniversity.

Studentsareselectedontheirpotentialforsuccessandprovidedwithsupportthroughmentoring,familysupport,extracurricularprogramsandstudyassistance.Wherepossible,industryassistanceisobtainedtofundtheadditionalresourcesneededfortheprogram.

FTD:PFSpromotespartnershipsbycombiningcommunity,cross-agency,andindustrycollaboration.LearningCentresarecentraltostudents’experiencesofFTD:PFS.MostLearningCentresareonthepremisesofthehostschool,butafewoperateoff-campus,attherequestofthelocalSteeringCommittee.EachstudentagreestoattendtheLearningCentreafterschoolonatleasttwoafternoonseachweek;coordinatorsandparentsalsomakecommitmentstotheirrolesinsupportingthestudent.

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Table 4: South Australian DECS Aboriginal Strategy 2005–2010—Key focus area 2: Participation, retention and attendance

Targets Priority actions Outcomes

Reduce suspensions and exclusions of Aboriginal children and students to address rates that are currently significantly higher than for non-Indigenous students

Establish working party with District representatives to inform action and accountability at school, district and state levels

Develop Aboriginal Suspensions Action Plan

More detailed analysis of current data relating to suspension and exclusion of Aboriginal students, including input from students, communities and sites

Reduce suspensions and exclusions

Increase the participation of Aboriginal children in Children’s Services programs:

• FamilyDayCare

• ChildCare

• OutsideSchoolHoursCare

• EarlyLearningprogramsincludingLearningTogetherandPlaygroups

Work with the Commonwealth Department ofFamilyandCommunityServicesandAboriginal Resource and Management Support Unit (ARMSU) to develop and implement a joint state/Commonwealth strategy to improve participation and retention rates for Aboriginal services

Develop a strategy to assist Aboriginal families to become registered family day care providers

Increase the number of Aboriginal workers in service delivery positions in DECS-operated or sponsored services

Improved capacity of early years programs to deliver effective support for Aboriginal children and their families

Increase attendance of Aboriginal children in preschool to state average

Increase field support for attendance, participation and to assist transition to school for children most at risk of early disengagement

Improve the capacity of early years’ programs to deliver effective support for young Aboriginal children and their families

Increase the numbers of Aboriginal students in senior secondary programs by 2010 from 7% to 16% in Year 12 and from 17% to 21% in Year 11

Involve Aboriginal parent and community involvement in the implementation, continual development and monitoring of strategies for Aboriginal learners in senior secondary education

Increase the retention rate of young Aboriginal people to Year 12 or its equivalent from 36.4% in 2004 to the state equivalent of 70% by 2010

Liaisewithandprovidesupporttoseniorsecondary staff in schools to develop pathwaysinconjunctionwithLearningBand Coordinators and Aboriginal Education Coordinators in Districts

Educational needs of Aboriginal students in the senior years are met at the site level

Case management models in place to support Aboriginal students

Increase the number of Year 12 Aboriginal students completing South Australian Certificate of Education (SACE) or the equivalent to the state level of 70% by 2010

Provide information sessions for Aboriginal families and communities regarding subject selection and senior secondary course patterns

Furtherdevelopthesecondarycurriculumto better serve the needs of remote Aboriginal communities

Furtherdeveloptheaccesstoandqualityof distance education

Exemplify schools where Aboriginal learners are participating successfully and/or completing secondary education

Students and families have necessary information to make informed choices

A strategy for secondary Aboriginal students in remote areas

Students in rural and remote communities can access distance education via improved technology

Opportunitiesforeducatorsandcommunitymembers to access Aboriginal Education Professional Development Programs

(continued)

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Theprogramprovidesstudentswith:• tutorstoassistwithhomework,studyhabits,andgoalsetting

• anindividualeducationplan• amentortoreviewtheirschoolprogressandgeneralwellbeing

• regularupdatesonacademicperformance• educationalexcursionstodevelopconfidenceandskills• asafeandsupportedenvironmenttostudyafterschool,equippedwithcomputersandeducationalresources

• careerguidance• regularcontactwithparentsandteachersregardingacademicprogress.

EvaluationAlthoughthereisaformalevaluationoftheprograminprogress,resultsarenotyetpubliclyavailable.Thereis

someinformalinformationavailableaboutprogramoutcomesonwebsites(forexample,DaretoLead)butthatinformationistoogeneraltobeconfidentabouttheexactnatureoftheoutcomesoftheprogram:

‘Ourgoalwasby2008wewouldhave100WAAboriginalstudentswithTERshighenoughforuniversity.Wewillachievethat.In2007threestudentshadTERsover99,onehad99.83.

Wedidn’trealisethatonceweputaprogramtogethersayingtokids,”You’reanachiever,weexpectyoutodowell”,theyachieve.Suddenlywesawotherthingshappening,withFollowtheDreamstudentsgettingintootherprograms.Thesekidsarewinnersandtheyexpecttokeepwinning.’

For more information see:<http://www.daretolead.edu.au/servlet/Web?s=169694&p=STORY_NIEC_Maximing_The_Potential_August08>

Table 4 (continued): South Australian DECS Aboriginal Strategy 2005–2010—Key focus area 2: Participation, retention and attendance

Targets Priority actions Outcomes

Increase participation of Aboriginal secondary students in Structured WorkplaceLearning(SWL)from42%in 2004 to 50% by 2010

Collaboration between Aboriginal Education and Employment Services (AEES),DepartmentofFurtherEducation,EmploymentandScienceandTechnology(DFEEST)Futures

Connectteam,FuturesConnectTransition

BrokersinregionsandTAFEInstitutes

ImprovedopportunitiesinSWLforAboriginal students in DECS schools

Increase participation of Aboriginal young people in school-based apprenticeships from 4% in 2004 to 10% by 2006 and to 40% by 2010

LiaisewithBusinessSAtoreachemployers

Build networks with Aboriginal service providers and employers to provide culturally friendly work placements

ThedevelopmentofpartnershipsbetweenDECS, relevant stakeholders in regional and remote communities, and registered training organisations.

Community consultation and active participation in the development of regional workplace initiatives.

Improved career education for Aboriginal secondary students, with improved resources and increased participation in structured work placement and accredited VETinschoolsprograms

Improve completion rates of Aboriginal students by increasing access to a wide rangeofVETcoursesandlearningplansleading to job opportunities

Develop structures to support transition from secondary to higher education, training or employment

Strengthen integration of Aboriginal studentsintoDECSVETprogrambyendof 2005

Develop partnerships between AEES and relevant stakeholders in regional and remote communities and registered training organisations

Increased retention of Aboriginal students

Source: DECS 2005.

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School-based initiativesTherearemanyinitiativesdevelopedandimplementedattheschoollevel.Similartosystemicinitiatives,mostschoolswithasignificantIndigenousstudentenrolmenthaveoperationalplans.Inaddition,schoolsdevelopspecificprogramsthatmaydrawontheoperationalplanbutwhichmaynotaddressallofitsspecifiedtargets,actionsandoutcomes.

School operational plansThe2010AnnualOperationalPlanforMilingimbiCommunityEducationCentreintheNorthernTerritoryispresentedinTable5asanexampleofaschooloperationalplan.

EvaluationIngeneral,theevaluationinformationaboutschooloperationalplansislimited.Someschoolspublishtheirannualreportsonlinebuttheinformationcontainedinthesereportsislimited.

Specific programs

The Wiltja ProgramThisprogramhasoperatedwithinWoodvilleHighSchool,SouthAustraliaforalmost20years,andisresponsibleforprovidingacity-basedsecondaryoptionforIndigenousstudentsfromtheAnanguPitjantjatjaraYankunytjatjara(APY)LandsandthewesternregionaroundYalataandOakValley.Theoverallaimoftheprogramistoprovideacontextinwhichstudentscanachieveacademicsuccess.Strategiestoachievethisincludeafocuson:literacyandnumeracyimprovement;attendanceandretention;vocationaleducation;studentwellbeing;andteachercomposition,expertiseandparticipationinprofessionallearning.

AlthoughtheWiltjaprogramisbasedwithinWoodvilleHighSchool,itoperateswithautonomyandisresponsivetothePitjantjatjaraYankunytjatjaraEducationalCommittee.

ThereisaBridgingProgramafterstudentshavebeenselectedbytheirhomecommunityandhomeschooltoattendWiltja.Thisprogramfocusesonliteracyandnumeracyaswellasindependentlivingskills(suchastravellingaroundalargemetropolitancity).MoststudentsareEnglishasasecondlanguage(ESL)speakers.

TheWiltjaprogramworksinclosecollaborationwiththeWiltjaResidentialprogram.AttheWiltjaresidence,studentsparticipateinaprogramthatsupportsthem

intheireducation,recreationandculturaltransition.Theyparticipateinanafter-schooltutorialprogramthatisdesignedtosupporttheschool-basedprogram.ThereareyouthworkersattheWiltjaresidenceinNorthgatewhohelpmaintainateachingandlearningfocus.

For more information see:<http://www.daretolead.edu.au/servlet/Web?s=169694&p=STORY_Wiltja_Program_Woodville_HS>

EvaluationEvaluationinformationabouttheprogramislimitedalthoughtheinformationpresentedonthewebsiteshowsthepercentageincreaseinretentionfrom2006to2008:• 2006—threestudentsinYear10from11whocommencedYear8in2004(33%)

• 2007—fivestudentsinYear10fromeightwhocommencedYear8in2005(62%)

• 2008—14studentsinYear10from14whocommencedYear8in2006(100%).

OtherWhatWorks:TheWorkProgramandDaretoLeadaretwonationalinitiativesthathavethebroadobjectiveofimprovingtheeducationaloutcomesofIndigenousAustralianstudents.Bothprogramshavebeenpivotalinraisingtheawarenessofeducatorsofactionsthatneedtobetakeninordertoclosethegapineducationaloutcomes.

What Works: The Work ProgramThisisasetofprintandonlinematerialsdesignedtoassistschoolstoplanandtakeactiontoimproveeducationaloutcomesforIndigenousAustralianstudents.

Theprogrampresentsanumberofcasestudiesordescriptionsofsupposedlysuccessfulpracticeatparticularpointsintimeinparticularschools.Inthisrespect,itisinterestingtonotetheobservationoftheauthorsofWhat works? Explorations in improving outcomes for Indigenous studentsthattheresultsofprogramshighlightedbyWhatWorksprovide‘agoldmineforpolicymakersandpractitionersalike’(McRaeetal.2000:1).However,amajorgapintheWhatWorksoverviewofprojectsisthatverylittleevidenceispresentedabouteitherspecificshort-termoutcomesortheeffectofprogramsinthelongterm.

Forinstance,inthecasestudyofoneschool,onlythreestatementsaremadeinrelationtoattendance:

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Table 5: Annual Operational Plan for Milingimbi Community Education Centre 2010

Key result area Student wellbeing and engagement—Attendance

Improvement goal(s) ToimprovestudentattendanceToidentifyandincreaseenrolmentsofpreschoolstudentsImproveandmaintainparticipationratesinNAPLAN

Improvement target(s)

Toincreaseoverallattendanceto75%:increase secondary retention to Year 12 by 60%increase attendance % of students in 60–80% bracketBaseline data: Early Childhood; Upper Primary; Middle Years; Senior Secondary

Strategies Tofullyimplementtheschool’spolicyandproceduresforimprovingattendance:

• support teachers in development of appropriate classroom management plans

• Advertise position and employ Senior Cultural Advisor

• Assist camps to develop attendance plans to get their children to school

• Provide regular visual graphs of camp attendance to attendance officers for distribution in their camps

• Use individual graphs to work with ‘problem cases’ through teacher and school attendance team

• Facilitatehomevisits

• ToaccesstheattendanceteaminDETtocreateresourcesandtrainingforattendance officers

• Followthroughwithreportingproceduresandengagewithexternalagenciesto assist attendance

• RevisittheRemoteLearningPartnershipAgreementeachtermwiththeDha-Djirripul group

• Implementschool’sNAPLANattendancestrategies

• Newsletters, photographs and posters

• Familymeetings

• Attendance team & Cultural Advisor—target good news stories

• Cultural programs are conducted within the school

• BBQs and parent meetings

• Investigate alternative curriculum for students with poor attendance

• Involve the School Council in attendance decisions & strategies

• Employ attendance officers for each camp area (5)

• Participation in sporting activities and excursions will be linked to 90–100% attendance of students

• Fortnightlyclassesincampareas—Familydays

• FamiliesasFirstTeachers—reading&educationaltoystobeusedincampsbythe school team, to encourage an interest in education by the parents of 0–4 year olds

Budget:

National Partnership Remote Whole School Reform (RWSR)—Student attendance and engagement• AttendanceOfficers 2009–10 $25,750 2010–11 $38,625

RWSR principals leading whole school reform• AO4SeniorCultural

Advisor 2009–10 $8,654 2010–11 $34,614

• Professional learning and adminset-upforAO4

2009–10 $8,000 2010–11 $4,000

Equity and base• Incentives for

attendance $10,000

• Meetings & BBQs $4,000

Professional learning requirements

Learningtogether—cultural understandingsConnected Classrooms Program (CCP)—Attendance continued from 2009

Strategy leader(s) Senior Cultural AdvisorManager-in-PartnershipHomeLiaisonOfficerAttendanceOfficersPrincipal

Monitoring Student Attendance Monitoring System (SAMS) attendance NAPLANattendanceNumber of students enrolled in Stage one and two (Senior Secondary)

Source: http://www.det.nt.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0015/12723/MilingimbiSchool.pdf

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‘Asresidentialstudentsandasteenagers,ourresidentialprogramsupportsconsistentattendanceandlearninghowtolearnwithinthiskindofenvironment.

StudentswhospeakEnglishasasecondlanguageandwhohaveconsistentattendancebackgroundsinschoolingareplacedinmainstreamESLprograms.

StudentswhospeakEnglishasasecondlanguageandwhodonothaveconsistentattendancebackgroundsinschoolingareplacedinanintensiveESLprogram.’

Anothercasestudyreportedthat‘Acompactwassignedbyparticipatingstudents,theirfamiliesandtheprojectsteeringcommittee.Thiscompactcommittedeachofthesignatoriestocarryoutagreedrequirements,includingregularattendanceatschool.’However,thereisnoinformationaboutwhethertheagreedrequirementswereupheld.

For more information see:<http://www.whatworks.edu.au/dbAction.do?cmd=homePage>

EvaluationWhatWorks:TheWorkProgramprovidesinformationaboutarangeofinitiativesbuttherearenocredibleevaluationsoftheseinitiatives.Inaddition,initiativesarenotnecessarilytransferabletootherschools;thereispossibledependenceonparticularstaffthatmaymove;andthefundingfortheinitiativemayhavebeenshortterm.

TheAustralianGovernmentDepartmentofEducation,ScienceandTraining(DEST)commissionedaformalevaluationoftheprogramin2007butthereisnopubliclyavailablereportoftheoutcomeofthisevaluation.

Dare to LeadDaretoLead(DTL)isaCommonwealth-fundednationalprojectwithafocusonimprovingeducationaloutcomesforIndigenousstudents.Theprojectbeganin2000whenrepresentativesofthefourpeakprincipal'sassociationsmetatanationalforumandagreedthatIndigenouseducationwouldbetheirhighestpriority.Eachmemberschoolisconnectedtoaclusterofothersinthesameregion.Theclustersofschools(ActionAreas)areledbyschoolprincipalswhoaresupportedbytheprojecttoplayanintegralroleinidentifyingtheprofessionaldevelopmentneedsoftheircolleagues.

Therearecurrently120ActionAreasacrossAustralia,with30–50schoolsineach.StatecoordinatorssupporttheworkoftheActionAreaintheirstate/territory.

For more information see:<http://www.daretolead.edu.au/>

EvaluationTheDTLprojectreportsontwospecificIndigenousstudentoutcomes—Year5literacyandYear12completion.Schoolsarealsoaskedtoreportonactivityinarangeofotherareasintheircasestudyreportsoftheirprojects.

TheDTLsitenotesthatalldataareaggregatedonanationalbasisandthatnoschool,systemorsectorisidentifiedoridentifiableinreportsbasedonanalysisofthatdata(DaretoLead2010).Althoughthisispresentedasastrengthofthereportingprocess,itprohibitsinvestigationofwhichinitiativeshaveworkedbestinparticularcontexts.

TheDTLwebsitereportsthattherewasanaverageimprovementofYear12completionsof8.59%acrossallDTLschools(aggregatedresultsfor2005–06)butit'snotpossibletointerpretthisasanoutcomeoftheDTLprogram.

DESTcommissionedaformalevaluationoftheDTLprogramin2007butthereisnopubliclyavailablereportoftheoutcomeofthisevaluation.

Whatworks?The nature of evidenceAkeyquestionforresearchersandpolicymakersseekingtoaddresstheIndigenousdisadvantageineducation(indeed,inanyareaofIndigenousdisadvantage,includinghealth,housing,andemployment)is:whatconstitutesreliableevidencetoevaluateprogramsandinitiativessothatgoodpolicyandactionscanbeformulatedtoeffectchange?

Evidencehierarchiesreflecttherelativeauthorityofvarioustypesofresearch.Althoughthereisnosingle,universallyacceptedhierarchyofevidence,thereisbroadagreementontherelativestrengthoftheprincipaltypesofresearch,particularlyinmedicalresearchthatevaluatestheefficacyoftreatments.

Onelimitationofanevidencehierarchyinthesocialsciencesisthatsomemethodologiesarebettersuitedtoansweringdifferenttypesofquestions.Inparticular,whilearandomisedtrialmaybeaneffectivewayoftestingtheimpactofaprogram,randomisationisoftennotpossible(especiallyineducation)orisontoosmallascaletoenablegeneralisationofresultsthatcanreliablyinformpolicydevelopmentorchange.

Leigh(2009)notedthatdespitelimitations,anevidencehierarchycanassistinclassifyingalargebodyofempirical

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evidence.HepresentsapossibleevidencehierarchyforAustralianpolicymakersinthesocialpolicyfield,includingeducation,health,incomesupport,andcrime(seeBox4).

Robustevidence-basedresearchwithaprominentIndigenouscomponentisparticularlycontentious.Theterm‘research’hasapoorreputationamongmanyIndigenouspeopleandcommunities,notleastbecausemuchofithasbeenconductedfromanetic(outsider)perspectiveratherthanfromanemic(insider)perspective.Regardlessofwhohasconductedtheresearchandwhatmethodologieshavebeenused,theappropriatenessofpolicyrecommendationsdrawnfromresearchmustadequatelyreflecttheexperiencesandworldviewsofIndigenouspeoplesandcommunities(Martin2003).

Types of research on attendance and retentionTherearedifferenttypesofresearchconcernedwithstudentschoolattendanceand/orretention.Onemajorresearchtypeisconcerneddirectlywithattendanceand/orretention.Itincludes:• identificationofthecurrentratesofattendanceandretentionacrossstatesandterritories—thisresearchdependsmostlyoneducationjurisdictionannualdatacollectionsandABScensusandspecificpopulationsurveydata

• identificationofthemaindriversoftrendsinattendanceandretentionacrossstatesandterritories

• evaluationofthequalityofprogramsthathavebeenimplementedtopromoteimprovedattendanceandretention.

Otherresearchindirectlyaddressesattendanceandretentionissues.Thistypeofresearchincludesthatwhichseekstoevaluateattemptstoclosethegapthrough,forexample,initiativestoimproveliteracyandnumeracyoutcomesandothereducationaloutcomes(forexamplescience);improveteacherquality;developculturallyrelevantcurricula;andsoforth.Also,researchmightevaluateprogramsthatuse‘hooks’toengageyoungIndigenouspeopleinschool(forexamplesport,thearts)orprogramsforspecificgroups(boys/girls,studentsinremotelocations).This‘indirect’researchusuallyidentifiesincreasedattendanceandretentionratesasonemeasureofsuccess.

Inaddition,thereisliteraturethatcannotbeclassifiedasresearchbutwhichisneverthelessconcernedwithstudentattendanceorretention.Someofthisliteraturedescribes‘programs’designedtopromoteattendanceorretention.However,oftenprogramdescriptionsarelimitedinthesensethatitwouldbedifficulttoreplicatethemelsewhere,andthereisnoclearevidenceabouttheimpactoftheprogramotherthanclaims,unsupportedbyevidence,thatattendanceorretention,orboth,haveimproved.

Otherliteraturepurportstosummarisewhatisknownaboutcausesofnon-attendance,truancy,absenteeism,failuretoremainatschoolor,conversely,inthepositive,whatisknownabouthowtoincreaseattendanceandretentionanddecreasetruancyandabsenteeism.Muchofthisliteraturerefersbacktootherreportsthat,inthemselves,aresummariesofideasandnotbasedinevidence.

TheliteraturepresentsseriouschallengeswhentryingtofindcredibleevidenceabouttheexactstateofIndigenousparticipationandengagementinschoolingandwhatworksintermsoftryingtoclosethegap.Thereisasubstantialbodyofliteraturethathashelpedtobuildourunderstandingoftheissues.Thisliteratureisbothnationalandinternational,Indigenousspecificandnon-Indigenousspecific.Someofitpurportstobeevidencebasedinthesensethatitisderivedfromofficialattendanceandretentionfigures,oritprovidesresultsofevaluationsofstrategiesandprogramsthatlinkimprovementsinattendanceandretentionwithimplementationofparticularinitiatives.

Muchoftheliterature,however,isclearlynotbasedonwhatwouldnormallybetakenascredibleevidence.Thisliteratureisbasedonopinion,rhetoric,orpolemicandissometimesclearlybiased.

Box 4: A possible evidence hierarchy for Australian policy makers (Leigh, 2009)

1.Systematicreviews(meta-analyses)ofmultiplerandomisedtrials

2.High-qualityrandomisedtrials3.Systematicreviews(meta-analyses)ofnaturalexperimentsandbefore–afterstudies

4.Naturalexperiments(quasi-experiments)usingtechniquessuchasdifferences-in-differences,regressiondiscontinuity,matching,ormultipleregression

5.Before–after(pre–post)studies6.Expertopinionandtheoreticalconjecture.

Allelseequal,studiesshouldalsobepreferrediftheyarepublishedinhigh-qualityjournals,iftheyuseAustraliandata,iftheyarepublishedmorerecently,andiftheyaremoresimilartothepolicyunderconsideration.

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Oneproblemwithmuchoftheevaluationliteratureisthatmanyprogramsaimedatimprovedattendanceandretentiondonotspecifytargetsorkeyoutcomes.Aimsandobjectivesaregenerallyofthetype‘toimprovelevels...’Thatis,theyaretoovaguetobeabletodeterminewhetherchangehasoccurred.Keyoutcomesarenotspecificandcannotbeusedtojudgetheeffectivenessofaprogramintermsofimprovement.TypicaloflackofoutcomespecificityisthatdescribedinoneSAprogram:‘The…ProgramhasinrecentyearsbeensuccessfulinhelpingahighnumberofIndigenousstudentscompletetheirSACE(30inthepast10years)’.MorecredibleevidencewouldhaveshownhowmanystudentsintheprogramcompletedtheSACEcomparedwiththenumbersofstudentswhocompletedtheSACEasaresultofotherinitiatives.Populationgrowthovera10-yearperiodmayhaveaccountedforincreasedcompletions.

AfurtherexampleofwhatconstitutesevidenceisfoundindiscrepantreportsabouttheeffectivenessoftheWAAboriginalLiteracyStrategy.Onereportprovidedthefollowinginformation:

‘TheAboriginalLiteracyStrategyinthefourremotedistrictsofKimberley,thePilbara,theMid-WestandGoldfieldsintroducesadailytwo-hoursessionofEnglishlanguageandliteracyforeverystudentwhoattendsschool.In2007,itoperatedin49remoteschoolsforthefirsttimecoveringallfourremotedistricts.Improved attendance was observed.’(italicsadded)(Hughes&Hughes2009:9).

However,anevaluationoftheAboriginalLiteracyStrategy(Purdieetal.2009)foundthat,basedonfiguresprovidedbytheWADepartmentofEducation,studentattendancedidnotchangesignificantlybetween2006and2008(6.3%and5%in2006and2008,respectively,above90%attendancewasreported).

Othercredibleliteraturerelatingtoexaminationsthatgobeyondseeminglystraightforwardevaluationorpresentationsofofficialfiguresisevenmoredifficulttofind.Forinstance,Indigenousparentalengagementinandsatisfactionwithschoolshasbeenlinkedtostudentattendanceandretention(Bourkeetal.2000).Sotoo,hasIndigenousstudentself-concept(Craven&Parente2003).Sporthasbeenfoundtobelinkedtotheformationofself-conceptforIndigenousstudents,whichinturnhasbeenfoundtobelinkedtotheirattendanceandretentionatschool(Kickett-Tucker1999).ButresearchthathasexaminedindetailtheinteractioneffectsofacombinationofsuchvariablesonIndigenousstudentengagementandparticipationispracticallynon-existent.OnereasonforthisisthatsuchresearchrequiresarelativelylargesamplesizeandthisisdifficulttoachieveintheAustraliancontext.Italsoisviewedbymanyasrequiringanapproachthathasengendered

suspicionamongstmanyIndigenouscommunitiesaboutthenatureofresearchthatpositionsitspeopleas‘objects’ratherthanasparticipantsintheprocess.

What does the evidence show?Inourexplorationoftheattendanceandretentionliterature,onefactwasoverwhelminglyevident—thereisverylittlehigh-qualityevaluationliterature.Muchisclaimedaboutwhatworks,butsupportingevidenceisthinontheground.Thismeansitisdifficulttobeclearaboutwhatdoesworkorwhatismerelysomeone’s‘goodidea’.

Theconsensusofbothnationalandinternationalresearchisclearlythatnon-attendanceandnon-completionofschoolcausesharm(Reid2008;Zubricketal.2006)anditisimportanttoimplementpolicyandpracticethatwillworktominimisethisharm.Mostharmistothenon-attendersthemselves,buttherecanalsobeanadverseeffectonteacherswhobecomedemoralised,attendingstudentswhoreceivelessattentionwhennon-attendeesre-entertheclassroomandrequireextrahelp,jurisdictionpersonnelwhofacetheincreasedcostsandtimerelatedtodealingwiththeconsequencesofnon-attendance,andfamiliesandcommunitieswhoarestigmatisedwhentheirchildrendonotattendschool.

DespitethelackofrobustevidenceasproposedinLeigh’s(2009)evidencehierarchy,thereappearstobeconsensusthatthereasonsfornon-attendanceandnon-completionofschoolarecomplexandcontextual;thatthereisnosimpleanswer;andthatrealchangeoccursovertime.SomeprogramsandstrategiesthathavebeenimplementedrecentlytakeaccountofthefullrangeoffactorsimplicatedintheparticipationandengagementofIndigenousstudentsinschool.Otherprogramsfocusonjustoneorasmallnumberofthefactors.

Althoughreasonsfornon-attendancearecomplexandcontextual,thenationalandinternationalliteraturecommonlycitesfourcontributingfactors:theindividual,thefamily,thecommunity,andtheschool.Thesefactorsareapplicabletothenon-attendanceofallstudents,Indigenousandnon-Indigenous,andaddresstheunderlyingcausesorantecedentsofstudentabsenteeism.Forinstance,studentsareunlikelytobeabletofullyparticipateandengageineducationiftheyfaceacomplexsetofcircumstancesthatresultindisadvantageacrossarangeoflifeexperiences.

TherehasbeencriticismthatmuchoftheearlyliteraturethataddressedissuesofIndigenouseducationalfailurefocussedonindividualandfamilyfactorsandwaslocatedwithindeficitdiscoursesofIndigenousstudents,theirfamilies,andIndigenouscultures(Burkeetal.2000;Herbertetal.1999).Inthelastdecade,therehasbeen

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greaterrecognitionthatschool-basedfactorsareofprimaryimportanceinrelationtothenon-attendanceofIndigenousstudents.

‘WhilemobilitywithintheIndigenouscommunityandstudenttransiencearewidelyrecognisedintheliteratureassignificant‘outofschool’factorsinfluencingabsenteeism,themostfrequentlyidentified‘school-based’factorsrelateto:inadequaciesinandinappropriatenessof,theschoolingprocessitself;inadequatepreandin-servicetrainingofteachersandtheirunpreparednessforteachinginacross-cultural,bilingualsituation;poorteacher/studentrelationships;teacherattitudes,expectationsandatendencytorelyondeficitexplanationsoflowlevelsofacademicachievementandasignificantlackofIndigenousparental/communityinvolvementintheschoolingprocess’(Burkeetal.2000:3).

Apositiveschoolenvironmentplaysasignificantpartindeterminingtheextenttowhichstudentsparticipateandengageinschooling(Osterman2000).Schoolsarecommunitiesanditisimportantthatstudentsperceivethemselvesasmembersofthislearningenvironment.Researchershaveemphasisedthelinkbetweenstudents’perceptionsofschoolandtheirmotivation,achievement,andbehaviour.Studentswhofeelconnectedwithschoolaremoremotivatedtoattendandengage.Thisenableslearningandacademicaccomplishmenttooccur.Burkeetal.(2000)suggestthatIndigenousstudentswillbemoreempoweredinrelationtotheirlearningandfeelmoreconnectedtotheirschoolcontextiftheyareinvolvedindecisionmakingwithintheschool.

Aparticularschool-basedissueofimportance,andonehighlightedbyBoulden(2006),isteacherquality.Goodteacher/studentrelationshipsarefundamentaltoapositivelearningexperienceandteachersmustbeawareofandrespecttheculturalheritageoftheirIndigenousstudents.CurriculummustalsoreflectavaluingofIndigenoushistoryandthecommunicativestylesthatareapartofIndigenouscultures.Nevertheless,thebestcurriculumtaughtbythemostcapableanddedicatedteacherswillhavenoeffectonstudentswhoarenotregularlyinclassroomstoparticipate.

‘Failuretoestablishmeaninginthecurriculumortobuildsatisfactoryteachingrelationshipsreducesthepossibilityofsuccessfullearning,whichisthemostimportantintrinsicmotiveforstayingonatschool’(Lambetal.2004:9).

TherecommendationsofBoulden(2006),andthoseofBourkeetal.(2000)abouthowtoimproveattendancearethemostextensivethatwecouldfindintheliterature.Althoughtheyarenotbasedonstrongempiricalevidence,oneoftheirmajorpremisesisimportant—thereisnoonestrategyorfactorthatcan

beconsideredasbeingthekeytohigherattendancerates.Rather,attendanceisacomplexissuerequiringparticularinputsfromtheindividual,thefamily,thecommunity,andtheschool.

Attendance and retention strategies

Bourke, Rigby & Burden (2000)• Provideprofessionaldevelopmenttrainingforstaff,raisingtheirawarenessofandsensitivitytothehistory,culture,contemporarylifestyleandenduringcharacteristicsoftheirIndigenousstudents.

• RecognisethefactthatStandardAustralianEnglishisnotthemothertongueofmostIndigenousstudents.

• RespectAboriginallanguages,andrecognisethevalidityof,andrespectfor,AboriginalEnglishandKriol(Creole),whichmanyIndigenousstudentsbringwiththemintotheclassroom.

• Recognisethebenefitsofanexplicitteaching/learningapproachandearlyinterventionstrategiestoensuretheadequateacquisitionofliteracyskillsintheearlyyearsofschooling.

• RecogniseIndigenouspatternsofdiscourse,minimisingmisunderstandingsbetweenteacherandstudentintheclassroom.

• Recognisetheimportanceoffocusingonthelearningneedsoftheindividualstudent,andtheuseofteachingstrategieswhichmatchtheseneeds,particularlyforthehearingimpaired.

• Recognisetheneedtovaluethestudents’culturalbackgroundandtheskillsandknowledgewhichtheybringwiththemintotheclassroom.

• Usecomputerswhichallowstudentstofeelincontroloftheirlearningsituationbyworkingattheirownpaceandlevel.

• Useawhole-schoolapproachbasedonacommitmenttoprovidingsuccessfullearningexperiencesandoutcomesforallstudents.

• InvolveIndigenousteachingpersonnel,parentsandcommunitymembersinallaspectsoftheschoolingprocessfrominitialplanning,toimplementationanddeliveryofprograms,todevelopIndigenousownershipofeducationalprograms.

• Provideasafe,secureschoolenvironment,characterisedbygoodteacher/studentrelationships,whichisfreefromracismandwelcomingtoIndigenousstudents(particularlyinearlychildhoodyears),andtoparentsandcommunitymembers.

• Empowerstudentsbyallowingthemtobeinvolvedinmakingrealdecisionswithrespecttothelearningprocessthroughplanningofthelearningcontextincollaborationwithteachingstaff.

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• Engageincollaborativeplanningandchoiceofappropriateteachingmaterialwhichhelpstoensurethatlearningactivitiesarerelevanttostudents’experiencesandtotheircurrentneedsandinterests,providingmeaningandpurposetowhattheyarelearning.

Boulden (2006)• Takeawhole-schoolapproachthatinvolvesallstudents,allteachers,parents,andancillarystaff,andenliststhesupportoflocalbusinessandcommunityservices.

• Developanduseappropriateservice-levelagreements.• Implementappropriateearlyinterventionschemes.• Implementstraightforward,plainlanguage,behaviourmanagementpoliciesthatareappliedconsistentlytoaddressbullying,harassmentandpeerpressures.

• Computeriseroll-markingseveraltimesinthecourseofaday(eachlessoninsecondaryschool)sothatpatternsandpossiblecausesofabsenteeismcanbequicklyidentified.

• Haveanintensivefocusonliteracyandnumeracyproblemssothatpoorattendeescanmakeprogress.

• Organiseextra-curricularactivitiesthatappealtoandengagestudentsatriskofabsenteeism.

• Providelearningoptionsforsuspendedstudents,tofacilitatereintegrationpost-suspension.

• Improvingteachers’skillsviaprofessionaldevelopment.

• Encouragediversityandflexibilityinpedagogyandcurriculum.

• Usedatacaptureandmanagementwhichdistinguishesbetweenauthorisedandunauthorisedabsencesandprovidescategoriesofauthorisedandunauthorisedabsencetoenablepatternsandissuestobeidentified.

• Targetpupilswhoseattendancefallsbelowacertainlevel.

• Provideeffectiveteachingandlearningenvironmentscharacterisedby:– respectfulwaysofrelatingtostudents– smallerclassandgroupsizes– subjectmatterthatisconnectedtopersonalinterestsandaspirations.

Itisimportantthatbothgovernmentandnon-governmentagenciestakeaccountofsuchstrategies,aswellasthegeneralstudent,school,familyandcommunitycausesofnon-attendanceoutlinedinBox1,andbuildthemintospecificplansforaction.Goodactionplansalsowillclearlyidentifytheoutcomesthatwilldemonstrateachievementoftargets.TheSADECSAboriginalStrategyoutlinedinTable4isanexampleofadetailedstrategicplanthataddressesthefullrange

offactorsassociatedwithsuccessfulengagementwithschool.Tocompletethecycle,suchplansmustbepartofaniterativeevaluationprocesstoassessprogresstowardstargetsandtoadjustactionswhentargetsarenotbeingmet.

ItisunfortunatethattheliteraturecannotprovideclearerguidanceaboutwhatworksinpromotingbetterattendanceandretentionforIndigenousAustralianstudents.Thisisnottosaythatsomeinitiativesthatarecurrentlyinplacearenotworking.Intheabsenceofrigorousevaluationliterature,thestrategiesthatBourkeetal.(2000)andBoulden(2006)suggestedprovideasoundstartingpoint.Theyareinaccordwithwhateducationalresearchdoestellusabouthighlyeffectivepracticesforcontinuousimprovementinlearningforallstudents.Continuousimprovementinstudentperformancedependsontheimplementationofhighlyeffectiveteachingpractices,supportedanddrivenbyalignedschoolandsystempoliciesandpractices(Barber&Mourshed2007;Hattie2003).Theprincipalantecedentsofstudentprogressthatmustbepromotedbyteachers,schools,andsystemsarehighexpectations,deepknowledge,targetedteaching,andcontinuousmonitoring(Masters2009).

ImplicationsforpolicyandresearchPolicy implicationsBehrendtandMcCausland(2008)advocateanevidence-basedapproachtoincreasingthenumbersofIndigenouschildrenattendingandremainingatschool.Theyencouragetheuseofstrategiesthathavebeenshowntowork,ratherthanresourcingstrategieswherethereisnoevidencetoshowthattheywork.Thisiscrucialadvice.However,theevidenceaboutattendanceandretentionstrategiesthatworkforIndigenousstudentsisnotstrong.

Acommonfeatureofsuccessfuleducationalprogramsisthatofacreativecollaboration,which‘intentionallybuildsbridgesbetweenpublicagenciesandthecommunity,oftenbyengagingparentsorcommunity-basedorganisations’(Behrendt&McCausland2008:10).Thus,interagencypartnershipsthatgobeyondtheeducationalarenashouldbeencouraged.

Forinstance,afocusonallaspectsofearlychildhoodisessentialforthefutureengagementofIndigenouschildrenineducation(Boulden,2006).Thismeansthatthefullsetofdevelopmentalneedsofchildrenin

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earlychildhoodmustbemetinordertoencouragethegreatestchancefortheireducationalgrowth.Thus,healthandhousingfactorsareofprimaryimportance.So,too,isparentaleducation.

Thereisampleanecdotalandqualitativecommentthatthingsaremovinginpositivedirections.Suchpositiveviewsshouldbeexploitedandpromotedamongteachers,theirstudents,students’familiesandcommunities,andeducationpolicymakerstomaintaintheimpetusthathasresultedinfocusedeffortstoaddressattendanceandretentiongaps.Mostimportantly,educationpractitionersandpolicymakersneedtobewellversedintheimportanceofculturalfactorsinschooling.TheymustcontinuetodeveloppolicyandprogramsthattakeaccountofIndigenousculturesandhistory,andtheymustdevelopexpandedunderstandingsofwhatitmeanstoparticipateandengageineducation.

Theissueofnon-enrolmentmustalsoberecognisedasjustasimportantanissueasnon-attendance.FaHCSIA(2009)estimatesthat20,000childrenofcompulsoryschoolagearenotenrolledinschool.ManyofthesechildrenarethoughttobeIndigenousstudentsandeffortstoidentifythesechildrenandworkwiththeirfamiliesandcommunitiestosupportthemtoengagewithschoolingmustbeearnestandongoing.

Improving the evidence baseAlthoughitisimportanttocontinuesmall,contextualisedinvestigationsofparticipationandengagementissues,morelarge-scaleresearchiscalledfor.Unlessthisoccurs,advancementwillbelimitedbecausesoundpolicyandgeneralisedpracticecannotbeextrapolatedfromfindingsthatarebasedonsmallsamplesdrawnfromdiversecommunities.Thenagain,therearegoodreasonsforthelackoflarge-scaleresearch.Itisexpensiveandtimeconsuming,thereisresistancebornofahistoricallyhostileandimposedculture,andtherearequalitylimitationsinevaluationmethodsused.Governmentfundingandsupportisrequiredinorderforthenecessaryevaluationresearchtobeundertaken.

Anynewprogramsorstrategiesforimprovementshouldbuildinmonitoringandevaluationcomponents.Thisincludesguidelinesforresearcherstoevaluatethemeritoftheinitiatives.Evaluationsshouldusemixedmethodsandcombinequalitativeandquantitativeapproachesforassessment.Thisresearchshouldalsobelongitudinalsothatitispossibletotrackprogressandconfirmthatprogramsaresustainingpositiveoutcomes.Programs

shouldbetestedfortheirtransferabilitytodifferentcontexts.ResearchconductedwithinthisframeworkwillnotonlybenefitIndigenousstudentsbutallstudentsacrossthenation.

Inadditiontoconductingnewresearchwithinthisframework,datacollectionproceduresthatarecurrentlyinplacemustbeimproved.TheMCEECDYAannualNational Report on Schooling in Australiadoesnotdisaggregateattendancedatabyremotenessareaanddoesnotlistanysourceofsuchdisaggregateddatainthestatisticalannex.ThisisaweaknessindatacollectionastheCouncilofAustralianGovernments’NationalIndigenousReformAgreementhasidentifiedgeo-locationalschoolattendanceratesasoneoftheperformanceindicatorstoassessprogresstowardstheClosingtheGaptargettohalvethegapforIndigenousstudentsinYear12attainmentorequivalentattainmentratesby2020.

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AbbreviationsABS AustralianBureauofStatistics

ACER AustralianCouncilforEducationalResearch

AEES AboriginalEducationandEmploymentServices

AFL AustralianFootballLeague

AIEF AustralianIndigenousEducationFoundation

AIHW AustralianInstituteofHealthandWelfare

AO4 NorthernTerritorygovernmentpayscalelevel

BBQs Barbeques

Census CensusofPopulationandHousing

DECS DepartmentofEducationandChildren’sServices(SouthAustralian)

DEST AustralianGovernmentDepartmentofEducation,ScienceandTraining

DET DepartmentofEducationandTraining

DTL DaretoLead

ESL Englishasasecondlanguage

FaHCSIA DepartmentofFamilies,Housing,CommunityServicesandIndigenousAffairs

FTD: PFS FollowtheDream:PartnershipsforSuccessProgram

HEP HigherExpectationsProgram

MCEECDYA MinisterialCouncilforEducation,EarlyChildhoodDevelopmentandYouthAffairs

TheMinisterialCouncilforEducation,EarlyChildhoodDevelopmentandYouthAffairs(MCEECDYA)wasestablishedon1July2009followingagreementoftheCouncilofAustralianGovernments(COAG)toarealignmentoftherolesandresponsibilitiesoftwopreviouslyexistingcouncils—theMinisterialCouncilonEducation,Employment,TrainingandYouthAffairs(MCEETYA)andtheMinisterialCouncilforVocationalandTechnicalEducation(MCVTE).

MCEETYA MinisterialCouncilonEducation,Employment,TrainingandYouthAffairs

NAPLAN NationalAssessmentProgram—LiteracyandNumeracy

NSSC NationalSchoolsStatisticsCollection

NSW NewSouthWales

NT NorthernTerritory

Qld Queensland

RWSR RemoteWholeSchoolReform

SA SouthAustralia

SACE SouthAustralianCertificateofEducation

SCRGSP SteeringCommitteefortheReviewofGovernmentServiceProvision

SEAM TheImprovingSchoolEnrolmentandAttendancethroughWelfareReformMeasure

SWL StructuredWorkplaceandLearning

Tas Tasmania

TER TertiaryEntranceRank

VET VocationalEducationandTraining

WA WesternAustralia

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TerminologyIndigenous:TheClosingtheGapClearinghouseusestheterm‘IndigenousAustralians’torefertoAustralia’sfirstpeople.Thistermrefersto‘AboriginalAustralians’and‘TorresStraitIslanderpeoples’.

Participationandengagement:Thereareanumberoftermsthatarerelevanttothisissuespaper,includingattendance(non-attendance),absenteeism,truancy,andretention.Thesetermsareallindicatorsofstudentparticipationandengagementinschooling.Intheeducationliterature,theconceptsof‘participation’and‘engagement’havemultipledimensionsthatgobeyondthephysicalpresenceofastudentatschool(asmeasured,forexample,byenrolments,attendanceandthecompletionofacademicobjectives).Thesetermsmayalsoencompassparticipationinnon-academicschool-relatedactivities,amountoftimespentonhomework,rateofhomeworkcompletion,andaffectivecomponents,suchaspsychologicalattachmentorconnectedness,motivationtolearn,andself-esteem.

Initiativesandprograms:Thesetermsareusedinterchangeablydependingonthesourceuseoftheterm.Ingeneral,bothtermsapplytoaplannedsequenceandcombinationofactivitiesdesignedtoachievespecifiedgoals,although‘program’impliesamoresystematicapproachthan‘initiative’.

AcknowledgmentsDrNolaPurdieisaPrincipalResearchFellowandCoordinatorofIndigenousEducationResearchattheAustralianCouncilforEducationalResearch(ACER).SheisamemberoftheScientificReferenceGroupfortheClosingtheGapClearinghouse,whichisoperatedasapartnershipbetweentheAustralianInstituteofHealthandWelfare(AIHW)andtheAustralianInstituteofFamilyStudies(AIFS).

DrSarahBuckleyisaResearchOfficeratACER.

ThecontributionsofmembersoftheClosingtheGapClearinghouseBoardandtheScientificReferenceGroup,aswellastheClosingtheGapClearinghouseTeamaregratefullyacknowledged.

Catno.IHW33ISBN978-1-74249-060-1

Closing the gap clearinghouse - ACER

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