Cleopatra Wikipedia

8/15/2019 Cleopatra Wikipedia

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Cleopatra

For other uses, see Cleopatra (disambiguation).

Cleopatra VII Philopator (Greek: Κλεοπάτρα Φιλο-πάτωρ; 69[1] – August 12, 30 BC[2]), known to his-tory simply as Cleopatra , was the last active pharaoh ofPtolemaic Egypt, shortly survived as pharaoh by her sonCaesarion. After her reign, Egypt became a province ofthe then-recently established Roman Empire.Cleopatra was a member of thePtolemaic dynasty,afam-

ily of Macedonian Greek[3]

origin that ruled Egypt afterAlexander the Great's deathduring theHellenistic period.The Ptolemies, throughout their dynasty, spoke Greek[4]and refused to speak Egyptian, which is the reason thatGreek as well as Egyptian languages were used on officialcourt documentssuchas theRosettaStone.[5]By contrast,Cleopatra did learn to speak Egyptian[6] and representedherself as the reincarnation of an Egyptian goddess, Isis.Cleopatraoriginally ruled jointlywithher father,PtolemyXIIAuletes, andlater with herbrothers,PtolemyXIIIandPtolemyXIV, whom she married as perEgyptian custom,buteventually she becamesole ruler. Aspharaohshe con-

summated a liaison with Julius Caesar that solidied hergrip on the throne. Shelater elevatedhersonwith Caesar,Caesarion, to co-ruler in name.After Caesar’s assassination in 44 BC, she aligned withMark Antony in opposition to Caesar’s legal heir, GaiusJulius Caesar Octavianus (later known as Augustus).With Antony, she bore the twins Cleopatra Selene II andAlexander Helios, and another son,PtolemyPhiladelphus(her unions with her brothers had produced no children).After losing the Battle of Actium to Octavian’s forces,Antony committed suicide. Cleopatra followed suit. Ac-cording to tradition, she killed herself by means of an aspbite on August 12, 30 BC.[7] She was outlived by Cae-sarion, who was declared pharaoh by his supporters, butsoon killed on Octavian’s orders. Egypt then became theRoman province of Aegyptus .To this day, Cleopatra remains a source of perpetual fas-cination in Western culture. Her legacy survives in nu-merous works of art and many dramatizations of inci-dents from her life in literature and other media, includ-ing William Shakespeare's tragedy Antony and Cleopa-tra , George Bernard Shaw's play Caesar and Cleopatra ,Jules Massenet's opera Cléopâtre and the lms Cleopatra(1934) and Cleopatra (1963).

1 Etymology of the name

The name Cleopatra is derived from the Greek nameGreek: Κλεοπάτρα (Kleopatra) which meant “she whocomes from glorious father” or “glory of the father” inthe feminine form, derived from Greek: κλέος (kleos)“glory” combined with Greek: πατήρ (pater) “father”(the masculine form would be written either as Kleopa-tros(Greek: Κλεόπατρος), orPatroklos (Greek: Πάτρο-κλος)).[8][9]

2 Biography

2.1 Accession to the throne

Ptolemaic Queen (Cleopatra VII?), 50-30 B.C., 71.12, BrooklynMuseum

The identity of Cleopatra’s mother is unknown, but sheis generally believed to be Cleopatra V Tryphaena ofEgypt, the sister or cousin and wife of Ptolemy XIIAuletes, or possibly another Ptolemaic family mem-ber who was the daughter of Ptolemy X and CleopatraBerenice III Philopator if Cleopatra V was not the daugh-

1

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2 2 BIOGRAPHY

ter of Ptolemy X and Berenice III.[10] Cleopatra’s fatherAuletes was a direct descendant of Alexander the Great'sgeneral, Ptolemy I Soter, son of Arsinoe and Lagus, bothof Macedon.Centralization of power and corruption led to uprisings in

and the losses of Cyprus and Cyrenaica, making PtolemyXII’s reign one of the most calamitous of the dynasty.When Ptolemy went to Rome with Cleopatra, CleopatraVI Tryphaena seized the crown but died shortly after-wards in suspicious circumstances. It is believed, thoughnot proven by historical sources, that Berenice IV poi-soned her so she could assume sole rulership. Regardlessof the cause, she ruled until Ptolemy Auletes returned in55 BC, with Roman support, capturing Alexandria aidedby Roman general Aulus Gabinius. Berenice was impris-oned and executed shortly afterwards, her head allegedlybeing sent to the royal court on the decree of her father,the king. Cleopatra now, at age 14, became joint regentand deputy to her father, although her power would havebeen severely limited.PtolemyXIIdied inMarch 51BC. His willmade18-year-old Cleopatra and her brother, 10-year-old Ptolemy XIII,joint monarchs. The rst three years of their reign weredifficult due to economic failures, famine, decient oodsof the Nile, and political conicts. Although Cleopatrawas married to her young brother, she quickly made itclear that she had no intention of sharing power with him.In August 51 BC, relations between Cleopatra andPtolemy completely broke down. Cleopatra droppedPtolemy’s name from official documents and her facealone appeared on coins, which went against Ptolemaictradition of female rulers being subordinate to male co-rulers. In 50 BC Cleopatra came into serious conictwith the Gabiniani, powerful Roman troops of AulusGabinius who had left them in Egypt to protect PtolemyXII after his restoration to the throne in 55 BC. TheGabiniani killed the sons of the Roman governor ofSyria, MarcusCalpurnius Bibulus, when they cameto askfor their assistance for their father against the Parthians.Cleopatra handed the murderers over in chains to Bibu-lus, whereupon the Gabiniani became bitter enemies ofthe queen.[11] This conict was one of the main causesof Cleopatra’s fall from power shortly afterward. Thesole reign of Cleopatra was nally ended by a cabal ofcourtiers, led by the eunuch Pothinus, in connection witha half-Greek general, Achillas, and Theodotus of Chios.Circa 48 BC, Cleopatra’s younger brother Ptolemy XIIIbecame sole ruler.[12]

Cleopatra tried to raise a rebellion around Pelusium, butwas soon forced to ee with her only remaining sister,Arsinoë.[13]

2.2 Relations with Rome

2.2.1 Assassination of Pompey

While Cleopatra was in exile, Pompeybecame embroiledin the Roman civil war. After his defeat at the Battle ofPharsalus, in the autumn of 48 BC, Pompey ed fromthe forces of Caesar to Alexandria, seeking sanctuary.Ptolemy, thirteen years old at that time, had set up athrone for himself on the harbor. From there he watchedas on September 28, 48 BC, Pompey was murdered byone of his former officers, now in Ptolemaic service. Hewas beheaded in front of his wife and children, who wereon theship fromwhichhe had just disembarked. Ptolemyis thought to have ordered the death to ingratiate himselfwith Caesar, thus becoming an ally of Rome, to whichEgypt was in debt at the time. This act proved a mis-calculation on Ptolemy’s part. When Caesar arrived inEgypt two days later, Ptolemy presented him with Pom-pey’s severed head; Caesar was enraged. Although he

was Caesar’s political enemy, Pompey was a Roman con-sul and the widower of Caesar’s only legitimate daughter,Julia, who died in childbirth. Caesar seized the Egyptiancapital and imposed himself as arbiter between the rivalclaims of Ptolemy and Cleopatra.

2.2.2 Relationship with Julius Caesar

Cleopatra and Caesar (1866). Painting by Jean-Léon Gérôme

Eager to take advantage of Julius Caesar's anger towardPtolemy, Cleopatra had herself secretly smuggled intohis palace to meet with Caesar. Plutarch, in his Life

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallel_Liveshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarchhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Caesarhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-L%C3%A9on_G%C3%A9r%C3%B4mehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleopatra_and_Caesar_(painting)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julia_(daughter_of_Julius_Caesar)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Widowerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Roman_consulshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Roman_consulshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandriahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Pharsalushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Pharsalushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caesar%2527s_Civil_Warhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pompeyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arsinoe_IVhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pelusiumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodotus_of_Chioshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achillashttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pothinushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eunuchhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Calpurnius_Bibulushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabinianihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nilehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy_XIIIhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy_XIIhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aulus_Gabiniushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berenice_IVhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleopatra_VI_Tryphaenahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleopatra_VI_Tryphaenahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrenaicahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyprushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_corruptionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centralization_of_powerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arsinoe_of_Macedonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy_I_Soterhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_the_Great


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2.2 Relations with Rome 3

of Julius Caesar [14] gives a vivid description of how sheentered past Ptolemy’s guards rolled up in a carpet thatApollodorus the Sicilian was carrying.[15] She becameCaesar’s mistress and nine months after their rst meet-ing, in 47 BC, Cleopatra gave birth to their son, PtolemyCaesar, nicknamed Caesarion, which means “little Cae-sar.”At this point, Caesar abandoned hisplans to annex Egypt,instead backing Cleopatra’s claim to the throne. AfterMithridates raised the siege of Alexandria, Caesar de-feated Ptolemy’s army at the Battle of the Nile; PtolemyXIII drowned in the Nile[16][17] and Caesar restoredCleopatra to her throne, with another younger brotherPtolemy XIV as her new co-ruler.[18][19][20]When Cae-sar left Egypt he stationed a Roman occupying army ofthree legions there under the command of Ruo.[21]

Cleopatra VII and her son Caesarion at the Temple of Dendera

Although Cleopatra was 21 years old when they met andCaesar was 52, they became lovers during Caesar’s stayin Egypt between 48 BC and 47 BC. Cleopatra claimedCaesar was the father of her son and wished him to namethe boy his heir, but Caesar refused, choosing his grand-nephew Octavian instead. During this relationship, it wasalso rumored that Cleopatra introduced Caesar to her as-tronomerSosigenes of Alexandria, who proposed the ideaof leap days and leap years. This was not new - theywere proclaimed in 238 BC but the reform never tookeffect. Caesar made this the basis of his reform of theRoman calendar in 45 BC and the Egyptian calendar wasreformed along these lines in 26 BC.

Cleopatra, Ptolemy XIV and Caesarion visited Rome inthe summer of 46 BC. The Egyptian queen resided inone of Caesar’s country houses, which included the Horti

Caesaris just outside Rome (as a foreign head of stateshe was not allowed inside Rome’s pomerium)[22][23]Therelationship between Cleopatra and Caesar was obviousto the Roman people and caused a scandal because theRoman dictator was already married to Calpurnia Piso-nis. But Caesar even erected a golden statue of Cleopa-tra represented as Isis in the temple of Venus Genetrix(the mythical ancestress of Caesar’s family), which wassituated at the Forum Julium.[24][25] The Roman oratorCicero said in his preserved letters that he hated the for-eign queen.[23] Cleopatra and her entourage were still inRome when Caesar was assassinated on 15 March 44BC., [26] returning with her relatives to Egypt. WhenPtolemy XIV died – allegedly poisoned by his older sister– Cleopatra made Caesarion her co-regent and successorand gave him the epithets Theos Philopator Philometor (=Father- and mother-loving God ).[27][28][29]

2.2.3 Cleopatra in the Roman Civil War

In theRoman civilwar between theCaesarian faction, ledby Mark Antony and Octavian, and the faction includingthe assassins of Caesar, led by Marcus Junius Brutus andGaius Cassius Longinus, Cleopatra sided with the Cae-sarian party because of her past. Brutus and Cassius leftItaly and sailed to the east of the Roman Empire, wherethey conquered large areas andestablishedmilitary bases.At the beginning of 43 BC, Cleopatra formed an alliancewith the leader of the Caesarian party in the east, PubliusCornelius Dolabella, who also recognized Caesarion as

her co-ruler.[30][31]

But soon, Dolabella was encircled inLaodicea and committed suicide (July 43 BC).Cassius wanted to invade Egypt to seize the treasures ofthat country and for her support for Dolabella. Egyptseemed an easy target because it did not have strong landforces and there was famine and an epidemic. Cassiusalsowanted to preventCleopatra from bringing reinforce-ments for Antony and Octavian. But he could not executean invasion of Egypt because Brutussummonedhimbackto Smyrna at the end of 43 BC. Cassius tried to blockadeCleopatra’s route to the Caesarians. For this purpose Lu-cius Staius Murcus moved with 60 ships and a legion of

elite troops into position at Cape Matapan in the southof the Peloponnese. Nevertheless, Cleopatra sailed withher eet from Alexandria to the west along the Libyancoast to join the Caesarian leaders, but she was forced toreturn to Egypt because her ships were damaged by a vi-olent storm, andshe becameill. Staius Murcus learned ofthe queen’s misfortune and saw wreckage from her shipson the coast of Greece. He then sailed with his ships intothe Adriatic Sea.[32]

2.2.4 Cleopatra and Mark Antony

In 41 BC, Mark Antony, one of the triumvirs who ruledRome in thepower vacuumfollowingCaesar’s death, senthis intimate friend Quintus Dellius to Egypt to summon

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Antony and Cleopatra , by Lawrence Alma-Tadema

Denarius , 32 BC. Obverse: Diademed bust of Cleopatra,CLEOPATRA[E REGINAE REGVM]FILIORVM REGVM. Re-verse: Bust of M. Antony, ANTONI ARMENIA DEVICTA

Cleopatra to Tarsus to meet Antony and answer questionsabout her loyalty. During the Roman civil war she al-legedly had paid much money to Cassius. It seems that inreality Antony wanted Cleopatra’s promise to support hisintended war against the Parthians. Cleopatra arrived ingreat state, andso charmed Antony that he chose to spendthe winter of 41 BC–40 BC with her in Alexandria.[33]

To safeguard herself and Caesarion, she had Antony or-der the death of her sister Arsinoe, who had been ban-ished to the Temple of Artemis in Roman-controlledEphesus for her role in leading the Siege of Alexandria.The execution was carried out in 41 BC on the steps of

the temple, and this violation of temple sanctuary scan-dalised Rome.[34] Cleopatra also retrieved her strategosof Cyprus, Serapion, who had supported Cassius againsther wishes.[35]

On 25 December 40 BC, Cleopatra gave birth to twinsfathered by Antony, Alexander Helios and Cleopatra Se-lene II. Four years later, Antony visited Alexandria againen route to make war with the Parthians. He renewedhis relationship with Cleopatra, and from this point on,Alexandria was his home. He married Cleopatra accord-ing to the Egyptian rite (a letter quoted in Suetonius sug-gests this), althoughhe was at the time married toOctavia

Minor, sister of his fellow triumvir Octavian. He andCleopatra had another child, Ptolemy Philadelphus.At the Donations of Alexandria in late 34 BC, follow-

A tetradrachm of Cleopatra VII, Syria mint

ing Antony’s conquest of Armenia, Cleopatra and Cae-sarion were crowned co-rulers of Egypt and Cyprus;Alexander Helios was crowned ruler of Armenia, Media,and Parthia; Cleopatra Selene II was crowned ruler ofCyrenaica and Libya; and Ptolemy Philadelphus wascrowned ruler of Phoenicia, Syria, and Cilicia. Cleopa-tra was also given the title of “Queen of Kings” byAntonius.[36] Her enemies in Rome feared that Cleopa-tra, "...was planning a war of revenge that was to array allthe East against Rome, establish herself as empress of theworldat Rome, cast justice fromCapitolium, and inaugu-rate a new universal kingdom.”[37]Caesarionwas not onlyelevated having coregency with Cleopatra, but also pro-claimed with many titles, including god, son of god andking of kings, and was depicted as Horus.[38] Egyptiansthought Cleopatra was a reincarnation of thegoddessIsis,as she called herself Nea Isis .[39]

Relations between Antony and Octavian, disintegratingfor several years, nally broke down in 33 BC, and Octa-vian convinced the Senate to levy war against Egypt. In31 BC Antony’s forces faced the Romans in a naval actionoffthecoastofActium. Cleopatra was present with a eetof her own. According to Plutarch, Cleopatra took ightwith her ships at the height of the battle and Antony fol-lowed her.[40] Following the Battle of Actium, Octavianinvaded Egypt. As he approached Alexandria, Antony’sarmies deserted to Octavian on August 1, 30 BC.There are a number of unveriable stories about Cleopa-tra, of which one of the best known is that, at one of thelavish dinners she shared with Antony, she playfully bethim that she could spend ten million sestertii on a din-ner. He accepted the bet. The next night, she had a con-ventional, unspectacular meal served; he was ridiculing

this, when she ordered the second course — only a cupof strong vinegar. She then removed one of her pricelesspearl earrings, dropped it into the vinegar, allowed it to

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2.3 Death 5

dissolve, and drank the mixture. The earliest report ofthis story comes from Pliny the Elder and dates to about100 years after the banquet described would have hap-pened. The calcium carbonate in pearls does dissolve invinegar, but slowly unless the pearl is rst crushed.[41]

2.3 Death

The Death of Cleopatra by Guido Cagnacci , 1658

The ancient sources, particularly the Roman ones, are ingeneral agreement that Cleopatra killed herself by induc-ing an Egyptian cobra to bite her. The oldest source isStrabo, who was alive at the time of the event, and mighteven have been in Alexandria. He says that there aretwo stories: that she applied a toxic ointment, or thatshe was bitten by an asp on her breast, but he said inhis writings that he was not sure if Cleopatra poisonedherself or was murdered.[42] Several Roman poets, writ-ing within ten years of the event, all mention bites by twoasps,[43][44][45]as doesFlorus, a historian, some 150yearslater.[46]Velleius, sixtyyears after the event, also refers toan asp.[47][48]Other authors have questioned these histor-ical accounts, stating that it is possible that Augustus hadher killed.[49] In 2010, the German historian ChristophSchaefer challenged all other theories, declaring that thequeen had actually been poisoned and died from drinkinga mixture of poisons. After studying historical texts andconsulting with toxicologists, thehistorian concluded thattheasp could nothave caused a quick andpain-freedeath,since the asp (Egyptian cobra) venom paralyses parts ofthe body, starting with the eyes, before causing death. AsCleopatra would have wanted a relatively painless death,it is quite unlikely that the asp was the cause of her death.Also, the asp’s bite is not always fatal. Schaefer and histoxicologist DietrichMebs decided Cleopatraused a mix-ture of hemlock, wolfsbane and opium.[50]

Plutarch, writing about 130 years after the event, re-ports that Octavian succeeded in capturing Cleopatrain her mausoleum after the death of Antony. He or-

The Death of Cleopatra by Reginald Arthur, 1892

dered his freedman Epaphroditus to guard her to pre-vent her from committing suicide, because he allegedlywanted to present her in his triumph. But Cleopa-tra was able to deceive Epaphroditus and kill herselfnevertheless.[51] Plutarch states that she was found dead,her handmaiden Iras dying at her feet, and another hand-maiden, Charmion, adjusting her crown before she her-self fell.[52] He then goes on to state that an asp was con-cealed in a basket of gs that was brought to her by arustic, and, nding it after eating a few gs, she held outher arm for it to bite. Other stories state that itwas hiddenin a vase, and that she poked it with a spindle until it gotangry enough to bite her on the arm. Finally, he indicatesthat in Octavian’s triumphal march back in Rome, an ef-gy of Cleopatra that had an asp clinging to it was part of

the parade.[53]

Suetonius, writing about the same time as Plutarch, alsosays Cleopatra died from an asp bite.[54]

Although classical sources say that Cleopatra was bit-ten on the arm,[55][56][57]she is more usually depicted inmedieval and Renaissance iconography with asps at herbreast, a tradition followed by Shakespeare.[58]

Ang kamatayan ni Cleopatra (The Death of Cleopatra) by JuanLuna , 1881.

Plutarch tells us of the death of Antony. When his armiesdeserted him and joined with Octavian, he cried out thatCleopatra had betrayed him. She, fearing his wrath,

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6 4 ANCESTRY

Cleopatra is depicted taking her own life with the bite of a ven-omous serpent. Adam Lenckhardt (Ivory). [59] The Walters Art Museum.

locked herself in her monument with only her two hand-maidens and sent messengers to tell Antony that she wasdead. Believing them, Antony stabbed himself in thestomach with his sword, and lay on his couch to die. In-stead, the blood ow stopped, and he begged any and allto nish him off. Another messenger came from Cleopa-tra with instructions to bring him to her, and he, rejoicingthat Cleopatra was still alive, consented. She would notopen the door, but tossed ropes out of a window. AfterAntony was securely trussed up, she andher handmaidenshauled him up into the monument. This nearly nished

him off. After dragging him in through the window, theylaid him on a couch. Cleopatra tore off her clothes andcovered him with them. She raved and cried, beat herbreasts and engaged in self-mutilation. Antony told herto calm down, asked for a glass of wine, and died uponnishing it.[60]

The site of their mausoleum is uncertain, though theEgyptian Antiquities Service believes it is in or near thetemple of Taposiris Magna, southwest of Alexandria.[61]

Cleopatra’s son by Caesar, Caesarion, was proclaimedpharaoh by the Egyptians, after Alexandria fell to Octa-vian. Caesarion was captured and killed, his fate report-

edly sealed when one of Octavian’s advisers paraphrasedHomer: “It is bad to have too many Caesars.”[62] Thisended not just the Hellenistic line of Egyptian pharaohs,

but the line of all Egyptian pharaohs. The three childrenof Cleopatra and Antony were spared and taken back toRome where they were taken care of by Antony’s wife,Octavia Minor. The daughter, Cleopatra Selene, wasmarried through arrangements of Octavian to Juba II ofMauretania.[63]

3 Character and cultural depic-tions

Main article: Cultural depictions of Cleopatra

Cleopatra was regarded as a great beauty, even in the an-cient world. In his Life of Antony , Plutarch remarks that“judging by the proofs which she had had before this ofthe effect of her beauty upon Caius Caesar and Gnaeusthe son of Pompey, she had hopes that she would moreeasily bring Antony to her feet. For Caesar and Pom-pey had known her when she was still a girl and inex-perienced in affairs, but she was going to visit Antonyat the very time when women have the most brilliantbeauty.”[64] Later in the work, however, Plutarch indi-cates that “her beauty, as we are told, was in itself neitheraltogether incomparable, nor such as to strike those whosaw her.”[64] Rather, what ultimately made Cleopatra at-tractive were her wit, charm and “sweetness in the tonesof her voice.”[64]

CassiusDioalso spoke of Cleopatra’s allure: “For she wasa woman of surpassing beauty, and at that time, when shewas in the prime of her youth, she was most striking; shealso possessed a most charming voice and knowledge ofhow to make herself agreeable to everyone. Being bril-liant to look upon and to listen to, with the power to sub-jugate everyone, even a love-sated man already past hisprime, she thought that it would be in keeping with herrole to meet Caesar, and she reposed in her beauty all herclaims to the throne.”[64]

These accounts inuenced later cultural depictions ofCleopatra, which typically present her using her charmsto inuence the most powerful men in the Western world.Cleopatra was also renowned for her intellect. Plutarchwrites that she could speak at least nine languages andrarely had need of an interpreter.[65]

4 Ancestry

The high degree of inbreeding amongst the Ptolemiesis also illustrated by Cleopatra’s immediate ancestry,of which a reconstruction is shown below.[66] Throughthree uncle–niece marriages and three sister–brother

marriages, her family tree collapses to a single couple atfour, ve or six generations back (counting through dif-ferent lines).[67]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inbreedinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cassius_Diohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarchhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_depictions_of_Cleopatrahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juba_II_of_Mauretaniahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juba_II_of_Mauretaniahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleopatra_Selene_IIhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Octavia_Minorhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caesarionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandriahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taposiris_Magnahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian_Antiquities_Servicehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mausoleumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Lenckhardt


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7

Statue of Cleopatra as Egyptian goddess ; Basalt, second half of the 1st century BC. Hermitage, Saint Petersburg

Ancestors of Cleopatra VII of Egypt

Cleopatra Testing Poisons on Condemned Prisoners byAlexandre Cabanel (1887).

5 See also

• List of female rulers and title holders

6 Notes

[1] Walker, p. 129.

[2] T.C. Skeat, “The Last Days of Cleopatra: A Chronologi-cal Problem”, The Journal of Roman Studies , 43 (1953),pp. 98–100 .

[3] • Western civilisation:ideas, Politics, and society byMarvin Perry, Margaret C Jacob, Myrna Chase,James R Jacob page 132: ”Cleopatra (69- 30 BC),the Greek queen of Egypt, belonged to the Ptole-maic family, the Macedonian Greeks who ruledEgypt during the Hellenistic Age”. *The Civiliza-tion of Rome by Donald R. Dudley, Page 57: ”InEgypt the Greek dynasty of the Ptolemies was thesuccessor to the native Pharaohs, exploiting througha highly organized bureaucracy the great natural re-sources of the Nile Valley”. *The Oxford Encyclo- pedia of Ancient Egypt . Cleopatra VII was bornto Ptolemy XII Auletes (80–57 BC, ruled 55–51BC) and Cleopatra, both parents being Macedo-nian Greeks.” *Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt by Kathryn Bard, page 488 “Ptole-maic kings were still crowned at Memphis and the

city was popularly regarded as the Egyptian rival toAlexandria, founded by the Macedonian Greeks”;Page 687: “During the Ptolemaic period, whenEgypt was governed by rulers of Greek descent…”*Cleopatra: A Sourcebook (Oklahoma Series inClassical Culture) by Prudence J. Jones (Author)page14: “They were members of the Ptolemaic dy-nasty of Macedonian Greeks, who ruled Egypt af-ter thedeathof itsconqueror, Alexander theGreat.”*Women in Hellenistic Egypt by Sarah B. Pomeroy,page 16 “while Ptolemaic Egypt was a monarchywith a Greek ruling class.”

[4] Cleopatra: the life of an Egyptian queen By Gary Jef-frey, Anita Ganeri page 6 :” Throughout their dynasty, thePtolemies held onto their Greek culture and continued tospeak Greek as their main language.”.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_female_rulers_and_title_holdershttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandre_Cabanelhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Petersburghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian_goddess


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8 6 NOTES

[5] “Radio 4 Programmes - A History of the World in 100Objects, Empire Builders (300 BC - 1 AD), RosettaStone”. BBC. Retrieved 2010-06-07.

[6] Plutarch, Antony 27

[7] “Who Was Cleopatra? (page 2)". Smithsonian Magazine.Retrieved 2008-01-22.

[8] “Cleopatra: Meaning & History”. Behind the Name.com.Retrieved 4 April 2014.

[9] “Kleopatros: Meaning & History”. Behind theName.com. Retrieved 4 April 2014.

[10] The German historian Werner Huß (Die Herkunft der Kleopatra Philopator (The descent of Cleopatra Philopa-tor ), Aegyptus 70, 1990, pp. 191–203) assumes insteadthat Cleopatra’s mother was a high born Egyptian woman,who possibly had become the second wife of Ptolemy XIIafter he had repudiated Cleopatra V.

[11] Valerius Maximus 4.1.15

[12] Anderson, Jaynie (2003). Tiepolo’s Cleopatra . Macmil-lan Education AU. p. 38. ISBN 978-1-876832-44-5. Re-trieved 10 February 2012.

[13] Peter Green (1990), Alexander to Actium: The Historical Evolution of the Hellenistic Age , Berkeley: University ofCalifornia Press, pp. 661–664, ISBN 0-520-05611-6

[14] Parallel Lives - The Life of Julius Caesar, 49

[15] So dramaticis thereport ofPlutarch (Caesar 49.1–3), thatit is doubted by some scholars. Cleopatra had to be smug-

gled in secretly, because Ptolemy XIII had blocked all en-tries to Alexandria, making it impossible for his half-sisterto come into the city.

[16] De Bello Alexandrino 28–32

[17] Cassius Dio, Roman History 42.43

[18] De Bello Alexandrino 33

[19] Cassius Dio, Roman History 42.44

[20] Suetonius, Caesar 35.1

[21] Suetonius, Caesar 76.3

[22] Cassius Dio, Roman History 43.27.3[23] Cicero, Letters to Atticus 15.15.2

[24] Appian, Civil Wars 2.102.424

[25] Cassius Dio, Roman History 51.22.3

[26] Cicero, Letters to Atticus 14.8.1 (written on 16 April 44BC) says that he was very glad that the Queen ed

[27] Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews 15.89

[28] Porphyry, Fragmente der griechischen Historiker (FGrH)260 F 2, 16-17

[29] stele BM 377 (15 February 42 BC) and others

[30] Appian, Civil Wars 4.61.262–263

[31] Cassius Dio, Roman History 47.30.4 and 47.31.5

[32] Appian, Civil Wars 4.63; 4.74; 4.82; 5.8

[33] Plutarch, Life of Antony 25-29; Appian, Civil Wars 5.8-11; Cassius Dio, Roman History 48.24

[34] BBC documentary, Cleopatra portrait of a killer [35] Appian, Civil Wars 5.9.35

[36] Syme, p. 270.

[37] Syme, p. 274.

[38] Stanley Mayer Burstein (30 December 2007), The Reignof Cleopatra , University of Oklahoma Press, p. 20, ISBN978-0-8061-3871-8, retrieved 31 March 2011

[39] Plutarch, Life of Antony 54.9

[40] 'Actium', The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature ,

third edition, edited by M. C. Howatson. Oxford Univer-sity, 2011.

[41] Ullman, Berthold L. (1957), “Cleopatra’s Pearls”, TheClassical Journal 52 (5): 193–201.

[42] Strabo, Geography , XVII 10

[43] Note that an unnamededitorof therespectedLoebClassi-cal Library translation stated the “twin snakes” mentionedin the text are simply a “symbol of death.”Virgil, Aeneid ,VIII 696–697

[44] Horace, Odes , I 37

[45] Sextus Propertius, Elegies , III 11[46] Florus, Epitome of Roman History , II 21

[47] Velleius Paterculus, Compendium of Roman History , II 87

[48] For a possible poetic allusion to the asp, see WallaceStevens’s In the Carolinas

[49] Everitt, Anthony (2007), Augustus: The Life of Rome’s First Emperor , New York: Random House Trade Paper-backs, pp. 194–195, ISBN 0-8129-7058-6

[50] Melissa Gray (2010-06-30). “Poison, not snake, killedCleopatra, scholar says - Cleopatra died a quiet and pain

free death, historian alleges.”. CNN. Retrieved 2015-10-11.

[51] Plutarch, Life of Antony 79.6 and 85.4–6; Cassius Dio,Roman History 51.11.4–5 and 51.13.3–5

[52] Plutarch, Parallel Lives , LXXXV 2–3 (Life of Antony)

[53] Plutarch, ibid., LXXXVI 3. See also Cassius Dio, RomanHistory , LI 21

[54] Suetonius, On the Life of the Caesars , Augustus, XVII 4

[55] Plutarch, loc. cit.

[56] Cassius Dio, op. cit., LI 14

[57] Galen, De Theriaca ad Pisonem , CCXXXVII, who saysshe bit herself, rather than an asp biting her.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galenhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cassius_Diohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarchhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On_the_Life_of_the_Caesarshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suetoniushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cassius_Diohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarchhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarchhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CNNhttp://edition.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/europe/06/30/cleopatra.suicide/http://edition.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/europe/06/30/cleopatra.suicide/http://edition.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/europe/06/30/cleopatra.suicide/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8129-7058-6https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Velleius_Paterculushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextus_Propertiushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horacehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeneidhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virgilhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loeb_Classical_Libraryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loeb_Classical_Libraryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographica_(Strabo)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strabohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-3871-8https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://books.google.com/books?id=KSonyiReFY8C&pg=PA20https://books.google.com/books?id=KSonyiReFY8C&pg=PA20https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBChttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fragmente_der_griechischen_Historikerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porphyry_(philosopher)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiquities_of_the_Jewshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josephushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Bello_Alexandrinohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallel_Liveshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-05611-6https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Green_(historian)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-876832-44-5https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://books.google.com/books?id=K_zR2mHWPmoC&pg=PA38https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valerius_Maximushttp://www.behindthename.com/name/kleopatroshttp://www.behindthename.com/name/cleopatrahttp://www.smithsonianmag.com/history-archaeology/biography/cleopatra.htmlhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarchhttp://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00sbrz3http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00sbrz3http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00sbrz3


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9

[58] Shakespeare, Antony and Cleopatra , V ii

[59] “Cleopatra”. The Walters Art Museum.

[60] Plutarch, ibid.

[61] “Dig 'may reveal' Cleopatra’s tomb”. BBC News. 2009-

04-15. Retrieved 2009-04-24.[62] Plutarch, Life of Antony 81.4 – 82.1; Cassius Dio, Roman

History 51.15.5; Suetonius, Augustus 17.5

[63] Plutarch, Life of Antony 87.1–2; Cassius Dio, Roman His-tory 51.15.6; Suetonius, Augustus 17.5 and Caligula 26.1

[64] “The Beauty of Cleopatra”. University of Chicago. Re-trieved 2008-05-28.

[65] “she could pass from one language to another; so thatthere were few of the barbarian nations that she answeredby an interpreter; to most of them she spoke herself, asto the Ethiopians, Troglodytes, Hebrews, Arabians, Syri-ans, Medes, Parthians, and many others, whose languageshe had learnt; which was all the more surprising becausemost of the kings, her predecessors, scarcely gave them-selves the trouble to acquire the Egyptian tongue, and sev-eral of them quite abandoned the Macedonian.” Plutarch,Antony , 27.3-4

[66] Dodson, Aidan and Hilton, Dyan. The Complete RoyalFamilies of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson. 2004.ISBN 0-500-05128-3 The family tree and short discus-sions of the individuals can be found on pages 268-281.The authors refer to Cleopatra V as Cleopatra VI andCleopatra Selene I is called Cleopatra V Selene.

[67] Stacy Schiff, Cleopatra: A Life , Hachette Digital, Inc.,2010, ISBN 978-0-316-00192-2 Google Books

7 References

Primary sources

• Hegesippus, Historiae i.29–32.

• Lucan, Bellum civile ix.909–911, x .

• Macrobius, Saturnalia iii.17.14–18 .• Orosius, Historiae adversus paganos vi.16.1–2,

19.4–18 .

• Pliny, Naturalis historia vii.2.14, ix.58.119–121, xxi.9.12 .

• Plutarch (1958), “Caesar”, in Warner, Rex, Fall of the Roman Republic , London: Penguin Books,ISBN0-14-044084-4

• Plutarch (1965), “Mark Antony”, in Scott-Kilvert,Ian, Makers of Rome , Baltimore: Penguin Books,ISBN 0-14-044158-1

• Suetonius, De vita Caesarum Iul i.35.52, ii.17.

Modern sources

• Bradford, Ernle Dusgate Selby (2000), Cleopatra ,Penguin Group, ISBN 978-0-14-139014-7

• Burstein, Stanley M. (2004), The reign of Cleopa-

tra , Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, ISBN 0-313-32527-8• Flamarion, Edith; Bonfante-Warren, Alexandra

(1997), Cleopatra: The Life and Death of aPharaoh , Harry Abrams, ISBN 978-0-8109-2805-3

• Foss, Michael (1999),The Search for Cleopatra ,Ar-cade Publishing, ISBN 978-1-55970-503-5

• Fraser, P.M. (1972), Ptolemaic Alexandria , Oxford:Clarendon Press, ISBN 0-19-814278-1

• Lindsay, Jack (1972), Cleopatra , New York:Coward-McCann

• Nardo, Don(1994),Cleopatra , LucentBooks,ISBN978-1-56006-023-9

• Pomeroy, Sarah B. (1984), Women in Hellenistic Egypt: from Alexander to Cleopatra , New York:Schocken Books, ISBN 0-8052-3911-1

• Roller, Duane W. (2010), Cleopatra: a biography ,Oxford: Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-536553-5

• Southern, Pat (2000), Cleopatra , Tempus, ISBN978-0-7524-1494-2

• Syme, Ronald (1962), The Roman Revolution , Ox-ford University Press

• Volkmann, H. (1958), Cleopatra: A Study in Poli-tics and Propaganda , T.J. Cadoux, trans, New York:Sagamore Press

• Walker, Susan; Higgs, Peter (2001), Cleopatra of Egypt, From History to Myth , British Museum Press,ISBN 978-0-7141-1943-4

• Weigall, Arthur (1923), The Life and Times of Cleopatra Queen of Egypt , London: Putnam

8 External links

•

• Cleopatra on In Our Time at the BBC. (listen now)• Cleopatra, a Victorian children’s book by Jacob Ab-

bott, 1852, Project Gutenberg edition• “Mysterious Death of Cleopatra” at the Discovery

Channel• Cleopatra VII at BBC History

http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/cleopatra_vii.shtmlhttp://www.discoverychannelasia.com/http://www.discoverychannelasia.com/http://www.discoverychannelasia.com/ontv_egyptweek/death_cleopatra/index.shtmlhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Gutenberghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacob_Abbotthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacob_Abbotthttp://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/10992http://www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/console/b00w7clj/In_Our_Time_Cleopatrahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBChttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_Our_Time_(BBC_Radio_4)http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00w7cljhttp://name.umdl.umich.edu/AJL1424.0001.001http://name.umdl.umich.edu/AJL1424.0001.001https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7141-1943-4https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7524-1494-2https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-536553-5https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-536553-5https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8052-3911-1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56006-023-9https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-814278-1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55970-503-5https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8109-2805-3https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8109-2805-3https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-313-32527-8https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-313-32527-8https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-139014-7https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-14-044158-1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-14-044084-4https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucanhttps://books.google.com/books?id=dKIo6D9yh3cChttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780316001922https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stacy_Schiffhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0500051283http://penelope.uchicago.edu/~grout/encyclopaedia_romana/miscellanea/cleopatra/bust.htmlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/8000978.stmhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarchhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Walters_Art_Museumhttp://art.thewalters.org/detail/35053https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antony_and_Cleopatrahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Shakespeare


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10 9 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

9 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

9.1 Text• Cleopatra Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleopatra?oldid=715849274 Contributors: MichaelTinkler, Zundark, Rjstott, Ed Poor,

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Antony%2C_with_Cleopatra_VII_-3.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.cngcoins.com/Coin.aspx?CoinID=163651Original artist: CNG

• File:Adam_Lenckhardt_-_Cleopatra_-_Walters_71416_-_Right.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6d/Adam_Lenckhardt_-_Cleopatra_-_Walters_71416_-_Right.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Walters Art Mu-seum: Home page Info about artwork Original artist: Adam Lenckhardt

• File:Alexandre_Cabanel_-_Cléopatre_essayant_des_poisons_sur_des_condamnés_à_mort.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e7/Alexandre_Cabanel_-_Cl%C3%A9opatre_essayant_des_poisons_sur_des_condamn%C3%A9s_%C3%A0_mort.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://perso.orange.fr/verat/CABANEL.htm Original artist: Alexandre Cabanel

• File:Cleopatra_VII_tetradrachm_Syria_mint.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d3/Cleopatra_VII_tetradrachm_Syria_mint.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work by uploader, photographed at the British Museum Origi-nal artist: PHGCOM

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