CL Kasungu-Mchinji Survey 2008

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BASE LINE SURVEY REPORT

CHILD LABOUR BASELINE STUDY IN KASUNGU (TA CHULU) ANDMCHINJI (TA MKANDA)

Draft Report

ForCECYA and MCTU

March, 2008



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TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................................................... 3 LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................................................. 3 LIST OF ABREVIATIONS...................................................................................................................... 4 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ..................................................................................................................... 5 Introduction............................................................................................................................................. 6 Findings and Conclusions ...................................................................................................................... 6 Recommendations .................................................................................................................................. 7 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND.................................................................. 8

1.1 The Child labour project............................................................................................................... 8 1.2 Project scope ................................................................................................................................ 8

Specific immediate objectives ................................................................................................................ 8 1.3 Project implementation................................................................................................................. 8 1.4 Objective of the assignment.......................................................................................................... 9 1.5 Rationale for the base line survey ................................................................................................ 10 1.6 Structure of the report ................................................................................................................ 10

CHAPTER 2: STUDY METHODOLOGY AND SURVEY DESIGN.................................................. 11 2.1 Study Design .............................................................................................................................. 11 2.2 Literature Review ........................................................................................................................ 11 2.3 Individual Interviews (Key Informant Interviews)....................................................................... 11 2.4 Primary Data Collection: Sampling Design.................................................................................. 11 2.5 Children Questionnaire............................................................................................................... 12 2.6 Parents/Guardians Questionnaire............................................................................................... 12 2.7 Training of the Research Team ................................................................................................... 12 2.8 Data Management and Analysis .................................................................................................. 13 2.9 Limitation or Problems encountered During the Study ............................................................... 13

CHAPTER 3: STUDY RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: HOUSEHOLDS ............................................ 14 3.1 Household demographic characteristics ...................................................................................... 14 3.2 Education Level of the Household Head School Attendance ...................................................... 14 3.3 Agriculture and Food Security .................................................................................................... 15

3.3.1 Land Holding Size and Percentage Cultivated .................................................................... 16 3.3.2 Main Crops Grown in the two Study Areas ........................................................................ 16

3.3.3 Food Security ......................................................................................................................... 17 3.3.4 Food Consumption............................................................................................................ 18 3.3.5 Coping Strategies ............................................................................................................... 18 3.4 Access to Water .......................................................................................................................... 18

3.5 General Family Health................................................................................................................ 19 3.6 Ownership of Sanitation Facilities............................................................................................... 19 3.7 Heath Status of Under-Five Children .......................................................................................... 20 3.8 Orphans and their Challenges ..................................................................................................... 20 3.8 Child Rights and Abuse .............................................................................................................. 21 3.9 Parents Opinion about Child Work ............................................................................................. 21 3.10 Main Activities done by Children according to Parents ........................................................... 22

CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS FROM CHILDREN..................................................................................... 24 4.1 Introduction: Demographic characteristics of the children .......................................................... 24 4.2 Educational and work related issues ............................................................................................ 25 4.3 Work involved, supply and demand factors of child labour ......................................................... 27 4.4 Conclusion and recommendations .............................................................................................. 29

CHAPTER 5 CURRENT INTERVENTIONS AND POLICY GAPS ................................................... 31 5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 31 5.2 Features of Intervention Programmes ......................................................................................... 31 5.3 SWOT analysis of child labour intervention in the district ........................................................... 33

5.3.1 Strengths............................................................................................................................ 33 5.3.2 Weaknesses........................................................................................................................ 34 5.3.3 Opportunities .................................................................................................................... 34 5.3.4 Threats .............................................................................................................................. 34

5.4 Policy gaps .................................................................................................................................. 34



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5.5 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................. 35 CHAPTER 6: GENERAL CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ........................................ 36 General Recommendations .................................................................................................................. 39 REFERENCES....................................................................................................................................... 40 APPENDIX ............................................................................................................................................ 41

APPENDIX 1: Household characteristics............................................................................................ 41 LIST OF TABLES Table 2-0-1 Distribution of the children questionnaire in the two districts ........................................................ 12 Table 3-0-1: Level of schooling by gender of the household head ....................................................................... 15 Table 3-0-2: Land holding size and percentage cultivated ...................................................................................... 16 Table 3-0-3: Crops grown ............................................................................................................................................. 16 Table 3- 0-4: Food security situation .......................................................................................................................... 17 Table 3-0-5: Food security coping strategies: ........................................................................................................... 18 Table 3- 0-6: Main source of drinking water ............................................................................................................. 18 Table 4-0-1: Summary of problems encountered by children................................................................................ 25 Table 4-0-2: Pull factors for child labour.................................................................................................................. 27 Table 4-0-3: Type of hazards ....................................................................................................................................... 28 Table 5-0-1: Intervention programmes by different stakeholders in combating worst forms of child labour........................................................................................................................................................................................... 33

LIST OF FIGURES Figure 3-0-1: A classroom at Kawere FP School in Mchinji .................................................................................. 15 Figure 3-0-2: A wall notice at Estate 78 discouraging Child labour…………………………………...22Figure 3-0-3: A boy managing livestock in Mchinji district…………………………………………...24



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LIST OF ABREVIATIONS

CBOS Community Based OrganisationsCEYCA Centre for Youth and Children AffairsDSWO District Social Welfare OfficerFBOs Faith Based OrganisationsILO/IPEC International Labour Organisation/International Programme on

the Elimination of Child LabourMCTU Malawi Congress of Trade UnionMoWCD Ministry of Women and Child DevelopmentNSO National Statistical OfficeNPA National Plan of Action for Elimination of Child LabourNGOs Non Governmental OrganisationNOVOC Network of Organisation working with Vulnerable and Orphaned

Children TA Traditional Authority UNICEF United Nations Children’s Emergency Fund



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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We would first of all like to convey our gratitude to CEYCA and MCTU for entrusting us with this task. We would also like to acknowledge with thanks the support andguidance that Mr Rodgers Newa and Mr Joseph Kankhwangwa of CEYCA provided usthroughout the study without which the study would have been a failure.

Secondly, we are very grateful to all civil servants, non-governmental organizations, village heads and their people too numerous to mention here, in all the communitiesstudied who willingly spared sometime to talk to our team and us at a crucial time whenthey were busy some in their gardens. Similarly, I would like to thank all the key informants who willingly shared their knowledge of the communities and the changes thechallenges were facing.

Thirdly, I would like to acknowledge with appreciation our good team of researchassistants who showed a lot of commitment throughout the data collection exercise. This

was key to the success of this study.



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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Introduction

The major objective of this baseline survey is to capture socio-economic data as afoundation for the child labour Project. Data captured during the survey will form thebasis for project evaluation throughout the life of the child labour project (mid-term andend of project evaluation). Results of the survey would also be a useful input forprogramme development or interventions by different stakeholders including policy makers, the donor and non-governmental community.

This study was undertaken to understand the incidence of child labour tobacco-growing districts of Kasungu and Mchinji was inspired by the CEYCA’s determination to alleviatethe problem. With the goal of eliminating child labour in tobacco-growing around the

world, the CEYCA has committed itself to this action. Undertaking this research was thefirst step to determine the nature and magnitude of child labour, the context and factorssurrounding the problem, the perceptions of parents and children, and the possiblesolutions to this problem.

Quantitative as well as qualitative data were collected during the month of February andduring a single round of structured and semi-structured questionnaire-based interviews

with tobacco farmers and children on one hand and other key informants including

school teachers, district labour officers, police, district welfare office and assembly officials among others

Findings and Conclusions

The study has revealed that worst forms of child labour are prevalent in the two districts.However, due to limited resources and sampling techniques, it has been difficult to comeup with a specific number of child labourers in the two TAs. While migrant farmers havebeen considered as the main source of child labour, this study has proved that even thosestaying in their own villages with their parents are also vulnerable to child labour. Like inpervious studies child labour is directly linked to household vulnerability in terms of access to food and income.

In terms of constraints/factors that held parents from sending their children to school ,the study has revealed that it is poverty is the main constraint which leads to lack clothesand food for children. Other constraints mentioned for school drop outs includeorphanhood very common these days due to the high prevalence of HIV/AIDS relateddeaths (loosing parents or guardians), lack of school infrastructure such as proper toilets,classrooms, shortage of teachers and learning materials.

In terms of supply and demand factors of child labour the study found that (23%



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indicated that they require cash for educational materials followed by those who wantedto supplement household income and food. About 21% indicated that they need cash forclothing with 19% contributing family labour. Very few (3.3%) had tenant contract orbecause of peer pressure (10.7%). In general it can be argued that it is poverty is themajor driving force behind child labour. Poverty alleviation is the key to discouraging theperpetuation of child labour over time as most child labourers come from impoverished

families.

The study also found that most of the children work for 120 to 180 days in a year. This isusually seasonal work on tobacco estates which includes field clearing, making nursery beds, watering nurseries to tobacco grading. Children were employed between the ages of 9 to 14 although some as young as 7 and 8 were reported to be employed. In generalthere are more boys employed (60%) and when girls are employed they provide labor fornot less than 120 days in a year.

The study has also found that there are already a number of stakeholders implementing different intervention programmes to combat child labour both in Kasungu and Mchinji

districts. They are mainly government organizations and non-governmentalorganizations. The non-governmental organisations include Plan International inKasungu, Salvation Army, Womens Voice, NICE, World Vision and TANARD inMchinji among others. In addition to these in both districts there are ILO/IPECsupported projects in collaboration with government departments like the district labouroffice and district social welfare office and the district assembly. Most of them employ athree pronged approach mainly in one of the three main areas of prevention of childlabour through civic education and sensitization campaigns, withdrawal and rehabilitationand protection.

Recommendations

Provision food (breakfast) at school can help to keep children at school especially

between December and March). (Some schools are already doing this and there areindications of improvements in school attendance.

Direct assistance in form of a school allowance to be used for the best interest of thechild like school material and uniform.

Since school condition, distance to school, school infrastructures were mentioned assome of the limitations to schooling improving the provision of school infrastructurelike the building more classroom blocks, toilets, provision of clean drinking water

would be helpful. Provision of direct assistance to parents of vulnerable children in form of loans to

engage in income generating activities so that they should not send their children to work.

Intensify civic education campaigns especially in the supply districts of Lilongwe,Dedza, Mulanje to make them aware of the ILO and government conventions andlaws of prohibiting child labour.

There need to establish an effective monitoring system for repatriated or withdrawnchildren to make sure they do not go back to child labour.

Need to make more resources available for inspection, enforcement, and monitoring to ensure that employers don‘t use child labourers.

Older child labourers who cannot be sent back to formal schooling should be offered vocational training.



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There is need for an effective networking system between stakeholders led by government in order to minimise the duplication of programmes. There also need forregular interaction among all stakeholders.

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND

1.1 The Child labour project

Despite the struggle to discourage the use of child labour in the tobacco, children can befound working in most of the commercial estates especially in Kasungu and Mchinjidistricts, central region of Malawi. In order to address this problem, Centre for Youthand Children Affairs (CEYCA) and Malawi Congress of Trade Union (MCTU) havejointly received funding from HIVOS to undertake several programmes that will reduceand prevent child labour.

CEYCA in partnership with MCTU are undertaking this project with a clearunderstanding that child labour is a social, legal and human rights problem that requires aconcerted, coordinated and holistic approach if it is to be dealt with effectively. Theproject is being implemented in Traditional authority Chulu in Kasungu district and TAMkanda in Mchinji in central region and will run for an initial period of two years witheffect from January 2007

1.2 Project scope

The overall goal of this project is to contribute towards elimination of child labour practices inMalawi.

Specific immediate objectives The consortium of the two organisations hopes that by the end of the project, the following specific outcomes will have been realised:

1. The community (comprising of employers, workers, children, parents and other relevantstakeholders) in the targeted areas will have been made aware of child labour as a social,legal and human rights problem;

2. The community in the targeted areas will be actively participating in the fight againstchild labour;

3. The number of children who drop out from school in the selected areas will have beenreduced;

4. Vulnerable family households in the targeted areas will have been linked up to otherservice providers that can help such targeted households to be economically empowered

1.3 Project implementation

The project is being funded by HIVOS and will be implemented by two NGO.

CEYCA : It is the lead agency in implementing the project and was formed in 1995 andregistered in 1997 as a Not-for-profit NGO. It is affiliated to all major youth and humanrights networks. Internationally, CEYCA is affiliated to Children’s rights Network basedin the United Kingdom and Southern African human rights organisations network.



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Responsibilities related to the implementation of the Linking and Learning projectinclude:(i) Provision of overall program oversight and strategic leadership; (ii) Coordination andfacilitation of program activities at district levels (iii) to make sure that OVCs and theircare takers have more knowledge of how to access basic social services include judicialredress (iv) the prevalence of a legal framework is accessible and is supportive of the

improvement in the plight of OVCs.

MCTU

The MCTU was formed in 1995 after its first Congress as a workers federation, with a view to protect and defend workers rights as well as advance government’s (employers) view to the working class through the tripartite structure-which is a discussion foruminvolving workers, employers and government. It actually started with just over 700members but currently MCTU has Sixteen (16) affiliates with a membership of over92,000. These members are distributed within the Communication sectors of Malawi,Commercial and Industrial, Tobacco/Tea-Plantation and Agriculture, Transport, textileand security, Water and energy, Teaching, Building and Hotels food and catering sectors

represented by the 16 affiliates namely:• Commercial Industrial & Allied Workers Union (CIAWU)

• Transport and General Workers Union (TGWU)

• Escom Workers Union (EWU)

• Water Employees Trade Union of Malawi (WETUM)

• Hotel Food Processing &Catering Service Union (HFPCSU)

• Malawi Housing Corporation Workers Union (MHCWU)

• Electronic Media Workers Union (EMWU)

• Building Construction & Civil Engineering Workers Union (BCCEWU)

• Railways Workers Union of Malawi (RWUM)

• Plantation Agriculture Workers Union (PAWU)

• Tobacco Tenants and Allied Workers Union of Malawi (TOTAWUM)

• Sugar Plantation and Allied Workers Union (SPAWU)

• Private Schools Employees Union of Malawi (PSEUM)

• Teachers Union of Malawi (TUM)

• Communication Workers Union of Malawi (COWUMA)

• Textile Garment Leather and Security Services Workers Union (TGLSSWU)

1.4 Objective of the assignment

The main purpose of this baseline survey is to collect reliable statistics on child labourthat MCTU and CEYCA can use for advocacy and lobbying and provide a basis forproject monitoring and evaluation. In general its goal is to generate high quality information on the magnitude of child labour activities in tobacco growing areas and itsenvironment. In addition, other information collected included child labourcharacteristics, their families, schools and communities where these activities take place.

The specific objectives of the study were to:

Look at constraints that held parents/guardians (households) from sending theirchildren to school than to work.



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Identify the push factors (internal and external) which influence children to searchfor work than remain in school.

Identifying policy gaps that do not support prevention, rehabilitation, integration of child labourers.

Identification of child labourers in different economic activities by age groups andsex.

Identification of legal framework/factors that discourage the full implementation of the compulsory primary education.

Identification of current/potential actors against child labour in the impact areas or within the districts and/or nearby districts.

1.5 Rationale for the base line survey

The key objective of the base line survey is to establish a bench mark for theimplementation and monitoring the direction and progress of the projects in the entiretwo districts. This will help in meeting the objectives of the projects and to initiate therecognition of the impact of child labour. In addition, despite several studies on child

labour, reliable statistics are rare and when available, it often incomplete. Some studieshave also failed to capture specific information from school going children and those outof school to find their perception on child labour.

Even though economic activities and poverty have been considered as the main reasonthat promotes child labour (Phiri, 2007), there is very little information on the constraintsthat held parents/guardians from sending their children to school than to work. Thisstarted through focus group discussion managed to capture this information and proposesome of the strategies that can be introduced in the districts.

There was need to understand some of the push and pull factors (both internal andexternal) which influence children to search for work rather than remaining in school.

This has helped to identify some of the gaps that could be addressed by both the policiesas well as interventions. The study was also important to identify different economicactivities undertaken by the children.

1.6 Structure of the report

This report has six chapters. The current chapter provides the brief background to theassignment, description of the objectives of the study and the rationale the study.Chapter Two covers the methodological approach used for data and informationcollection including the challenges encountered. Findings from parents, teachers arecovered in chapter 3 and chapter 4 covers findings from children. Chapter 5 presentscurrent interventions on child labour in the two districts in particular the TAs involved.

General conclusion and study recommendations are presented in chapter 6.



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CHAPTER 2: STUDY METHODOLOGY AND SURVEY DESIGN

2.1 Study Design

The study involved the use of both primary and secondary data. Secondary data which was obtained from published and non-published reports, NGO documentation, districtassemblies’ reports, district profiles, and government reports. Secondly key informantinterviews were done to get an in-depth understanding of the perceptions of the differentstakeholders including community and traditional leaders, government officials NGOsand Civil society groups in the areas under study.

2.2 Literature Review

Literature review was carried out to obtain information on the relevant key variables. The

documents reviewed among others were obtained from District Labour Officers, social Welfare Officer, enforcement and preventive agencies and other stakeholders. Secondary data consists of existing reports and documents compiled by other persons ororganizations. Secondary data was obtained from published and non-published reports,NGO documentation, and official statistics, project reports, Internet and governmentreports. Both primary and secondary data was analyzed for the purposes of clarifying thecontext of primary data research and formulating the appropriate research questions forthe primary data survey and for key informants.

2.3 Individual Interviews (Key Informant Interviews)

Interviews and conversations at formal level were held with key informants who included

District Labour Officers, District Welfare Officers, Police, Education, Judiciary, SchoolHead Teachers, District Assembly and various NGO including TANARD, Salvation

Army officials. This was done through non-structured questionnaire or checklistdeveloped by the consultants. The Key issues discussed in these interviews includereason of children engaged in child labour, age and gender of children engaged in childlabour, time of child labour (rain, dry, all year, actions against child labour, committee onchild labour, employers of child labourers, knowledge on laws and policies on childlabour and involvement of local leaders and community participation in child labourissues among others.

2.4 Primary Data Collection: Sampling Design

This was done using a structured (two questionnaires one for children and the other forparents or guardians). The questionnaires were administered in TA Mkanda in Mchinjidistrict and TA Chulu in Kasungu district to 175 parents or guardians and 200 children.In each Traditional Authority at least 4 school catchments areas were chosen as study sites.

The choosing of the school catchment areas was done by a combination of purposiveand random sampling. Purposive sampling will be used to ensure that certaincharacteristics and a diversity of conditions are included in the sample. Examples of



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criteria that was used for purposive sampling include tobacco growing areas or nearnessto estates. A complete list of villages that was covered in each of the 8 school catchmentareas is presented in Appendix 1.

2.5 Children Questionnaire

The emphasis was on providing answers to questions about the status of children in

tobacco growing areas of Mchinji and Kasungu. Both school going children and schooldrop outs were interviewed in the survey. The questions asked included demographicdata (age, gender,) health condition, child’s school performance and his relationship withschool, school drop out and child labour, child labour within and outside the household,child’s perception about his/her own work and child’s opinion about his/her futureamong others. Table 2.0.1 presents the distribution of the children questionnaire in thetwo districts.

Table 2-0-1 Distribution of the children questionnaire in the two districts

Traditional Authority District TotalKasungu Mchinji

T.A. Chulu 101 101 T.A. Mkanda 99 99 TOTAL 101 99 200

2.6 Parents/Guardians Questionnaire

The parents questionnaire included variables related directly to parents or houseolds suchsocio-demographic characteristics of all household members such as age, gender,educational level and marital status among others, food security, farm and no-farmincome generating activities, access to credit, water, health, and HIV and AIDS,knowledge of child rights issues and parents perceptions and opinions about working conditions faced by children including attitudes and expectations about childhood andchild labour in general. A total of 175 parents or guardians were interviewed (90 inKasungu and 85 in Mchinji)

2.7 Training of the Research Team

The skills of field workers are critical to the success of any survey. This is why prior togoing to the field; the research assistants participated in a one-day workshop. This

workshop will introduce the field staff to the concepts that form the basis of datacollection procedures as well as introducing the team to the methodology that will beused. All the research assistants participated in the review of the questionnaires that wasused in the survey. Key concepts were translated into the local language to ensureuniformity of issues being researched on. This was also an opportunity to examine thequestionnaires in more detail and make adjustments where necessary. The collectiveexperience of the enumerators who had years of experience working on surveys impactedpositively on the further fine tuning of the survey instrument.



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2.8 Data Management and Analysis

At the end of each day, completed questionnaires were handed over to the supervisor who cross checked them for accuracy and completeness. The checked and completedquestionnaires were then be collected and sent to APRU offices for entry into thecomputer. The data was entered, cleaned, and analysed on a computer using the

Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS Version 11) software. The analyticaltechniques included descriptive (frequency distributions, graphs, means and crosstabulations) among others.

2.9 Limitation or Problems encountered During the Study

• Fewer school drop outs were accessed. The study team could only access fewerschool drop outs compared to those attending school because they could not beeasily found or reached and others were busy working.

• In one of the areas visited, we could not reach our target because there was afuneral and most of the parents and guardians did not turn up

• Non cooperation by some parents led to only a few turning up at the meeting especially in Kasungu.

• Due to the limited time available the questionnaires used in the survey were notpre-tested to check for completeness and accuracy of the questions asked.



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CHAPTER 3: STUDY RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: HOUSEHOLDS

3.1 Household demographic characteristics

The results of study show that 11 percent of the households sampled were femaleheaded. The incidence of female-headed households is lower in this sample than whathas been reported other surveys such as the 1998 Population and Housing Census (NSO,2001). The NSO (2001) documented that 28% of rural Malawian households are female-headed. With regard to the marital status, the majority 149 (85.6%) are married while therest are either, divorced, separated or widowed

The average household size for the study area is five persons per household. This isslightly higher than the national average of 4.4 persons per household (NSO, 2001). Themean age of the household heads is 47.31 years. Dependency ratio is the ratio of population aged under 15 or over 64 years to the population aged between 15 and 64 orcan be defined as the ratio of the non-working population to the working population.Using this definition, a dependency ratio of 0.8 would imply that there are 8 dependentsfor every 10 working-age persons. This statistic provides an indication of the level of responsibility of economically active persons in providing for dependants. The nationaldependency ratio as reported by the National Statistical office is 0.906 - every 10 working persons are supporting just over 9 dependents.

The results indicate that on average the dependency ratio for in the two study areas isone (unity) implying that the number of economically active people is the same as that of economically inactive people per household. This is also not very different from thenational dependency ratio mentioned earlier. There is no significant difference in thedependency ration between households in the Kasungu and those Mchinji. With regardto occupation, agriculture is most frequently reported occupation (86%) in both Kasunguand Mchinji followed by government service (3.5%) and others. Other reported formsof occupations include ganyu, and general trading or businesses. The demographiccharacteristics of the households are presented in appendix 1.

3.2 Education Level of the Household Head School Attendance

The development of human capital improves the capabilities of individuals to securetheir well-being . The level of education of farmers might be positively correlated to theadoption of improved technologies. In addition, parents perceived returns to education,their attitudes towards schooling and aspirations for their children are major factorspertaining to child labour. According to ILO, ‘the parents perceptions, attitudes andaspirations affect decisions about work and schooling.’ (ILO, 2004).

From the results of the survey, at least 13 per cent of the head of households visited have



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never attended primary education with close to 50 per cent of the respondents indicating that they attended senior secondary school. The presence of respondents with tertiary education is due top the fact that there were some civil servants who were interviewed.

There are however some differences in educational attainment between female heads of

households and women head of households in the area. According to the results of thestudy also shown in table 3.0.1, none of the female headed households went beyondform 2 (senior secondary school). At least 21 per cent of women never attained any formal education as opposed to 12% men who never attended any formal education.

Table 3-0-1: Level of schooling by gender of the household head

Level of Schooling Sex Total Male Female

count Percent count percent Count Percent Never attended school 19 12.7 4 21.1 23 13.6

Junior primary school 26 17.3 8 42.1 34 20.1

Senior primary school 79 52.7 7 36.8 86 50.9 Junior Secondary school 13 8.0 0 0 13 7.7Senior secondary school 10 6.7 0 0 13 5.9

Tertiary 3 2.0 0 0 3 1.8 Total 150 100 19 100 169 100

In terms of current school attendance, most of the children 88.1 percent indicated thatthey are currently attending school. In cases of drop outs poverty (lack of clothes) andearly marriages were mentioned major causes of school dropouts. Children are forced toabsentee themselves from school in order to engage in income generating activities tosupplement family income and lack of food. In one case in Mchinji, younger childrencannot attend school especially in the rainy season due to lack of bridge on Matizi river.

Other reasons mentioned for school drop outs include orphanhood (loosing parents orguardians), lack of school infrastructure such as proper toilets, classrooms, shortage of teachers and learning materials. The picture below shows one of the schools in Mchinji

which has only one block and no toilet facilities

Figure 3-0-1: A classroom at Kawere FP School in Mchinji

3.3 Agriculture and Food Security

As it has been pointed out in the section above, the majority of the households in thestudy area are engaged in agriculture. This section discusses land ownership, crops grownand the food security situation in the study areas.



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3.3.1 Land Holding Size and Percentage Cultivated

Results for land ownership show that households in both Kasungu and Mchinji haverelatively more land than the national average. The mean land holding size in bothKasungu and Mchinji is 5.42 acres. It was also observed that 66% of the land owned inKasungu was already under cultivation compared to 58% in Mchinji as shown in table

3.0.2 below.

Table 3-0-2: Land holding size and percentage cultivated

Location Land Owned(Acres)

Landcultivated

PercentCultivated

Kasungu Mean 5.03 3.33 66.2

N 80 80

Std deviation 5.646 2.696

Mchinji Mean 5.83 3.37 57.8

N 78 78


Total Mean 5.42 3.35 61.8

N 158 158


3.3.2 Main Crops Grown in the two Study Areas

Households in study area grew several crops as shown in table 3.0.3 but the main crop

that dominated the two areas was maize as it was grown by all the households. Tobaccois second major crop with 83% of the responses; there are no significant differences inthe growing of tobacco between Kasungu and Mchinji households. On the other hand,the difference between the two districts third most important crop grown (paprika) wasnot as big since this was reported by 10.7% of the respondents in Kasungu and 3.4% of them in Mchinji. It is also worth noting that other important crops grown in the area arebeans, groundnuts, and sweet potatoes. The respondents also indicated maize is mainly grown for food while tobacco is mainly grown as a cash crop. The other crops such asbeans, groundnuts, and cassava were grown both for food and for sale. A smallproportion of the respondents also mentioned that they do grow dimba farming (winterfarming) mainly vegetables for sale and for food.

Table 3-0-3: Crops grown

MainCropsGrown

Location Total

Kasungu Mchinji



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Count Percent Count Percent Count Percent

Maize 90 100 85 100 175 100

Beans 15 16.7 16 18.8 31 17.7

Soybeans 45 30.0 37 24.8 82 27.4 Tobacco 72 80.0 74 87.1 146 83.4

G/nuts 47 52.2 3 50.6 85 51.4

Cassava 8 8.9 8 9.8 16 9.1

Paprika 16 10.7 5 3.4 21 7.0

Irishpotatoes

4 4.4 - - 4 2.3

Sweetpotatoes

7 7.8 1 1.2 8 4.6

3.3.3 Food Security

Food security refers to the availability of food and one's access to it. A household isconsidered food secure when its occupants do not live in hunger or fear of starvation.However, the results of study show that at least 76 percent of the respondents run out of food before the next harvest as shown in table 3.0.4. It is assumed that harvesting is donein April such that starting May; households start to consume their own harvest. Note thatby the end of the first quarter (i.e. June 2007) nearly half of the households 44 per centof the households (cumulative) had run out of food. By the end of the second quarter, 47per cent more had run out of food. It can also be noted that starting from October the

rate of households running out of their food usually rises rapidly and reaches its peak by December.

Table 3- 0-4: Food security situation

District TotalKasungu Mchinji Count PercentCount Percent Count Percent

Whetherfood lastfrom lastharvest

Yes 18 21.2 21 25.60 39 23.4No 67 78.8 61 74.4 128 76.6

Frequency (number without Food) Cumulative Percent

Monthrun outof Food

January 30 24.4February 13 35.0March 7 40.7

April 4 43.9May 0 43.9

June 1 44.7 July 3 47.2



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August 5 51.2September 5 55.3October 11 64.2November 11 73.2December 33 100.0

3.3.4 Food Consumption

Food consumption in terms of number of meals taken per day varies depending on theseasons and poverty levels of the households. During the pre-harvest period the averagenumber of meals is one while in the post-harvest and planting seasons the averagenumber of meals is two per day. The most common meal was nsima with fish and nsima

with vegetables. Meat is rarely taken.

3.3.5 Coping Strategies

Households coping strategies vary according to the resources available to them. Themost common coping strategy mentioned by households was buying and doing ganyu(working for cash or food). About 60 per cent of the households adopted this strategy.However, always the poor households have to do it more as would be expected giventheir poverty level and vulnerability to shocks. A full list coping strategies adoptedhouseholds by is presented in table 3.0.5 below.

Table 3-0-5: Food security coping strategies:

Coping Strategies DistrictKasungu Mchinji

Count Percent Count Percent

Buying 33 42.2 39 60Ganyu (casual labour) 41 52.6 23 35.4Reducing quantity of meal 3 3.8 2 3.2Reducing number of meals per day 3 10.0 6 23.1Begging 4 7.1 0 0

3.4 Access to Water

There is a high demand for boreholes in the communities’ visited, the study resultsrevealed that for the majority of households in the study area, the main source of drinking water was rivers or streams as reported by 50.9% of the respondents as shown

in table 3.0.6. Only 7.7 percent of the respondents indicated that they drink water from aborehole while 13 percent indicated that they drink water from a protected well. The restof the respondents 28.4 percent indicated that they drunk water from unprotected well.

The average distance to the nearest drinking water source was 1.6 kilometers. Thesituation was worse in Kasungu where the average distance was 1.9 kilometers and inMchinji it was 1.3 kilometers. It should be pointed out here that although the reporteddistances seem to be reasonable, these are just rough estimates of both the respondentand the enumerator but in some places the situation is very pathetic.

Table 3- 0-6: Main source of drinking water



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Main Source District TotalKasungu Mchinji Count Percent

Count Percent Count PercentBorehole 6 6.9 7 8.5 13 7.7Protected well 12 13.8 10 12.2 22 13.0

Unprotected well 26 29.9 22 26.8 48 28.4River/stream 43 49.4 43 52.4 86 50.9Distance 1.9 km 1.3 km 1.6 km

3.5 General Family Health

The results from the study indicate that people suffer from various diseases as shown intable 3.0.7. These vary between the dry and wet season. However, during both periods,the most common disease that was reported was malaria. During the wet season, malariarepresented 12% of the responses while for the dry season it was reported by 20% of therespondents. Other most common diseases in the wet season are diarrhoea (65.1%) andcholera (22.9%). Most of these diseases except for malaria are linked to sanitation and

the quality of water that the households drink. As it has already been pointed out, up to70% of the respondents reported that they drink water from rivers or streams andunprotected wells. Of course other sanitary practices also need to be examined toemphasize these conclusions.

As for the dry season, the most common diseases were reported as follows: malaria(20%), coughing (20.6%), Pneumonia (36.6%) and scabies (222.9%). Again sanitation andthe living environment explain the occurrence of these diseases. It should also be pointedthis list does not contain all diseases that affect people in the area.

Table 3-0-7: Common diseases by season

Common Wet Seasondiseases

District TotalKasungu Mchinji Count Percent

Count Percent Count PercentCholera/ Dysentery 21 23.3 19 22.4 40 22.9Malaria 11 12.2 12 11.8 21 12.0Diarrhoea 58 64.4 56 65.9 114 65.1

Common Dry Season Diseases

Coughing 17 18.9 19 22.4 36 20.6Malaria 19 21.1 16 18.8 35 20.0

Pneumonia 33 36.7 31 36.5 64 36.6Scabies 21 23.3 19 22.4 40 22.9

3.6 Ownership of Sanitation Facilities

Ownership of sanitation facilities would also assist to explain why there is highprevalence of diseases that reflect a problem in this area. Surprisingly though, thecommunities seemed to practice a certain level of hygiene as manifested by the responsesgiven in the table 3.0.8 below. All the respondents in the study reported that they had a



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pit latrine. With regards to ownership of rubbish pit, only 71% of the respondentsreported to have one compared to about 29% who did not have one. In the case of ownership of plate drying rack, the majority of the respondents 92 percent reported thatthey had one while only 8% did not.

3.7 Heath Status of Under-Five Children

An assessment of the health status of under-five children was also carried out. Severalaspects were covered. The results of the study show that 28% of the respondentsreported that they had an under-five children in their household who had been sick a

week before the study. The most common diseases reported were as follows: fever(12%), diarrhea (9%), coughing (5%) and others (3%) as shown in table 3.0.9 below. Thesame diseases were reported: fever (6%), diarrhea (8%), coughing (3%) and others (3%).

Table 3-0-9: Health of under-five children

District Total

Kasungu Mchnji Count PercentCount Percent Count Percent

Sick last one week

Yes 31 59.6 26 57.8 57 58.8No 21 40.4 19 42.2 40 41.2

Disease Fever 19 61.3 15 57.5 34 59.6Diarrhoea 2 6.5 1 3.8 3 5.3Coughing 1 3.2 0 0 1 1.8Scabies 1 3.2 0 0 1 1.8Measles 0 0 1 3.8 1 1.8

3.8 Orphans and their Challenges

The quantitative data has revealed that up to 76% of the respondents were keeping someorphans in the study area. Through informal discussions with people in the various

villages where the study was carried out, it was learnt that the majority of these orphans were living with their grand parents, aunts, uncles or brothers and sisters. The fact thatthey live with grand parents creates several challenges for the future of these orphans.

General Hygiene Facilitiesand Practices

District TotalKasungu Mchinji Count Percent

Count Percent Count PercentPit latrine Yes 90 100 85 100 175 100

No 0 0 0 0 0 0 TotalRubbish pit Yes 62 68.9 63 74.1 125 71.4

No 28 31.1 22 25.9 50 28.6

TotalPlate drying rack

Yes 82 90.1 79 92.9 161 92No 8 8.9 6 7.1 14 8.0



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Most grand parents are advanced in age and hence their labour productivity is very low.

Some of these grand parents live alone, which creates an even more serious challenge. What this means is that the majority of the grand parents cannot adequately provide for

the up keep of these orphans, as their farm productivity is low. In a way there is mutual

dependence between the grand parents and their grand children who are orphans. Thechildren also have to find alternative means of earning a living besides the little support

they get from their grand parents. It was learnt that keeping orphans was a big challengebecause they tend to be too sensitive to anything said to them. If they do anything wrong

and one try to correct them, they start crying and remembering their parents. Hence it is

quite a challenge bringing up orphans. We did not come across a situation where orphanslived alone because they were usually absorbed into the extended family.

3.8 Child Rights and Abuse

The study has shown that there exists a relatively satisfactory knowledge of child rightsamong the people in the study area. When respondents were asked whether they knew any child rights, 92% of them said yes while 8% said no. The knowledge about child

right is just slightly higher in Mchinji at about 92.9 percent possibly due to the highernumber NGOs working the areas as shown in table 3.0.9 below.

Table 3-0-9: Child rights abuse

Parameters Kasungu Mchinji TotalCount Percent Count Percent Count Percent

ChildRights

Yes 82 91.1 79 92.9 161 92.0No 8 8.9 6 7.1 14 8.0

ExampleOf child

rights

Education 41 45.6 44 51.8 85 48.6Food 20 22.2 16 18.8 36 20.6

Protection 21 23.3 19 22.4 40 22.9Life 8 8.9 6 7.1 14 8.0

Reportsof abuse

Yes 30 33.3 22 25.9 52 29.7No 60 66.7 63 74.1 123 70.3

Figure 3-0-2: A wall notice at Estate 78 discouraging child labour

The main examples of child rights that were given were as follows: education (48.6%),access to food (20.6%), right to protection 22.9% and right to life 8.0 percent. Childabuse exists within the communities as reported by 29.7% of the respondents. The mainforms of abuse that were reported were; child labour, physical abuse (fighting), rape andchild trafficking.

3.9 Parents Opinion about Child Work

Parents were asked whether they agree or disagree with some statements about child



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work and child labour. Parent’s responses about their attitude and expectations aboutchild labour and childhood are shown in table 3.0.10 below. At least 70 percent of theparents believe that it is good for their child to undertake as many tasks as possible in thehousehold since this will provide them with better opportunities in the future. About 80percent of the households think that children who work demonstrate a grater sense of responsibility. In terms of opinion about school, the majority the parents think that

children learn useful and important things at school and that school is more importantbut that sometimes the poor quality of education makes children and teenagers to stopgoing to school.

Table 3- 0-10 Attitude and expectations about childhood and child labour

Kasungu Mchinji

Yes No Yes No

no % no % no % no %

My children have worked since they weresmall because it will provide them withbetter opportunities for the future?

65 72.2 25 27.8 60 70.6 25 29.4

Boys, Girls and Teenagers who work demonstrate a greater sense of responsibility

71 78.9 19 21.1 69 81.2 16 18.8

My children have had to work since they were small just like myself and rest of thefamily

65 72.2 25 27.8 60 70.6 25 29.4

thoughts about school

Children and teenagers learn useful thingsat school

79 87.8 11 12.2 75 88.2 10 11.8

Children and teenagers learn more athome that at school

32 35.6 58 64.4 29 34.1 56 65.9

The poor quality of education makeschildren and teenagers stop going toschool

58 64.4 32 35.6 56 65.9 29 34.1

In this area school does not provideproper instruction for the children andteenagers

22 24.5 68 75.3 21 24.7 64 85.3

3.10 Main Activities done by Children according to Parents

According to the parents or guardians, the main work or activity that children areinvolved in is farming as indicated by 43.5 per cent of the respondents in both Kasunguand Mchinji. The second main activity or work done by children is livestock managementas indicated by 36.1 percent of the respondents. The other activities reported by the to beundertaken by children include cooking and fetching firewood.



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0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

L i v e s t o

c k M a n

a g e m

e n t

F a r m i n g

C o o k i n g

F e t c h

i n g f i r e w

o o d

Type of Activity

Activities Done by Children

Figure 3-0-3: Work done by children according to parents

Those engaged in livestock management were working for moderate income villagers and were paid very little money per month. In some cases children were working longerhours in also in extreme conditions especially during the rainy season where by animalshad to be looked after. Figure 3-0-4 shows a child looking after livestock in Mchinjidistrict.

Figure 3-0-3: A boy managing livestock in Mchinji

In conclusion, according to the parents or guardians, the work performed by childrenare mainly household activities and fieldwork. During the agricultural seasons children’s

workload turns to increase. The consequences of child labour on education are usually reflected in low attendance and school drop out rate. Many children are kept home by their parents in order to perform different activities in the household and children whodrop out school work intensively. Key informants have shown that poverty materializedin the impossibility of purchasing school supplies and lack of food and discouragesschool attendance. For example, the case of children who have completed theireducation and couldn’t get a job increases the lack of interest towards school.



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CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS FROM CHILDREN

The data captured from the various instruments is presented by way of tables, figures and descriptive analysis. The focus is to provide an objective and factual review of the situation of the working children in the two TAs. Such a review would answer the main research questions and guide policies and actions

targeting child labour in TAs.

4.1 Introduction: Demographic characteristics of the children

Most of the children (93%) covered in this study were from the central region and inparticular from the study TAs and districts. There were some children of seasonalmigrant parents from Lilongwe, Thyolo, Mulanje and Dedza. The study revealed thatthese children were educationally disadvantaged because they face constant interruptionsand loss of social networks which are vital to the academic performance of a child. Thereis however low international migration

Equal numbers of boys and girls were included in this survey. The children were aged

between 9 and 18 years of which 76% were aged 12 to 15 years old as shown in thefigure below. Most of the children (80% Chulu 70% Mkanda) reported that they stay

with their biological parents. A small number of children (16% and 21%) stay with otherguardians of extended family while about (4% and 7%) stay with a direct sister orbrother. There were no children staying with employers in TA Chulu, on the other handthere were 2 children aged 16 were staying with an unrelated employer who needs laboron their farm.

The children staying with other people other than guardians were between the ages of 12to 15 usually orphaned and are raised by aunts/uncles and grandparents. Who a child isstaying with can affect their chances of attaining education as guardians like grandparentsand siblings may not feel responsible enough to enforce and encourage school

attendance. Usually the guardian already has enough responsibility of their own (in caseof extended family) or may be in need of care themselves (e.g. young siblings or elderly grandparents). Although it is believed that children staying with parents are least likely todrop out of school, this is not the situation in these two TA’s implying that there areother factors that contribute to the retention of children in schools.

The average household size was 5 although households with as many as 11 people werenot uncommon. Since most of children are living with their biological parents and there

were at least two adults per household, it implies that there are a minimum of threechildren per household. This has a bearing on distribution of resources and amount of

work the children are involved in. Although a large household implies more ‘helping hands’ in such tasks as agricultural activities, household chores, it also puts a strain on

limited resources like living space, cash and food in the family. In fact the reason childrenseek work outside the home is because they feel obliged to help their parents by meeting their own needs.

Of the 200 respondents, 15 had dropped out of school for various reasons the main onebeing poverty. The drop out were mostly aged between 13-17 years. Since the age atenrollment is usually higher in the rural areas these children dropped out of school atmiddle primary school level (between standard 4-6). The factors that affect schoolattendance are various but they are all factored into poverty and household vulnerability.



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4.2 Educational and work related issues

About half of the children (45%) live within 1 km of the school they attend while 33%cover distances of up to 3km to go to school. A small percentage walked over 5km to getto the nearest school. There are more schools within 1kn radius in TA Chulu’s area thanin TA Mkanda where most children cover between 1- 3 km everyday when going to

school. There were no respondents below the age of 12 who had to walk over 5km to getto the nearest school. Only three children (boys) reported using bicycles to go to schoolbut the rest walk to school.

On the other hand, 73% of the children’s homes were located in the village as opposedto farms. It is interesting to note that there were more children whose parents arelandowners (with homes located within own farm) in TA Chulu and there were morechildren (17%) coming from their parents’ employer’s farm in TA Mkanda’s area. Thisindeed is consistent in that there are more tenant estate workers in Mchinji than inKasungu

On whether children have access to food before going to school, the study found that

over half of the children (58%) do not eat anything before going to school. Those whodo eat something are given high energy foods like maize porridge and cassava although itis doubtful that these foods are nutritionally fortified with proteins and other essentialnutrients that enhance a child’s overall performance in school. Majority of the children(86%) indicated that they are not given cash when going to school and most of those thatare given cash were between the ages of 12-14 years.

This is expected as a household that has food shortages also has cash shortage. Among those that are given food before going to school there were a lot more girls (35%)compared to boys (13%). However most parents already know the role of nutrition inthe well being of the child and would not hesitate to give their children food when going to school such that the major cause then is poverty. The children also reported that they

have other problems like lack of uniforms and school supplies like books, pencils andother things like balls etc. The problems can be divided into three categories as presentedin Table 4.1:

Table 4-0-1: Summary of problems encountered by children

Related directly to Poverty Education Quality Social

• Hunger • Long distance • No time to study

• Lack of clothes • Lack of teachers • Boys proposing

• Lack of books• Lack of learning

materials

• Violence by thugs

• Frequent illness• Shortage of

classes/blocks

• Worn out uniform • Dirty floors

• Eye problems (cannotread properly)

• Cannot understandEnglish

• • Crossing rivers during

rainy season



26

For example 23% of the children in TA Chulu had no uniform as compared with 42% in TA Mkanda while 70% of the children in both TA’s did not have enough school suppliessuch as books and pencils. The problems that are a direct result of household poverty can be eliminated by raising the economic status of the household while those problemsrelated education quality require community and government intervention.

Some children reported fear of being molested or bullied when going to school and a few girls pointed out that they are proposed to by boys. It is interesting to note that childlabor and education are not mutually exclusive as can be seen from the respondents whosaid they were not performing well in class due to too little time to study. Primary schoolclasses usually take about half a day which implies that the children were spending theother half of a day working within or outside the home after knocking off from school.

This type of child labor is usually more detrimental to the child’s well being oftenbecause it is perceived as normal and therefore goes unnoticed. It is not economicemployment and is therefore difficult to be quantified.

This section of the questionnaire was asked to children who had dropped out of school.Because the selected TA’s are dominated by tobacco estates the type of work that was

enquired about was agriculture based. While domestic labor is rampant in Malawi, it ismore common in urban areas. The respondents were therefore asked about the tasksthey are involved in relation to the tobacco estates that they live near to. Only 7.5%(Table 1) of the respondents had dropped out of school for various reasons. These arethe ones who were included in this section of the survey.

It was found out that most of the children work for 120 to 180 days in a year. This isusually seasonal work on tobacco estates which includes field clearing, making nursery beds, watering nurseries to tobacco grading. Children were employed between the ages of 13 to 14 although some as young as 10 were reported to be employed. In general thereare more boys employed (60%) and when girls are employed they provide labor for notless than 120 days in a year.

Some of the working children were reported to be working everyday of the year. It wasalso noted that there were more children in TA Mkanda working for longer duration (upto 300 days in a year) than in TA Chulu. The decision to involve children estate work andthe duration is determined by the economic status of the parents and the silent contactbetween landlords and tenants. Parents often force their children to help to increase theirefficiency and thereby meet their work quota and in such situations the children areunpaid laborers.

On the other hand the children are employed to supplement family income in which caseit is still the parent who receives the child’s wages. Either way it is impossible for working

children to attend school as agricultural work is a continuous cycle with no off periods. The structure and the operation of the tenancy system itself promotes child labor in thatit brings whole families to the estates and makes remuneration dependent on productionper household such that labor contributed by children is just as rewarding as that of anadult.



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4.3 Work involved, supply and demand factors of child labour

Due to high levels of campaign on prevention of child labour in the two districts, it wasdifficult to capture information from child directly involved on child labour especially oncommercial estates. This problem has also been reported in other studies (See Phiri,2007). Therefore, most of the children involved in child labour were from the same

districts.

In terms of work involved, about 30% of the children mentioned providing their servicesin the agricultural sector. Children were supplying their labour in agriculture. Naturalresources sourcing (water and firewood) were also mentioned as the main work wherechildren are involved both as child work as well as child labour. Street vending andlivestock management were not prominent in both TAs. Table 4-0-1 presentspercentages of the children and areas where they provide their labour.

Table 4-0-1: Type of work in which children are involved

Type of work Number of responses Percentage

Agriculture 162 29.7Street vending 14 2.6Livestock Management 14 8.6Firewood sourcing 47 18.5

Water sourcing 101 25.5Child care 139 15.2

Total 546 100

In the tobacco sector, the study found that the entire process of tobacco productionfrom the nursery to land preparation, ridging, weeding, harvesting, curing, processing,

and packing requires the manual skills of labourers and that children were preferred.However, the level of work increased during harvesting and grading as the economic

value the expectations of market return is known. Figure 4-0-1 shows children involvedin tobacco grading.

Figure 4-0-1: Children grading tobacco in Kasungu When children were asked on the supply factors that force them to provide labour (Table4.2), most of them (23% indicated that they require cash for educational materialsfollowed by those who supplement to household income and food. About 21% indicatedthat they need cash for clothing with 19% contributing family labour. Very few (3.3%)had tenant contract or because of peer pressure (10.7%).

Table 4-0-2: Pull factors for child labour

Factors Number of responses Percentage

Supplement to household income for food

54 22.3

Cash for educational materials 56 23.1



28

Labour contribution 46 19.0Peer pressure 26 10.7Cash for clothing 52 21.5Tenant contract 8 3.3Total 242 100

On supply factors (pull forces), the children revealed that they are preferred because of cheap labour (46%) and being honest (23.1%) Some children mentioned obedient andsubmissive as some of the factors for being considered.

In terms of type of hazards they encounter while supplying labour, most of themmentioned simple cuts from tools (33%) followed by extreme weather conditions(31.7%) and lifting heavy goods (24.3). Table 4.3 covered other types of hazardsmentioned by the children.

Table 4-0-3: Type of hazards

Type of hazard Number of responses Percentage

Simple cuts from tools 108 33.2Extreme climatic conditions 103 31.7Chemicals 18 5.5Lifting heavy goods 79 24.3Sexual harassment/exploitation

17 5.2

Total 325 100

Like in other studies (ILO, 2002) the children are exposed to a hazardous working environment especially working places with dust and bad sanitation. . As a result of this,they suffer from fevers, headache, cold, respiratory track infections and stomach pains.

The study noted that due to high levels of interventions on child labour at district level,many children working as child labourers especially in the estates were not available forinterviews. However, focus group discussions with both parents and teachers revealedthat there are several children from other districts who came with their parents involvedin child labour. These discussions also showed that children even accompanied by theirparents are powerless and easily exploitable by the employers.

Children themselves indicated that when they provide their labour for economicpurposed they work longer hours (between 8 and 12) and sometimes at late at night orearly hours. This case especially girls involved in water sourcing and boys involved intobacco harvesting and grading. Those staying within the commercial estates wereleaving in poor living environments with lack of sanitation and unhygienicaccommodation within the estates.

This study did not capture the commercial estates; however, there is need to such studiesto target commercial estates for more and precise information on the working conditions. It should be noted that with high levels of poverty, food insecurity, child



29

labour will continue to flourish in these district (demand districts) as well as in thosedistricts that act as supply centres.

In terms of the economic actors promoting child labour, the study found that guardians(such as uncles and aunts) were the main actors at village level to involve children foreconomic purposes compared to parents. However, focus group discussions and experts

meetings at district level revealed that the commercial estates are the principle economicactors in the tobacco sector.

From the discussions, it was that apparent that the tobacco market structure still favourshiring child labourers because of the sector’s unorganized nature and the lack of any need for highly skilled or trained. Children indicated that most of the time they aretrained on the spot and it takes few days to know how to grade tobacco, or to identify mature tobacco leaf.

4.4 Conclusion and recommendations

For this discussion it can be concluded that children in the districts have the potential tocontinue with their education if alternative livelihoods that can enhance food security andreduce poverty are available at household scale. For example, by staying with theirbiological parents and within their communities, the children have the opportunity tolearn both cultural and social issues that are significant to the development of the child.

Programmes that aim to reduce child labour at this situation should be inclusive enoughto involve all the relevant stakeholders including the parents, chiefs and the childreninvolved. There is also need to look at issues at primary education centres where somechildren indicated that the conditions are poor for their comfortability. The teachersrequire good incentives from both the government and the projects that are being undertaken in these districts. By empowering the teachers and school committees with

issues of child labour and child rights, proper strategies can be implemented by theschool committees them selves.

These districts are dominated by commercial estates and most their agricultural land is of poor quality. As such food insecurity is very high in all the districts. New developmentinterventions could look at alternative sources of income that are sustainable enough forboth parents and children. Some of the recommendations for the Child Labour projectinclude the following:

• Establishment of youth clubs for both school going and out of school childrenon agricultural based income generating activities. This could be one way empowering the children with vocational based approached to poverty reduction.

• Empower parents with small scale business that will generate income forhousehold use as well as for education. These could include, livestock farming,commercial farming, bee keeping, and agro-processing

• The project could introduce other intervention that could help to promote self help project such as classrooms. For example estate owners could be approachedfor cash for work to raise funds for the community school

• Agricultural and environmental conservation technologies could also beintroduced to reduce child labour. In this case, establishment of community



30

woodlots for firewood could reduce number of girls working on domesticactivities.

• Water conservation strategies/technologies could also be introduced at villagelevel with the support of agriculture and environmental extension officers

working in the same district. For example UNICEF is promoting suchprogrammes in Mchinji.



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CHAPTER 5 CURRENT INTERVENTIONS AND POLICY GAPS

5.1 Introduction

There are already a number of stakeholders implementing different intervention

programmes to combat child labour both in Kasungu and Mchinji districts. They aremainly government organizations and non-governmental organizations. Most of thememploy a three pronged approach mainly in one of the three main areas of prevention of child labour through civic education and sensitization campaigns, withdrawal andrehabilitation and protection.

Many child related organizations and institutions seem to be focusing only on individualchild development programme. Most of these organizations do not work with children’sfamily, communities and institutions. These organizations are might be ignoring theroot causes and working on symptomatic remedies of child labour.

5.2 Features of Intervention Programmes

In both districts they have District Child Labour Committee at Assembly level thatcoordinates all programmes, strategies and activities related to child labor. Below thedistrict they have an area labor committee usually at village headman level.

Members of the district committee include

• The District Labor Officer

• The District Welfare Officer

• District Education Office

• Police

• Judiciary • Immigration

• Agriculture

• NGOs

Most of the intervention programmes aimed at prevention and protection are focused onformal and non-formal education. There is a lack of programme that aims at stopping orchecking children who have been withdrawn from work places and repatriated fromretuning back to work. From the review of existing programmes, the government role inprevention and protection from child labour seem to be limited due to lack resources.

There is no strict mechanism to monitor and evaluate the existing legal provision on the

minimum age at work and the employment of under aged children. However ILO/IPEChas assisted government to withdraw and rehabilitate child laborers in both districtstrough the provision of bursaries and the integration into the formal and non-formaleducation and supported with school materials such as exercise books and uniform.One of the highlighted cases in Kasungu is a withdrawn child who was selected toKamuzu Academy, one of the most prestigious schools in Malawi.



32

Besides government, intervention programmes run by different organizations are moreof preventative and rescue and rehabilitation of child labourers. However theseprogrammes have been working working only in the districts where children go to work not in the districts where the children come from. An ILO /IPEC supported project inKasungu which started in 2003 being implemented by TANARD ( a local NGO) has sofar managed to withdraw 1, 690 children from work places and trained 25 area child

labour committees at Group Village Headman level.

ILO/IPEC is also supporting the Integrated Child Labor Elimination Project which hasso far managed to withdraw 154 children from workplaces, trained child labourmonitoring volunteers and trained estate owners on the evils of child labour. Thisproject is being implemented in TA Wimbe, Kaomba and Mwase. Other activities of theprojects have included training local primary teachers on how to handle withdrawnchildren, training of local artisans on how to support older withdrawn children toacquire some skills and training of parents working children in income generating activities.

In the case people who continue to employ child laborers, the district labour office in

Kasungu has managed to prosecute about 20 employers. All the employers managed topay the fines meted out the courts which range from MK8, 000.00 to MK18, 000.00. InMchinji, there are mainly two projects working specifically against child labour. There is

TANARD with funding from ILO/IPEC started in 2007 and has been working in theprevention of child labour through awareness campaigns, training of child labourcommittees and providing income generating activities to vulnerable families.

The target of the project is to withdraw 1000 children from child labour and prevent afurther 1500 from entering the work places. So far the project has managed to withdraw 498 children from work places (329 boys and 169 girls). Out of these 90 were supposedto be attached to local artisans to learn some skills while the rest were sent back toformal education with support of exercise books and uniforms.

The other main project is being implemented by a faith based organization, Salvation Army since January 2007. The project is working against child labour, teenageprostitution and child trafficking. The organization has a purpose built transit centre forcounseling and rehabilitating withdrawn children. So far, according to the authoritiesthere the over 40 children have passed through the centre since it was opened.

Despite some achievements in the rescue and rehabilitation of some working children by both government and NGOs, re-entering to the work of children who were rescued,rehabilitated and sent back to their families for re-integration has not been stopped dueto lack of resources to make follow ups. Other NGOS in the area of Child rights andchild protection in general are Plan International in Kasungu, World Vison, NICE and

Women’s Voice in Mchinji. There is also a local radio station in Mchinji called Mudzi Wanthu which also helps in the sensitization of people about the evils of child labourand child rights in general.



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Table 5-0-1: Intervention programmes by different stakeholders in combating worst forms of child labour

Programmes and Strategies on Prevention, Protection, Rescue and Rehabilitation

Stakeholder Prevention and ProtectionRescue, Rehabilitation and Training

KasunguGovernment/ILO/IPECand TANARD in Kasungu

Integrated Child LabourElimination Project

ProgrammesRe-integration of child workers into the formal schooling systemNon-formal education to older childrenStrategies

An effective sensitization and awareness campaignPlacing of anti-labor slogans

Training of Child labor committees Training of estate owners Trained 25 child labor committees

MchinjiGovernment/TANARD

with support fromILO/IPEC

Programmes and StrategiesSponsorship of withdrawn childrenProvision of IGAs to vulnerable families

Salvation Army ProgrammesChild labour

Teen age prostitutionChild trafficking StrategiesCounseling withdrawn children.Sensitization and awareness campaignsHas helped over 40 children since it was opened in 2007

5.3 SWOT analysis of child labour intervention in the district

Based on the above programmes and actors, there was need to have a SWOT analysissuch that CEYCA and MCTU could have the opportunity to implement theirprogrammes effectively.

5.3.1 Strengths

In both districts, the stakeholders have resources that have been provided by largefunding agencies such as ILO/IPEC and the Malawi Government. The existence of

functional district and sub committees on child labour is also important for both policy and programme implementation. The current Child labour project could utilize thisstrength by networking and collaborating with existing agencies. There are already favorable networks through NOVOC that could be used to access other resources.Knowing that both CEYCA and MCTU have already a good reputation on childprotection at country level, this could be taken as an advantage when implementing theprogrammes in the districts.



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Most of the communities in these districts have land as their natural asset. Programmethat aim to reduce child labour is agricultural dominated areas should try to promoteagricultural programmes that will not have an impact on the lives of children. Thesecould be intensive livestock farming especially small ruminants. Natural resources couldbe used to promote income generating activities.

5.3.2 Weaknesses As covered, most of the programmes are focusing on formal education and very little isbeing done on informal education. Children that have dropped out of school are notdirect involved in the intervention either as programme planners and or implementers.Children who have been withdrawn from child labour will require special programmesthat must improve their lives. Vocational programmes such as tailoring, carpentry couldbe introduced within the communities and marketing skills must also be provided.

In terms of education, both districts are faced with problems of educational materialsincluding classrooms, reading books and writing materials. This could be regarded as aninstitutional weakness that could affect the implementation of a project. Lack of accessto protected natural resources could also be promoting poverty and in turn child labour

especially in TA Chulu where Kasungu National Park is protected. Programmes of preventing child labour could be delivered with environmental consideration.

5.3.3 Opportunities

It should be noted that most of estate owners are quite aware about the ills of childlabour and they have put in place mechanisms to prevent or reduce child labour. There isalso an opportunity to utilize existing child labour committees at community level. Mostof the children are staying with their biological parents. Interventions could target bothparents as well as children. Such intervention could aim to increase household incomesand improve food security and protection of the environment. The development andpromotion of the Malawi National Action Plan on OVCs, could also be taken as an

opportunity as many communities, project officers and beneficiaries are aware of therequired and services available to vulnerable children

5.3.4 Threats

There are still some child works that have an impact on the health of children and canalso have an impact on the education. In this study, several children especially girls wereinvolved in household chores after their school sessions. There is need to identify theseassignments and introduce programmes that could prevent children from such work.

5.4 Policy gaps

Malawi is developing the National action plan for elimination of child labour (GoM,2007). This section covers some of the findings from the study areas in relation to thisdocument. Other related policy instruments were not reviewed due to resourceconstraints and time limitation. In this working paper, the definition of child labourcovers employing a child less than the age of 14 or any activity that exploits a child,prevents a child from attending school, or work that negatively impacts on the health,social, cultural, psychological, moral, religious and related dimensions of the childupbringing. The definition further covers working period of seven or more hours a week.



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(GOM, 2007; Chirwa, 2006). While this definition is comprehensive enough to include, age, impacts of child labour,period of work, it fails to capture the hazards that are involved and critical indicators of outcomes. The policy working draft needs measurable indicators of child labour in theMalawi context. For example in this study, parents argued that it their responsibility toinvolve children when to comes to contribution of household income and food security.

The study also noted that many children are fully involved in primary school sessionsdespite being involved in child labour. There is need to discuss further the impact of child labour of primary as well as secondary school.

Respondents covered in this study are quite aware of the key issues covered in thisdefinition but there is need to clarify further the ills of child labour as covered in thepolicy document. There is a strong brief that traditional and cultural issues must betransferred to children as they become responsible people. These issues could also beclarified in the policy document. For example (see also Kwengwere, 2007) if a child hasgone through an initiation ceremony, is no longer regarded as a child despite being lessthan 15 years old.

The study also found that the National Action Plan on Child labour is notcomprehensive enough to identify relevant policy gaps. However, some existing lawshave covered some issues of child labour including the Employment Act (GOM, 2002)that prohibits employment of children. This does not dwell more on primary educationbut covers the protection of children from hazardous work. The law also covers work inpublic and private agricultural, industrial and non industrial sectors, but fails to othersectors such as training institutions.

The Malawi constitution (GOM, 1995) has also sections on child protection especially those under the age of 16. This has also been covered extensively in the National ActionPlan on Orphans and Vulnerable Children (GOM, 2005). Despite that compulsory primary education has been covered in these policy documents, there are no resources

for its implementation. There are other bills include the Care, Protection and Justice,Child Labour Policy, National Code of Conduct that have also covered issues of childlabour. The study found that those involved in explaining these policies to the grass rootlevel are not technically aware of the issues covered in these legal documents. There isneed to harmonise all policies that related to child protection and develop acomprehensive National Action Plan on Child Labour.

5.5 Conclusion

In conclusion, Malawi has developed several legal and policy instruments that touches onchild protection in general and specifically on child labour. Most of these instrumentshave not yet been approved officially. This could be an opportunity to come up with acomprehensive policy on child protection in Malawi. There is need for capacity building

at district and community level through the relevant departments and traditionalstructures on issues of child labour as stipulated in the policy documents.

Amendments on approved laws and acts could also be done to reflect political and socialchanges. The need to have the national code of conduct on child labour could alsoenhance the preparation of the policy. Stakeholders within these districts could utilize theNational Action Plan on OVC as a guiding tool on child protection. Finally, there is needfor key stakeholder such as UNICEF, ILO/IPEC, and Government of Malawi to work together for an integrated policy framework on Child Labour. Commitment of resources



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for this assignment is also required at national level.

CHAPTER 6: GENERAL CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

In conclusion this study has weaved together issues and perceptions of child labour fromparents, children, and officials from Kasungu (TA Chulu) and Mchinji (TA Mkanda)..

These factors are both internal as well as external in relation to the household. Internalfactors include poverty levels, responsible person for the children, householddemographic features, parental perceptions, income volatility and family structure; whileexternal factors include condition of the school, availability of educational materials,economic incentives in the tobacco industry and some policy constraints on child labour.Key finding of this study have been summarized in Table 6.1

Table 6-0-1: Summary of findings

Terms of reference Major findings

General householdinformation

-Agriculture is the main occupation of head of households- 13% of the sample (parents) have not been to school while50% have been to senior secondary education- Over 88% of the children are attending school- Households in both districts have relatively more land thannational average- Maize is the main crop grown in the study areas followed by tobacco.- Most households run out of food before the next harvest- Ganyu (working for cash) was the main copping strategy during periods of shortage of food- Majority of households depend on water from rivers and

streams- On average, the distance to source of water is 1.6km and1.9km for Mchinji and Kasungu respectively.- Malaria remain the main health problem in both districtsespecially during rainy season- More households were keeping orphans- Most orphans are being kept by grandparents, uncles, aunts,sisters and brothers.- Households are quite aware about issues of child rights- Child work is mostly in crop production followed by livestock management for boys and water and firewood sourcing forgirls.

Constraints that heldparents to send theirchildren to school

•

In terms of current school attendance, most of thechildren 88.1 percent indicated that they are currently attending school.

• In cases of drop outs poverty (lack of clothes)

• Early marriages were also mentioned as major causes of school dropouts especially among girls.

• Children are forced to absentee themselves from schoolin order to engage in income generating activities tosupplement family income and lack of food.



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• In one case in Mchinji, younger children cannot attendschool especially in the rainy season due to lack of bridge on Matizi river.

• Other reasons mentioned for school drop outs includeorphanhood (loosing parents or guardians), lack of school infrastructure such as proper toilets, classrooms,

shortage of teachers and learning materials. The picturebelow shows one of the schools in Mchinji which hasonly one block and no toilet facilities

Push and pull factors of child labour

- Household level poverty is the main factor leading to childlabour- Lack of access to natural resources for sustainable livelihoods- Potential economic opportunities in the tobacco industry - Lack of school materials especially books and clothes- Contribution to family labour on the estate- Availability of cheap labour from the children

Economic activities where

child labour is supplied andtype of hazards

- The main area is agriculture in general and in particular

tobacco- Water and fire wood sourcing - Livestock management

Current intervention

- Awareness and civic campaigns to prevent and reducechild labour

- Withdrawal of child labourers- Rehabilitation of withdrawn children- The government, NGOs and FBOs are involved in

delivering services

Policy gaps

- National action plan is still under development- Child labour has been covered in other legal and policy

documents- There is need to come up with a child protection policy - Key stakeholders to work towards the development of a

national comprehensive policy on child protection- NAP on OVC could be utilized while working on child

labour issues

The study has revealed that worst forms of child labour are prevalent in the two districts.However, due to limited resources and sampling techniques, it has been difficult to comeup with a specific number of child labourers in the two TAs. While migrants farmershave been considered as the main source of child labour, this study has proved that eventhose staying in their own villages with their parents are also vulnerable to child labour.Like in pervious studies child labour is directly linked to household vulnerability in termsof access to food and income. Programmes that aim to reduce child labour could take anintegrated approach to cover these cross-cutting issues.

In the first objective: Constraints/factors that held parents from sending their children to school, thestudy has revealed that poverty which leads to lack clothes and food for children. Otherreasons mentioned for school drop outs include orphanhood (loosing parents or



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guardians), lack of school infrastructure such as proper toilets, classrooms, shortage of teachers and learning materials.

In this case, the recommended approach could be the provision food (breakfast) atschool can help to keep children at school. In addition there is need for direct assistancein form of a school allowance to be used for the best interest of the child like school

material and uniform.

The second objective covered demand and supply factors that promote child labour in the TAs covered. The study has noted that to identify child labourers was difficult due to projectand interventions undertaken by government and other stakeholders. Meaning that thereis need to design programmes that will allow the communities to reveal the main sourcesof child labourers and where they are working. One point to note is that study hasshown that most of the children in these areas are originally from the same districts andfrom the same areas. Therefore, issues of social relations and networks will be importantfor the intended project.

Household factors determine whether a child is made to work around the household or

away from the household (see: ILO, 2002). In this case, most children are working away from household to contribute to income and food security. Even though basic educationis free in Malawi, Basic education is free in there is an opportunity cost of sending children to school in addition to the cost of providing school materials.

The former cost surrounds what the custodians have to give up in order that the childrencan go to school. For an impoverished household such opportunity costs may beunbearable hence the need for the children having to work. In these areas tobacco being the main crop requires intensive labour and operations that are costly. Income shortfallscould lead to households incurring debt, especially from village money lenders or localmerchants or craftsmen. Such debt could be a cause of child labour. New projects couldtry to raise incomes of these vulnerable communities without putting pressure on

children and parents.

Children are involved in several sectors but tobacco remains the main economic sector where child labourers are provided. This covers the whole process of producing tobaccofrom nursery to marketing. In this case it coincides with most of the school calendar.

The Child Labour project should collaborate and network with existing stakeholders inraising awareness among the estate owners, school committees and traditional leaders.

There is need to design a vibrant and effective awareness campaign that could involveother new players in the field of child labour such as volunteers from University Colleges

who could act as role models. The involved of cultural troupes to deliver the message nthe ills of child labour and promotion of primary education could also be an idealapproach.

On education and school condition, distance to school, school infrastructures, availability of educational materials were mentioned as some of the limitations to their schooling.

The Child Labour project could introduce village school session or afternoon classes within the villages. These have been effective in a project carried by students from BundaCollege in peri-urban areas of Lilongwe City. Apart from empowering the children witheducational skills, the approach is preventing children from working after classes.

The thirds objective was to identify child labourers in different economic activities by age



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groups and sex and type of hazards. This study was unable to identify child labourers inthe tobacco estates. However, the study has showed that it is manly you boys betweenthe ages of 9 and 14 working either in livestock management and tobacco farming (mainly tobacco plucking and grading). There are fewer reported cases of young girlsemployed as house servants or working in bars or restaurants.

On issues of hazards have mainly been on extreme weather conditions especially rainsand high temperatures. While communities were unable to identify the impacts of thesehazards, new projects could develop indicators that could be used by relevantstakeholders working on child labour. Some of the hazards as listed in the ILO andgovernment reports are not known by the communities as well as children including handling of chemicals and all working in poor conditions.

General Recommendations

Provision food (breakfast) at school can help to keep children at school especially

between December and March). (Some schools are already doing this and there

are indications of improvements in school attendance. Direct assistance in form of a school allowance to be used for the best interest of

the child like school material and uniform.

Since school condition, distance to school, school infrastructures were mentioned

as some of the limitations to schooling provision of school infrastructure like the

building more classroom blocks, toilets, provision of clean drinking water would

be helpful.

Provision of direct assistance to parents of vulnerable children in form of loans to

engage in income generating activities so that they should not send their children

to work.

Intensify civic education campaigns especially in the supply districts of Lilongwe,

Dedza, Mulanje to make them aware of the ILO and government conventions and

laws of prohibiting child labour. There need to establish an effective monitoring system for repatriated or

withdrawn children to make sure they do not go back to child labour.

Need to make more resources available for inspection, enforcement, and

monitoring to ensure that employers don‘t use child labourers.

Older child labourers who cannot be sent back to formal schooling should be

offered vocational training.

There is need for an effective networking system between stakeholders led by

government in order to minimise the duplication of programmes. There also need

for regular interaction among all stakeholders.



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REFERENCES

Chirwa, W.C. (2006) Child labour in urban areas of Malawi: A rapid assessment report.

Government of Malawi (2007) Draft report on the National Action Plan for theElimination of Child Labour in Malawi

Government of Malawi (2005) National plan of action for orphans and other vulnerablechildren (2005-2009). Ministry of Women and Children Development, Lilongwe,Malawi.

Government of Malawi (2000) Employment Act, Lilongwe, Malawi

Government of Malawi (1995) Malawi constitution, Lilongwe, Malawi

ILO (2002) Investigating the worst forms of child labour in the Nepalese Carpetindustry: a rapid assessment. ILO, Geneva, Switzerland.

Kwengwere, P (200) Child labour in Malawi: Draft report on consultations undertakenfor the National Action Plan for the elimination of child labour in Malawi.

Phiri, M.A.R (2007) Children in need of social protection baseline survey: Householdsurvey report. A Draft report submitted to Ministry of Women and Child Development,Lilongwe, Malawi

Phiri, M.A.R (2007) Children in need of social protection baseline survey: Child labourand trafficking report. A Draft report submitted to Ministry of Women and ChildDevelopment, Lilongwe, Malawi



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APPENDIX

APPENDIX 1: Household characteristics

Location TotalKasungu(n=90)

Mchinji (n=85) (N=175)

Count Percent Count PercentGender of household head by District

Sex Male 76 43.4 79 45.1 155Female 14 8.00 6 3.4 20

Age of household head (yrs) 47.17 48.35Household composition

Total household size (mean) 5.22 5.15 5.18 Aged above 12 years (mean) 3.02 2.89 2.95

Aged 12 years and below (mean)

2.46 2.17 2.28

Dependency ratio 1.00 0.94 0.96Marital Status of Household Head by DistrictMaritalStatus

Unmarried 1 1.1 1 1.2 2 1.1Married 72 80.9 77 90.6 149 85.6Divorced 2 2.2 2 1.1

Widow/widower 13 14.6 5 5.9 18 10.3Separated 1 1.1 2 2.4 3 1.7

Main Occupation of Household Head by DistrictOccupation Agriculture 78 88.6 70 83.3 148 86.0

Govt./privatesector service

2 2.3 4 4.8 6 3.5

Others 14 9.1 6 11.9 20 10.5Level of Education of the Household Head by District

Never attended school 10 11.6 13 15.7 23 13.6 Junior primary school 14 16.3 20 24.1 34 20.1Senior primary school 50 58.1 36 43.4 86 50.9

Junior Secondary school 9 10.5 4 4.8 13 7.7Senior Secondary School 2 2.3 8 9.6 10 5.9

Tertiary 1 1.2 2 2.4 3 1.8 Total 86 100 83 100 169 100



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Appendix 1: Villages in the eight school catchment areas covered by the study inthe two Districts.

Name of Village Districts Total

Kasungu Mchinji

Amoni 2 2

Benesi 1 1

Buku 3 3

Chakwanika 2 2

Chamveka 2 2

Champonda 1 1

Chamveka 2 2

Chawala 3 3

Chigadula 3 3

Chikwanda 9 9

Chikwawe 1 1

Chimsula 2 2

Chinsansa 1 1

Chinunda 3 3

Chioza 3 3

Chithipa 3 3

Chiwaya 1 1

Chiwoko 1 1

Chiyeza 3 3

Chizinga 1 1

Estate 78 1 1

Fanawazi 1 1

Fawele 1 1

Julius 1 1

Kachere 1 1

Kachilili 11 11

Kachocho 1 1

Kafela 9 9



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Ngolomi 5 3

Kambakula 1 1

Kamkwamba 1 1Kangoma 2 2

Kapaza 3 3

Kaulimbo 2 2

Kawelekamo 2 2

Kawere 3

Kazyozyo 7

Kholowana 1 1

Khuchwa 1 1Kuthete 1

Lazaro 1

Maluvenje 1 1

Masumbi 2 2

Mateyo 3 3

Maziya 2 2

Mboto 1 1

Milliati 2 2Mkanda 7 7

Mkaninge 1 1

Mkulumimba 1 1

Mlongoti 2 2

Mpanzi 2 2

Mphako 1 1

Mphalamise 1 1

Mphinda 1 1Mtambalika 2 2

Mtumboliwe 1 1

Makuvenye 1 1

Mwezi 3 3



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Ndeule 1 1

Phoka 2 2

Pondamali 2 2

Salamu 3 3

Saliyere 1 1

Sundwe 3 2

Thethe 1 1

Thumbalawo 1 1

Walalamu 1 1

Zebron 2 2

Zakaliya 4 4

Zamazama 2 2

Zifa 5 5

Zolomondo 1 1

TOTAL 90 85 175

CL Kasungu-Mchinji Survey 2008

Documents

Transcript of CL Kasungu-Mchinji Survey 2008