Ciccarelli ch01 lecture
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PSYCHOLOGYPSYCHOLOGYAN EXPLORATIONAN EXPLORATION
PSYCHOLOGYPSYCHOLOGYAN EXPLORATIONAN EXPLORATION
CHAPTER
Second EditionSecond Edition
Psychology: An Exploration, Second EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
the science of psychology
1
Psychology: An Exploration, Second EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Why study psychology?Psychology not only helps you understand why people (and animals)do the things they do, but it also helps you better understand yourself and your reactions to others. Psychology can help you comprehend how your brain and body are connected, how to improve your learning abilities and memory, and how to deal with the stresses of life, both ordinary and extraordinary. In studying psychology, an understanding of the methods psychologists use is crucial because research can be flawed, and knowing how research should be done can bring those flaws to light. And finally, psychology and its research methods promote critical thinking, which can be used to evaluate not just research but also claims of all kinds, including those of advertisers and politicians.
Psychology: An Exploration, Second EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Learning Objectives
• LO 1.1Definition and goals of psychology• LO 1.2Structuralism and functionalism• LO 1.3Early Gestalt, psychoanalysis, and behaviorism• LO 1.4Modern perspectives Skinner, Maslow and Rogers• LO 1.5Psychiatrist, psychologist, and other professionals• LO 1.6Psychology is a science; steps in scientific method• LO 1.7Naturalistic and laboratory settings• LO 1.8Case studies and surveys• LO 1.9Correlational technique• LO 1.10Experimental approach and terms• LO 1.11Placebo and the experimenter effects• LO 1.12Elements of a real-world experiments• LO 1.13Ethical concerns in conducting research• LO 1.14Principles of critical thinking
Psychology: An Exploration, Second EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
What is Psychology?
• The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.– Behavior
Overt actions and reactions
– Mental processes Internal, covert activity of the mind
– Scientific Prevent possible biases from leading to
faulty observations Precise and careful measurement
LO 1.1 Definition and goals of psychology
Psychology: An Exploration, Second EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Goals of Psychology
• Description– What is happening?
• Explanation– Why is it happening?– Theory
Explanation of a set of observations or facts
LO 1.1 Definition and goals of psychology
Psychology: An Exploration, Second EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Goals of Psychology
• Prediction– Will it happen again?
• Control– How can it be changed?
LO 1.1 Definition and goals of psychology
Psychology: An Exploration, Second EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Structuralism
• Structuralism– Focused on structure or basic elements
of the mind.
LO 1.2 Structuralism and functionalism
Psychology: An Exploration, Second EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Structuralism
• Wilhelm Wundt– Established first psychology laboratory
Leipzig, Germany in 1879
– Developed objective introspection Examine and measure personal thought
and mental activities
LO 1.2 Structuralism and functionalism
Psychology: An Exploration, Second EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
German physiologist Wilhelm Wundt participates in an experiment in his laboratory as students look on. Courtesy of General Information Center
Psychology: An Exploration, Second EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Structuralism
• Edward Titchener– Wundt’s student– Brought structuralism to America.
• Margaret Washburn– Titchener’s student– First woman to earn a Ph.D. in
psychology.
• Structuralism died out in early 1900s.
LO 1.2 Structuralism and functionalism
Psychology: An Exploration, Second EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Functionalism
• Functions in the real world• How people to adapt, live, work, and
play• Proposed by William James• Influenced modern fields:
– Educational psychology– Evolutionary psychology– Industrial/organizational psychology
LO 1.2 Structuralism and functionalism
Psychology: An Exploration, Second EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Gestalt Psychology
• Max Wertheimer– Perception can only be understood as a
complete event.– Understanding patterns, whole figures
• Gestalt– German translated as “organized whole”
LO 1.3 Early Gestalt, psychoanalysis, and behaviorism
Psychology: An Exploration, Second EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Gestalt Psychology
• Ideas are now part of modern cognitive psychology – Field focuses on perception, learning,
memory, thought processes, and problem solving
LO 1.3 Early Gestalt, psychoanalysis, and behaviorism
Psychology: An Exploration, Second EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Figure 1.1 A Gestalt PerceptionThe eye tends to “fill in” the blanks hereand sees both of these figures as circles rather than as a series of dots or a broken line.
Psychology: An Exploration, Second EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Psychoanalysis
• Developed by Sigmund Freud– Trained as a physician– Worked with patients with nervous
disorders
LO 1.3 Early Gestalt, psychoanalysis, and behaviorism
Psychology: An Exploration, Second EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud walks with his daughter Anna, also a psychoanalyst. © Hulton Archive/Getty Images
Psychology: An Exploration, Second EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Psychoanalysis
• Main Ideas– Unconscious (unaware) mind
Where threatening impulses and desires are repressed
– Repressed urges create nervous disorders
LO 1.3 Early Gestalt, psychoanalysis, and behaviorism
Psychology: An Exploration, Second EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Psychoanalysis
• Freud’s concepts– Stressed importance of early childhood
experiences– Formed the basis for modern therapy
LO 1.3 Early Gestalt, psychoanalysis, and behaviorism
Psychology: An Exploration, Second EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Behaviorism
• Ivan Pavlov– Russian physiologist– Studied digestive processes– Reflex can occur with new and unrelated
stimulus – Conditioned dogs to salivate to
metronome
LO 1.3 Early Gestalt, psychoanalysis, and behaviorism
Psychology: An Exploration, Second EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Physiologist Ivan Pavlov uses a dog to demonstrate the conditioned reflex to students at the Russian Military Medical Academy. © Bettmann/Corbis
Psychology: An Exploration, Second EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Behaviorism
• John B. Watson – Developed the “science of behavior” – Psychology should focus on observable
behavior Must be directly seen and measured Ignore notion of unconscious
– Believed phobias were learned through conditioning. Case of “Little Albert”
– Child conditioned to fear a white rat
LO 1.3 Early Gestalt, psychoanalysis, and behaviorism
Psychology: An Exploration, Second EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
American psychologist John Watson is known as the father of behaviorism. Behaviorism focuses only on observable behavior. Courtesy of Underwood & Underwood/Bettmann/Corbis
Psychology: An Exploration, Second EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Modern Perspectives
• Psychodynamic perspective – Modern version of psychoanalysis– Focus on development of a sense of self – Discover motivations behind behavior
No emphasis on sexual motivations
LO 1.4 Modern perspectives Skinner, Maslow, and Rogers
Psychology: An Exploration, Second EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Modern Perspectives
• Behavioral perspective – B. F. Skinner
Developed theory of how voluntary behavior is learned
Introduced concept or reinforcement
– Perspective was major force in the twentieth century
LO 1.4 Modern perspectives Skinner, Maslow, and Rogers
Psychology: An Exploration, Second EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Behaviorist B. F. Skinner puts a rat through its paces. What challenges might arise from applying information gained from studies with animals to human behavior? Courtesy of Nina Leen/Time Life Pictures/Getty Images
Psychology: An Exploration, Second EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Modern Perspectives
• Humanistic perspective– People have free will to choose destiny– Early contributors:
Abraham Maslow Carl Rogers
– Self-actualization Achieving one’s full potential or actual
self
LO 1.4 Modern perspectives Skinner, Maslow, and Rogers
Psychology: An Exploration, Second EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Modern Perspectives
• Humanistic perspective– Modern Humanism
Used in psychotherapy Assists in self-understanding
LO 1.4 Modern perspectives Skinner, Maslow, and Rogers
Psychology: An Exploration, Second EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Modern Perspectives
• Cognitive perspective– Major force emerging in 1960’s– Focus on memory, intelligence,
perception, problem-solving, and learning.
– Cognitive neuroscience Physical workings of brain and nervous
system Use imaging techniques
– MRI, PET
LO 1.4 Modern perspectives Skinner, Maslow, and Rogers
Psychology: An Exploration, Second EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
These scans show loss of gray matter in the brains of individuals with very early-onset, adolescent schizophrenia over a five-year period, highlighting one focus of the biological perspective. Courtesy of The University of California, Los Angeles
Psychology: An Exploration, Second EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Modern Perspectives
• Sociocultural perspective– Examines relationship between social
behavior and culture
LO 1.4 Modern perspectives Skinner, Maslow, and Rogers
Psychology: An Exploration, Second EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Modern Perspectives
• Biopsychological perspective – Behavior is a result of biological events
in the body Genetic influences, hormones, and the
activity of the nervous system
LO 1.4 Modern perspectives Skinner, Maslow, and Rogers
Psychology: An Exploration, Second EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Modern Perspectives
• Evolutionary perspective – Examines biological bases of universal
mental characteristics that all humans share Seeks to explain mental strategies and
traits Mind is seen as set of information-
processing machines
LO 1.4 Modern perspectives Skinner, Maslow, and Rogers
Psychology: An Exploration, Second EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Psychologists with an evolutionary perspective would be interested in how this couple selected each other as partners. Photo credit: Bill Aron/PhotoEdit
Psychology: An Exploration, Second EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Types of Psychological Professionals
• Psychiatrist – Medical doctor (M.D.)– Specializes in the diagnosis and
treatment of psychological disorders.
• Psychoanalyst – Psychiatrist or a psychologist – Special training in Freudian theory and
psychoanalysis.
LO 1.5 Psychiatrist, psychologist, and other professionals
Psychology: An Exploration, Second EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Types of Psychological Professionals
• Psychiatric social worker – Social worker trained in therapy
methods – Focus on the environmental conditions
impacting mental disorders Poverty, overcrowding, stress, and drug
abuse.
LO 1.5 Psychiatrist, psychologist, and other professionals
Psychology: An Exploration, Second EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Types of Psychological Professionals
• Psychologist – Academic degree and specialized
training in psychology– Work in counseling, teaching, and
research– Specialization can include clinical,
counseling, developmental, social, personality theory
LO 1.5 Psychiatrist, psychologist, and other professionals
Psychology: An Exploration, Second EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Figure 1.2 Work Settings and Subfields of Psychology(a) There are many different work settings for psychologists. Although not obvious from the chart,many psychologists work in more than one setting. For example, a clinical psychologist may work in a hospital setting and teach at a university or college. (Tsapogas et al., 2006) (b) This pie chart shows the specialty areas of psychologists who recently received their doctorates. (Hoffer et al., 2007)
Psychology: An Exploration, Second EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Scientific Methodology
• Scientific Method – System of gathering data – Bias and error in measurement are
reduced
LO 1.6 Psychology is a science; steps in scientific method
Psychology: An Exploration, Second EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Scientific Methodology
• Steps in the Scientific Method:1. Perceive the question2. Form hypothesis
– Tentative explanation of a phenomenon based on observations
3. Test the hypothesis4. Draw conclusions5. Report results
– Allows for replication• Demonstrate reliability of results
LO 1.6 Psychology is a science; steps in scientific method
Psychology: An Exploration, Second EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
The Scientific MethodLO 1.6 Psychology is a science; steps in scientific method
Psychology: An Exploration, Second EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Descriptive Methods
• Naturalistic Observation – Watch animals or humans behave in
their normal environment– Advantage:
Realistic picture of behavior
LO 1.7 Naturalistic and laboratory settings
Psychology: An Exploration, Second EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Descriptive Methods
• Naturalistic Observation – Disadvantages:
Observer effect – People or animals behave differently when
they know they are being observed– May reduce observer effect through
participant observation
LO 1.7 Naturalistic and laboratory settings
Psychology: An Exploration, Second EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Descriptive Methods
• Naturalistic Observation – Disadvantages:
Observer bias – Observers see what they expect to see– May reduce observer bias through use of
blind observers Each naturalistic setting is unique
– Observations may not hold
LO 1.7 Naturalistic and laboratory settings
Psychology: An Exploration, Second EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
This researcher is studying the behavior of a group of lemurs. Is this naturalistic observation? Why or why not? Photo credit: Cyril Ruoso/Photolibrary
Psychology: An Exploration, Second EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Descriptive Methods
• Laboratory Observation – Watching animals or humans in a
laboratory setting
• Advantages:– Control over environment– Allows use of specialized equipment– Can lead to the development of
hypotheses
LO 1.7 Naturalistic and laboratory settings
Psychology: An Exploration, Second EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Descriptive Methods
• Disadvantage:– Artificial situation that may result in
artificial behavior
LO 1.7 Naturalistic and laboratory settings
Psychology: An Exploration, Second EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
The researcher in the foreground is watching the children through a one-way mirror to get a description of their behavior. Observations such as these are just one of many ways that psychologists have of investigating behavior. Why is it important for the researcher to be behind a one-way mirror? Photo credit Jeff Greenberg/The Image Works
Psychology: An Exploration, Second EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Descriptive Methods
• Case study – Study of one individual in great detail– Advantages:
Tremendous amount of detail Good for studying rare conditions
– Disadvantages: Cannot apply results easily
to similar individuals Vulnerable to bias of researcher
LO 1.8 Case studies and surveys
Psychology: An Exploration, Second EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
After a gunpowder explosion, Phineas Gage ended up with a steel rod in his head. A model of Gage's head is shown next to his actual skull. Visible above the left side of his mouth is the entry point of the steel rod, and the exit point is at the top of the skull. Courtesy of The Francis A. Countway Library of Medicine
Psychology: An Exploration, Second EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Descriptive Methods
• Survey– Researcher asks a series of questions
about the topic under study Given to a representative sample Population
– Randomly selected sample of subjects from a larger group
LO 1.8 Case studies and surveys
Psychology: An Exploration, Second EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Descriptive Methods
• Survey– Advantages:
Data from large numbers of people Study covert behaviors
– Disadvantages: Have to ensure representative sample (or
results not meaningful). People not always accurate (courtesy
bias)
LO 1.8 Case studies and surveys
Psychology: An Exploration, Second EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Finding Relationships
• Correlation – Measure of the relationship between two
variables– Variable
Anything that can change or vary
LO 1.9 Correlational technique
Psychology: An Exploration, Second EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Finding Relationships
• Correlation – Correlation coefficient (r)
Mathematical calculation Measures
– Direction of the relationship– Strength of the relationship
– Knowing the value of one variable allows prediction of the value of the other variable
LO 1.9 Correlational technique
Psychology: An Exploration, Second EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Finding Relationships
• Correlation coefficient ranges from –1.00 to +1.00.
• Closer to 1.00 or -1.00, the stronger the relationship– No correlation = 0.0.– Perfect correlation = -1.00 OR +1.00.
LO 1.9 Correlational technique
Psychology: An Exploration, Second EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Finding Relationships
• Positive correlation – Variables are related in the
same direction. As one increases, the other
increases As one decreases,
the other decreases
LO 1.9 Correlational technique
Psychology: An Exploration, Second EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
© The New Yorker Collection 1994 Leo Cullum from cartoonbank.com. All Rights Reserved.
Psychology: An Exploration, Second EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Finding Relationships
• Negative correlation – Variables are related in
opposite directions– As one increases, the other
decreases
• Correlation does not prove causation
LO 1.9 Correlational technique
Psychology: An Exploration, Second EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Figure 1.3 These scatterplots show direction and strength of correlation. It should be noted that perfect correlations, whether positive or negative, rarely occur in the real world.
Psychology: An Exploration, Second EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
The Experiment
• Allows researchers to determine cause and effect
• Deliberate manipulation of variables• Holding constant other variables
LO 1.10 Experimental approach and terms
Psychology: An Exploration, Second EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
The act of hitting each other with toy swords could be part of an operational definition of aggressive behavior. Photo credit Bill Aron/PhotoEdit
Psychology: An Exploration, Second EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Features of the Experiment
• Operational definition– Specifies steps or procedures used to
control or measure the experimental variables
• Independent variable (IV)– Variable manipulated by experimenter
• Dependent Variable (DV)– Represents measured response of the
experimental manipulation
LO 1.10 Experimental approach and terms
Psychology: An Exploration, Second EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Features of the Experiment
• Experimental Group– Receives the manipulation
• Control Group– Not subjected to the independent
variable– Controls for other factors (confounds)
that may affect the outcome
LO 1.10 Experimental approach and terms
Psychology: An Exploration, Second EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Features of the Experiment
• Random Assignment– Participants are assigned randomly to
control or experimental group– Each participant has equal chance of
assignment to experimental or control groups
LO 1.10 Experimental approach and terms
Psychology: An Exploration, Second EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Placebo and Experimenter Effects
• Placebo effect – Expectations of the participants can
influence their behavior– Classic control-give placebo to control
group
• Experimenter effect– Experimenter’s expectations
unintentionally influence study
LO 1.11 Placebo and the experimenter effects
Psychology: An Exploration, Second EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Placebo and Experimenter Effects
• Single-blind study– Subjects do not know if they are in the
experimental or the control group – Reduces placebo effect
• Double-blind study– Neither experimenter or participants
know if in experimental or control group– Reduces placebo and experimenter
effects
LO 1.11 Placebo and the experimenter effects
Psychology: An Exploration, Second EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Experimental Example
• Stereotypes, athletes and college test performance– High stereotype threat question asked
before intellectual assessment (experimental group)
– High stereotype threat question asked after intellectual assessment
– Before test group scored lower on intellectual assessment than after group
LO 1.12 Elements of a real world experiment
Psychology: An Exploration, Second EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Experimental Example
• Stereotypes, athletes and college test performance– Questions to consider:
What extraneous variables might be affecting the students’ test performance?
What might educators do to try to prevent the effect of the “dumb jock” negative stereotype on college athletes?
LO 1.12 Elements of a real world experiment
Psychology: An Exploration, Second EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Ethics in Psychological Research
• Institutional review board– Professional group that reviews the
safety, consideration of participants
LO 1.13 Ethical concerns in conducting research
Psychology: An Exploration, Second EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Ethics in Psychological Research
• Common ethical guidelines:1. Rights and well-being of participants
must be weighed against the study’s value to science.
2. Participants must be allowed to make an informed decision about participation.
3. Deception must be justified. 4. Participants may withdraw from the
study at any time.
LO 1.13 Ethical concerns in conducting research
Psychology: An Exploration, Second EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Ethics in Psychological Research
• Common ethical guidelines:5. Participants must be protected from
risks or told explicitly of risks. 6. Investigator must debrief participants,
telling the true nature of the study and expectations of results.
7. Data must remain confidential.
LO 1.13 Ethical concerns in conducting research
Psychology: An Exploration, Second EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Ethics in Psychological Research
• Animal research– Attempt to answer questions not
obtainable with human research– Avoid exposure to unnecessary pain or
suffering– Animals are used in approximately 7% of
psychological studies
LO 1.13 Ethical concerns in conducting research
Psychology: An Exploration, Second EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Critical Thinking
• Is making reasoned judgments about claims.
LO 1.14 Principles of critical thinking
Psychology: An Exploration, Second EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Critical Thinking
• Four Basic Criteria:1. There are very few “truths” that do not
need to be subjected to testing.2. All evidence is not equal in quality.3. Just because someone is considered to
be an authority or to have a lot of expertise does not make everything that person claims automatically true.
4. Critical thinking requires an open mind.
LO 1.14 Principles of critical thinking