1

CHURCH SOCIAL WORK FOR A HOMELESS FAMILY:

ECLECTIC PERSPECTIVES

By: Carl D. Holland, MSSW, ACSW, LCSW, DCSW

Presented at:

NACSW Convention 2010

November, 2010

Raleigh-Durham, NC

2

CHURCH SOCIAL WORK FOR A

HOMELESS FAMILY:

ECLECTIC PERSPECTIVES

Carl D. Holland

NACSW Convention 2010

November 13, 2010

Durham, North Carolina

Abstract

Through efforts of a core group of committed volunteers and a pro-bono social worker, a

church congregation -Christ in the community- rallied to provide essential services for

17 members of a family comprised of five households. Utilizing eclectic perspectives of

(a) micro-meso-exo-macro systems, (b) behavioral cognitive therapies and crisis

intervention approaches, and (c) spiritual assessments, the church group aided homeless

members of this extended family to find housing, employment, transportation, food,

clothing, education, disability services, spiritual development and physical and mental

health.

Homelessness

Homelessness is “a condition of or social category of people who do not have regular housing or dwelling because they cannot afford, pay for, or maintain regular, safe and adequate housing” (Wong, 2008). The McKinney Vento Homeless Assistance Act of 1987 refined this definition of homelessness as “… people who lack fixed, regular, and adequate nighttime residence, and if they sleep in a designated shelter for temporary living accommodations or in places not designated for human habitation or individuals intended to be institutionalized”. These definitions do not include the ‘hidden homeless’ – those who have moved in with relatives and friends –especially during the recession and housing scandals. The incidence of homelessness in America varies widely from 250,000 to estimates in excess of 13 million (Burt et al., 1999; Kendall, 2010; Link et al., 1994; National Alliance to End Homelessness [NAEH], 2005; Zastrow, 2009). Current worldwide data on incidence is not available but Capedevila (2005) estimates the worldwide incidence of homelessness at 100,000,000. Of some 490,000 U.S. citizens who were documented homeless in 2008, research showed that 30% were families with children and constituted the largest growing segment of homeless (Kendall, 2010). Nearly one in five Americans said they lacked the funds to buy food and shelter in 2009 and in 2010 more than 40 million Americans received food stamps (DePearle, 2010).

3

Church-based Christian Social Services for Homelessness

This paper shows that effective Christian social services in churches must follow a holistic approach, addressing needs of shelter, finances, health, as well as the spiritual needs of the people they serve. The term Christian social services “refers to the involvement of persons and agencies that identify themselves as having a Christian faith orientation in providing services to meet the material and interpersonal needs of persons not met by family or the larger community. These services are often provided informally, in response to the needs of neighbors, community members, and strangers” (Garland, 2008). The Judeo-Christian ethic, which is based on love of neighbors (Leviticus 19:18 NIV) motivates this service. Jesus taught that one way to know God is to care for children in need (Mark 9: 33-37); and help neighbor and stranger in need (Luke 20:30-37). Later in world history, the religious leaders in England served the needy children, families, and handicapped (Coll, 1970). Eventually church-designated social services were overwhelmed, and public and proprietary social services were added to complement voluntary organizations. Today, America has an array of social service organizations through which Christian social workers can facilitate services:

• Voluntary organizations – also called sectarian, faith-based, sacred, charity supported eleemosynary, religiously-affiliated, not-for-profit organizations–were the forerunners in providing resources to the poor and needy. Funded by contributions, client fee-for-services, and tax dollars, these organizations are operated and governed by –among others– faith-based religious organizations, i.e. churches and congregations.

• Proprietary organizations – also called private, entrepreneurial, free-enterprise, and for-profit organizations–must make a profit to maintain solvency. Fee-for-services from consumers, grants and contracts from governments and philanthropic organizations constitute their funding base. Hospitals, physicians, pharmacies, realtors, correctional institutions, and private equity funds are examples of proprietary social service providers.

• Public agencies and organizations – also called secular, citizenship-based, tax-based, welfare, social security organizations– are not-for-profit organizations, sponsored by governments and funded primarily by public taxation. (Holland, 1993).

Although public agencies provide funding for most American social services, the focus here is on voluntary agencies. Most congregations are small. According to Chaves (2003), only 6% of church congregations have a staff person devoting at least a fourth of their time to Christian social services. Reflecting the trends of the economic recession, The Christian Century (December 15, 2009) reports that even as philanthropic giving to such things as the arts, cultural and the humanities rose 4.3% in 2006 to $295 billion, giving to churches and Christian social services fell 9.2% to $29.56 billion (Brooks, 2007). Martin Marty (2010) was more optimistic about giving to religious organizations in the great recession year 2009. Drawing from The Chronicle of Philanthropy,

4

Evangelical Council for Financial Accountability, Empty Tomb, and others that follow Americans’ charitable giving, Marty reported that religious organizations raised 100.95 billion dollars in 2009 for a decline of only 0.3 percent, after inflation. “Rescue missions and child-sponsor groups in many cases have done well, while others are impacted more significantly” (Marty, 2010). Some of the mega-churches continue to shine with impressive Christian social services. The Riverside Church in New York is an example:

As a Christian community, the Social Service Ministry of The Riverside

Church, New York City endeavors to provide access to comprehensive social services to those in economic and social crisis. We seek to enable people in need within our community to more fully support and nurture themselves and their families so that they can move out of poverty. We further support action that leads to a healthy and caring society, free of the oppression of poverty in its various forms. …The Riverside Church helps clients in need of public assistance, food stamps and Medicaid through information and referrals….Other Christian social services include:

• Food Pantry

• Barber Training Program

• Clothing Distribution

• Shower Project – shelter, soup kitchens, medical attention, counseling and employment

• Confidential HIV Testing, Counseling & Support Program <http//www.theriversidechurchny.org/getinvolved/?socialservices> Retrieved 1/29/2010.

Eclectic Approaches

The Christian social services that helped this homeless family group emerged from a small church with no designated staff member specializing in social service. The primary responsibility for aiding this group was with the Missions Committee, which spearheaded local, national, and international Christian mission activities. This committee included a social worker who assessed this groups’ needs in terms of housing, food, employment, physical and mental health, transportation, education, and spiritual services. The church allocated $1500 for the committee to link the family to needed services (see Ecosystems map, Figure 1). The 17 members of the homeless family group who constituted the focus of Christian social services by this local congregation had experienced a series of negative downward-spiraling economic crises as a result of unemployment. Because there were young children in this extended family of five households, as they were evacuated from their rental housing they moved into residences of family members who had apartments. They were never forced to sleep in the storm sewers, for example, as portrayed in public media (PBS News Hour, August 10, 2010). As limited living space became overwhelmed, two

5

families found space in a faith-based transitional shelter. It was from this transitional shelter that they desperately sought Christian social services from a local church. The ecosystems perspective was useful in helping this homeless family group to aid themselves. Drawn from ecological and systems theory, the ecosystems perspective integrates systems composed of people and their physical-social-psychological-spiritual-cultural environments, systems in which each part impinges on every other part. The ecsystems perspective includes four levels of social systems: microsystems, where the immediate, face-to-face focus of concern is on individuals and families; mesosystems, where links are drawn between individuals, families (including extended families), the faith-based Christian social agency which provided transitional shelter and employment training; exosystems, where family members were linked to other settings that do not normally include the homeless but impact their well-being (See Figure 1); and macrosystems, where lifestyles, socio-economic resources, spiritual, and cultural beliefs and value systems impinge on one another (Bandura, 1977; Bronfenbrenner, 1979; Germain, 1991; Gitterman & Schulman, 1993; Gordon, 1969; Queralt, 1996; Zastrow & Kirst-Ashman, 2008).

Figure 1: Ecosystems of a Homeless Family

Crisis intervention servicesor groups to needed support services (Ell, 1995; Parad, 1990; Lindeman, 1944; Roberts, 2008). Cognitive behavioral therapy

The focus is on the present, and the aim is to modify or replace distorted cognitions or unwanted behaviors in a discrete and goalis not concerned with why but attempts to determine dysfunctional and how to change them (Beck & Emery, 1985; Ellis & Grieger, 1997; Fanger, 1995; Gambrill, 1997; Skinner, 1953; Walsh, 2008). For example, in this climate

6

Figure 1: Ecosystems of a Homeless Family

services seek to stabilize the crisis situation and connect individuals or groups to needed support services (Ell, 1995; Parad, 1990; Lindeman, 1944; Roberts,

Cognitive behavioral therapy favors short-term work (Beck & Emery, 1985). esent, and the aim is to modify or replace distorted cognitions or

unwanted behaviors in a discrete and goal-oriented fashion. Rational emotive therapy

but attempts to determine which thoughts and behaviors are to change them (Beck & Emery, 1985; Ellis & Grieger, 1997;

Fanger, 1995; Gambrill, 1997; Skinner, 1953; Walsh, 2008). For example, in this climate

MacrosytemsIdeology Spirituality

Values Military

Socioeconomics Racial-Ethnicity Justice Culture

ExosystemsFood Housing

Transportation Health Economic Education Church

MesosytemsChurch Volunteers Extended Family

MicrosystemHome

seek to stabilize the crisis situation and connect individuals or groups to needed support services (Ell, 1995; Parad, 1990; Lindeman, 1944; Roberts,

term work (Beck & Emery, 1985). esent, and the aim is to modify or replace distorted cognitions or

Rational emotive therapy

thoughts and behaviors are to change them (Beck & Emery, 1985; Ellis & Grieger, 1997;

Fanger, 1995; Gambrill, 1997; Skinner, 1953; Walsh, 2008). For example, in this climate

of brief therapy, the social worker utilized Ellis & Grieger’s (1997) Aintegrated spiritually modified

from the client’s spiritual world view (Hodges, 2006). Formal definitions of spirituality

Hodges, 2006) Spirituality for this client grexperience of developing a sense of meaning, purpose, and morality” (Miley, 1992), transcendence with God/gods (Hodges, 2004, 2003). Themes of spirituality are also drawn from O’Brien’s meaning and purpose of life, trameditation, contemplation, suffering death, and paths to enlightenment or salvation (1992). Practitioners who fail to assess and integrate a client’s spiritual makeup provide less than adequate social services (see figurereasons for conducting spiritual assessments are to:

• Develop some understanding of our clients’ basic worldviews of themselves and world around them,

• Respect their self-determinationpsychosocial therapy,

• Utilize their strength to aid in overcoming problems, and

• Incorporate spiritual values into social work practice (5

Figure 2: Homeless Family Group

Figure 3: Spiritual Assessment of Family Households

BiologicalMother

Son Son

7

of brief therapy, the social worker utilized Ellis & Grieger’s (1997) A-B-C-Dlly modified cognitive therapy where spiritual precepts are derived

from the client’s spiritual world view (Hodges, 2006).

spirituality vary (Canda, 1990, 1997; Ochs, 1997; Bullis, 1996; for this client group is defined as ‘the general human

experience of developing a sense of meaning, purpose, and morality” (Miley, 1992), transcendence with God/gods (Hodges, 2004, 2003). Themes of spirituality are also drawn from O’Brien’s meaning and purpose of life, traditions, rituals, myths, prayer, meditation, contemplation, suffering death, and paths to enlightenment or salvation

Practitioners who fail to assess and integrate a client’s spiritual makeup provide less than adequate social services (see figures 2 and 3). According to Hodges (2003) four basic reasons for conducting spiritual assessments are to:

Develop some understanding of our clients’ basic worldviews – their understanding of themselves and world around them,

determination and to include their values and spiritual beliefs into

Utilize their strength to aid in overcoming problems, and

Incorporate spiritual values into social work practice (5-8)

Figure 2: Homeless Family Group

Spiritual Assessment of Family Households

Homeless

Family Group

BiologicalMother

Daughter Daughter

StepfatherBiological

Father

D-E and where spiritual precepts are derived

vary (Canda, 1990, 1997; Ochs, 1997; Bullis, 1996; oup is defined as ‘the general human

experience of developing a sense of meaning, purpose, and morality” (Miley, 1992), transcendence with God/gods (Hodges, 2004, 2003). Themes of spirituality are also

ditions, rituals, myths, prayer, meditation, contemplation, suffering death, and paths to enlightenment or salvation

Practitioners who fail to assess and integrate a client’s spiritual makeup provide less than s 2 and 3). According to Hodges (2003) four basic

their understanding

and to include their values and spiritual beliefs into

Applied Eclectic Social Services for

In November 2008, Jeremiah Jr. (names changed to protect privacy) visited a small church asking for housing for two preschool daughters and himgaining employment. Jeremiah Jr., age 21, was living in a faithtransitional shelter which provided a food pantry, clothing, regular religious services, youth programs, and drug and alcohol support groups. Services inclureferral and assistance, transportation and employment training. Also living in a separate

Father'sSpiritualTradition

Father'sSpiritualTradition

FaithCommunity

Rituals

8

Applied Eclectic Social Services for a Homeless Family

In November 2008, Jeremiah Jr. (names changed to protect privacy) visited a small church asking for housing for two preschool daughters and himself and assistance in gaining employment. Jeremiah Jr., age 21, was living in a faith-based, 74 unit, transitional shelter which provided a food pantry, clothing, regular religious services, youth programs, and drug and alcohol support groups. Services included advocacy, referral and assistance, transportation and employment training. Also living in a separate

SpiritualAssessmen

t

Church

SpiritualLeader

Transpersonal

Being

God/Transcendence

Mother'sSpiritualTradition

Step-Father'sSpiritualTradition

In November 2008, Jeremiah Jr. (names changed to protect privacy) visited a small and assistance in

based, 74 unit, transitional shelter which provided a food pantry, clothing, regular religious services,

ded advocacy, referral and assistance, transportation and employment training. Also living in a separate

Trans-personal

Being

God/Transcendence

9

unit at the homeless shelter was his 42 year old mother, Hagar; 45 year old step-father Jacob, and teenage sisters, Elizabeth and Jesse, who had three pre-school children. Jeremiah Jr. had an automobile but it malfunctioned, causing him to be discharged from his employment as a nursing assistant. Through coordination with the church pastor and volunteers, housing was found for Jeremiah Jr. with church volunteers; his automobile was determined irreparable by a volunteer mechanic from a sister church; a church volunteer took Jeremiah Jr. to a local community college to design a resume and assisted him to acquire employment and proprietary apartment. After Jeremiah Jr. and his children moved from the volunteered shelter, Grandmother Hagar and step-grandfather Jacob moved into housing provided by Christian volunteers. The resourceful volunteer repeated Christian assistance and advocacy for Jacob, accompanied him with resume to acquire temporary employment in industry. Other volunteers transported Jacob to work where there was no public transport. When that employment ceased, similar strategies were employed to aid Jacob to gain nursing assistance employment. Within two months Jacob, Hagar, daughters and grandchildren moved to proprietary housing. Jacob, accompanied by Christian volunteers, acquired veteran assistance to enroll in registered nursing education at community college. Hagar exhibited multiple biological, psychological, spiritual and social problems that rendered her unemployable. Treatment for dual mental health diagnoses of bipolar and schizophrenia were assessed by a pro-bono Christian social worker who aided her to receive community mental health services and accompanied her to a free health clinic for diagnosis and treatment of fibromyalgia. These disabilities rendered her unemployable. She had been denied Social Security Disability Insurance, Titles II & XVI of the Federal Income Compensation Act (42 U.S.C. 401-413; 20 C.F.R. 401, 404, 422). Based upon these revised medical diagnoses, the social worker advocated through her attorney to appeal this denial and accompanied her to prepare for recession hearings, where compensation from the government is reconsidered based on new information. To aid Hagar to deal more effectively with complex bio-psycho-spiritual and socio-economic problems, the Christian social work volunteer employed practice strategies of crisis intervention and spiritually modified rational emotive therapy. The social worker utilized crisis intervention to seek to stabilize the crisis situation and connect Hagar to needed supportive services i.e. connect her to transportation when she had anxieties about getting to physical and mental health appointments. Ellis & Emery’s (1985) A-B-C-D-E format of rational emotive therapy was used. [A] – an Activating

event was weather related sleep deprivation , chronic headache, anxiety –symptomatic of effects of fibromyalgia; [B] – her Beliefs or thoughts revealed that Hagar believed God was punishing her for substance abuse (nicotine and alcohol); [C] - the emotional

Consequencies included her discomfort, fear that pain would persist, guilt, and depression; [D] – Disputation drew from taking steps to improve her weather related physical environment, allaying her anxiety that God is a loving God who allows us to make mistakes but will always be a God of love and forgiveness. [E] – Evaluation of

10

outcome included her taking her medications as prescribed, turning on heat to dry the environment, and release of anxiety and pain to get needed sleep. Jeremiah Jr. was the biological father of one of two of his children and lived unmarried with Jezebel. An abuser of substances, Jezebel moved with the children to live with a male who also abused drugs and alcohol. In this living arrangement, the children were abused and neglected by Jezebel and her new boyfriend. Jezebel sustained a broken jaw in an altercation involving drugs, was driving without licensure, and leaving the children in unsafe environments. Volunteers including a pro-bono social worker aided Jeremiah Jr. to petition the court for custody of the children. Following several aborted court appearances, the court awarded custody of Jeremiah Jr.’s child to him and the other child to Jezebel. For the final hearing when custody for the children was rendered, Jeremiah Jr. was aided to deal with a crisis of no transportation to the hearing. Volunteers were not available to transport him, so Jeremiah Jr. sought and paid the expenses for a friend to transport him. The results of this crisis intervention were critical in that Jeremiah Jr. returned home with his biological child with court ordered visitation by all four members of this group. Jeremiah Jr. continues to be employed, has completed the requirements for a test of his General Educational Development (GED), and seeks an Associate of Arts from a community college.

Summary and Extant Evaluation

This summary of eclectic strategies that were utilized to aid this homeless family are represented in the mobilization of a church (Christ-in-community) toward helping the whole homeless family. Enhanced by a group of committed volunteers, this homeless family found housing, food, employment, transportation, clothing, physical and mental health, education and spiritual development.

REFERENCES:

Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. NJ: Prentis Hall. Beck, J. S. (1995) Cognitive theory: Basics and beyond. NY: Guilford. Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature

and design. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Brooks, A.C. (2007). Who really cares: America’s charitable divide – who gives, who

doesn’t, and why it matters. NY: Basis Books. Bullis, K. K. (1996). Spirituality in social work practice. Washington, DC: Taylor &

Francis.

11

Burt, M. (2007). What will it take to end homelessness? Washington, DC: Urban Institute.

Burt, M. R., Aron, I. Y., Douglas, T., Valente, J., Lee, E., & Iwen, B. (1999).

Homelessness: Programs and the people they serve. Summary and technical reports. Washington, DC: Interagency Council on the Homeless/ Department of Housing and Urban Development. Retrieved January 30, 2010 from http://www.ajph.org.cyto/

Canda, E. R. (1997). Spirituality. In R. Edwards (Ed.), Encyclopedia of social work. (19

th

ed. Supplement; 299-309). Washington, DC: NACW Press. Canda, E. R. (1990). Afterword: Spirituality reexamined. Spirituality and Social Work

Communitor, 1(1), 13-14. Capedevila, G. (2005, Mar 30). Human rights: More than 100 million homeless

worldwide. Retreived January 29, 2010 from http://www.ipsnews.net/news.asp?idnews=28086.

Chaves, M. (2003). Debunking the assumptions behind charitable choice. Stanford Social

Innovation Review, 1(2), 28-36. Coll, B. (1970). Perspectives in public welfare: A history. Washington, DC: U. S. Government Printing Office. DePerle, J. (27 January 2010). One in five report hunger. The New York Times, p. A17. Ellis, A., & Grieger, R. (Eds.). (1997). Handbook of rational emotive therapy.

NY:Springer. Ellis, A., & McLaren, C. (1998). Rational emotive behavior therapy: A therapist guide.

(vol. 2). Arascoden, CA: Impact Publishers. Emery, G. (1985). Cognitive theory: Techniques and applications. In A.T. Beck & G.

Emery (Eds.), Anxiety disorders and phobias: A cognitive perspective (pp. 167-313). NY: Basic Books.

Fanger, M. (1997). Brief therapies. In R. Edwards (Ed.), Encyclopedia of social work

(19th ed. Supplement, 323-334). Washington, DC: NASW Press. Garland, D. R. (2008). Christian social services. In Terry Mizrahi & Larry E. Davis

(Eds.), Encyclopedia of social work. (20th ed., 282-290). NY: NASW Press. Garland, D. R. (Ed.). (1992). Church social work. Philadelphia: The North American

Association of Christians in Social Work.

12

Gambrill, E. (1997). Behavioral theory. In R. Edwards (Ed.), Encyclopedia of social

work (19th ed., Supplement, 46-57). Washington, DC: NASW Press. Germain, C. B. (1991). Human behavior in the social environment: An ecological view.

NY: Columbia University Press. Gitterman, A. & Schulman, L. (1993). Mutual aid groups, vulnerable populations and the

life cycle. NY: Columbia University Press. Gordon, W. E. (1969). Basic constructs for an integration and generative conception of

social work. In G. Hearn (Ed.), The general systems approach: Contributions toward

an holistic conception of social work. (pp. 5-12). NY: Council on Social Work Education.

Hodges, D. R. (2001). Spiritual assessment: A review of major qualitative methods and a

new framework for assessing spirituality. Social Work, 46, 203-214. Hodges, D. R. (2003). Spiritual assessment: Handbook for helping professionals.

Botsford, CT: North American Association of Christians in Social Work. Hodges, D. R. (2004). Does social work appress Evangelical Christians? A “new class”

analysis of society and social work. Social Work, 47, 401-414. Hodges, D. R. (April, 2006). Spiritually modified cognitive therapy: A review of the

literature. Social Work. <http:// findarticles.com/p/articles/ni_hb64467/is_2_51/ai_n29282441/> Retrieved July 12, 2010.

Holland, C. (1993). Applied social welfare services. Needham Heights, MA: Ginn

Press/Simon & Schuster. Jimenez, D. & Holland, C. (2004). Multi-cultural spiritual assessment: A public hospital

function. Presented at the 54th Annual Convention and Training Conference of the North American Association of Christians in Social Work, Reston, VA. Retrieved July 12, 2010 from http://www.nacsw.org/Proceedings2004.html .

Kendall, D. (2010). Sociology in our times: The essentials. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth

Cengage. Lantz, J. (1996). Cognitive theory and social work treatment. In F. J. Turner (Ed.), Social

work treatment. (4th ed., pp. 94-115). NY: Free Press. Link, B. G., Susser, E., Stueve, A., Phelen, J., More, R.E., & Smening, E. (1994).

Lifetime and five year prevalence of homelessness in the United States. American

Journal of Public Health, 84(12), 1907-1912. Retrieved February 12, 2010, from http://www.cjph.org/cyti.

13

Lindemann, E. (1944). Symptomatology and management of acute grief. American

Annuls of Psychiatry, 101, 141-148.

National Alliance to End Homelessness. (2007, Jan 10). Homelessness counts.

Washington, DC: National Alliance to End Homelessness. Retrieved February 12, 2010 from http://www.naeh.org/content/article/detail/1440.

Marty, M. E. (August 2010). Americans’ charitable giving draws attention. Baptist

Today, 28(12) 24. McKinney-Vento Homeless Assistance Act of 1987, Pub. L. No. 100-77, 101 Stat. 482

(1987). Ochs, C. (1997). Women and spirituality. (2

nd ed.). Totewa, NJ: Rowland & Allarheld.

Parad, H. (Ed.). (1990). Crisis intervention: Selected readings. NY: Family Service

Association of America. Queralt, M. (1996). The social environment and human behavior: A diversity perspective.

Needham Heights, MA: Allyn-Bacon. Riverside Church. (2008). Social services at Riverside Church. Retrieved January 29,

2010 from http://www.theriversidechurchny.org/gettinvolved/socialservices. Roberts, A. R. (2008). Crisis intervention. In Terry Mizrahi & Larry E. Davis (Eds.).

Encyclopedia of social work. (20th ed., 484-487). NY: NASW Press. Roberts, A. R. (1995) (Ed.), Crisis intervention and time-limited cognitive treatment.

Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Roberts, A. R. (1991). Conceptualizing crisis theory and the crisis intervention model. In A. R. Roberts (Ed.), Contemporary perspectives in crisis intervention and prevention.

(pp. 3-17). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Singletary, J. E. (2005). The praxis of social work: A model of how faith informs practice

informs faith. Social Work and Christianity, 32(1), 56-72. Skinner, B. F. (1953). Science and human behavior. NY: Free Press. Stingy Givers. (15 December 2009). Christian Century, p.8. Walsh, J. (2008). Cognitive therapy. In Terry Mizrahi & Larry E. Davis (Eds.),

Encyclopedia of social work. (20th ed., 337-341). NY: NASW Press.

14

Wong, I. (2008). Homelessness. In Terry Mizrahi & Larry E. Davis (Eds.). Encyclopedia

of social work. (20th ed., 377-383). NY: NASW Press. Zastrow, C. (2009). Introduction to social work and social welfare. (4th ed., 56). CA:

Thomason/Brooks-Cole. Zastrow, C. & Kirst-Ashman, K. (2001). Understanding social environment and human

behavior. (5th ed.). Belmont, CA: Brooks Cole-Wadsworth.

Carl Holland, MSSW, ACSW, LCSW, DCSW, is Emeritus Professor of Social Work at Illinois State University and Adjunct Professor at Parkland College. (217-359-7306). E-mail: cdholla@ilstu.edu. I would like to express my gratitude to my daughter Amy for her technical and editorial assistance with this paper.