Chũ' Nôm the Demotic System of Writing in VietnamAuthor(s): Nguyễn Đình HoàSource: Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 79, No. 4 (Oct. - Dec., 1959), pp. 270-274Published by: American Oriental SocietyStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/595134 .

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270 270 PINGREE: The Empires of Rt4dradaman and Yasodharman PINGREE: The Empires of Rt4dradaman and Yasodharman

the Xewa distri(t, would have asserted its inde- pendence at the same time. After the initial period of success, Rudradaman 1 and his son Dama- ghsada, hard-pressed by the young Satavahana Arl Yajna Satakarni, found it impossible to maintain control over the remoter regions of their empire, but for a few years in the middle of the second century the Western Esatrapas ruled a far more extensive realm than has hitherto been accredited to them.

But the importance of the lines in Mlnaraja is not confined to a revindication of the greatness of Rudradaman's military prowess; it also demon- strates that his interest in the intellectual move- ments of his time, for which he is praised in the Junagadh Inscription, was of fundamental impor- tance for the introduction of Greek astronomy and astrology into India. Not that knowledge from this source might not already have traveled to India; the prasasti of Gautamlputra Srl Satakarni set up by his mother mentions the planets in an

the Xewa distri(t, would have asserted its inde- pendence at the same time. After the initial period of success, Rudradaman 1 and his son Dama- ghsada, hard-pressed by the young Satavahana Arl Yajna Satakarni, found it impossible to maintain control over the remoter regions of their empire, but for a few years in the middle of the second century the Western Esatrapas ruled a far more extensive realm than has hitherto been accredited to them.

But the importance of the lines in Mlnaraja is not confined to a revindication of the greatness of Rudradaman's military prowess; it also demon- strates that his interest in the intellectual move- ments of his time, for which he is praised in the Junagadh Inscription, was of fundamental impor- tance for the introduction of Greek astronomy and astrology into India. Not that knowledge from this source might not already have traveled to India; the prasasti of Gautamlputra Srl Satakarni set up by his mother mentions the planets in an

astrological sense. But at Rudradaman's court at Ujjain at least one Greek astrological text was translated into Sanskrit, the influence of which still is felt in India.

These two astrological geographies, then, written by men whose advice, though based on the practice of a false science, guided the meteoric careers of two incredibly successful conquerors, add consider- ably to our knowledge of two obscure periods of Indian history. Sphujidhvaja and Mlnaraja have preserved a list of the conquests of Rudradaman more complete than that given by Suvisakha, his governor of Anarta and Saurastra. And Vara- hamihira has so altered that list as to make it applicable to the empire of his royal patron, Yaso- dharman. The stars did not long look with favor upon Rudradaman and Yasodharman, but they were fortunate that their star-gazers, though fail- ing to preserve their power, have at least con- tributed to the history of their reigns.

astrological sense. But at Rudradaman's court at Ujjain at least one Greek astrological text was translated into Sanskrit, the influence of which still is felt in India.

These two astrological geographies, then, written by men whose advice, though based on the practice of a false science, guided the meteoric careers of two incredibly successful conquerors, add consider- ably to our knowledge of two obscure periods of Indian history. Sphujidhvaja and Mlnaraja have preserved a list of the conquests of Rudradaman more complete than that given by Suvisakha, his governor of Anarta and Saurastra. And Vara- hamihira has so altered that list as to make it applicable to the empire of his royal patron, Yaso- dharman. The stars did not long look with favor upon Rudradaman and Yasodharman, but they were fortunate that their star-gazers, though fail- ing to preserve their power, have at least con- tributed to the history of their reigns.

- A C:E:U' NOM

TEE DEMOTIC: SYSTEM OF WRITING IN VIETNAM*

NGUYEN OINH Hos UNIVERSITY OF 23AIsON

- A C:E:U' NOM

TEE DEMOTIC: SYSTEM OF WRITING IN VIETNAM*

NGUYEN OINH Hos UNIVERSITY OF 23AIsON

O. Chqx' rwom 1 (chu' ' letter, character, word, written language' and rwom < nam 'south') is the name given to the so-called demotic or vulgar system of writing which was used in Vietnam in conjunction with the regular Chinese script 2 until

* The author is indebted to Professors George Kennedy of Yale University and John de Francis of the American Council of Learned Societies for having read the first draft of this paper and given their comments thereon at the Linguistic Institute held at Georgetown University Institute of Languages and Linguistics in the summer of 1954.

Vietnamese has eleven vowels li e e u o v u.I a- a a- a/ and the following consonants: stops /p t c k b d th/, fricatives If S x h v z g/, nasals Im n n sa/, lateral /1/, semivowels /wy/. Many speakers also have /r c S z/. There are six tones: level unmarked, high rising- indi- cated by an acute accent, low falling indicated by a grave accent, dipping rising indicated by a little ques- tion mark, broken rising indicated by a tilde, and low constricted indicated by a dot under the vowel letter.

1 As opposed to ch>4' han ' the Hans ' (Chinese) char- acters ' or ch1h' nho ' the scholars' characters.'

2 Chinese characters were introduced into Vietnam in

O. Chqx' rwom 1 (chu' ' letter, character, word, written language' and rwom < nam 'south') is the name given to the so-called demotic or vulgar system of writing which was used in Vietnam in conjunction with the regular Chinese script 2 until

* The author is indebted to Professors George Kennedy of Yale University and John de Francis of the American Council of Learned Societies for having read the first draft of this paper and given their comments thereon at the Linguistic Institute held at Georgetown University Institute of Languages and Linguistics in the summer of 1954.

Vietnamese has eleven vowels li e e u o v u.I a- a a- a/ and the following consonants: stops /p t c k b d th/, fricatives If S x h v z g/, nasals Im n n sa/, lateral /1/, semivowels /wy/. Many speakers also have /r c S z/. There are six tones: level unmarked, high rising- indi- cated by an acute accent, low falling indicated by a grave accent, dipping rising indicated by a little ques- tion mark, broken rising indicated by a tilde, and low constricted indicated by a dot under the vowel letter.

1 As opposed to ch>4' han ' the Hans ' (Chinese) char- acters ' or ch1h' nho ' the scholars' characters.'

2 Chinese characters were introduced into Vietnam in

both of them were replaced by the Roman script 3

devised more recently by Catholic missionaries.

the ninth or tenth century of our era: see R. A. D. Forrest, The ChiWnese Language ( London, Faber and Faber, 1948), 51. Every Chinese written symbol has a Vietnamese pronunciation which is fairly close to that of Ancient Chinese and present-day Cantonese. Chinese loan-words have been called :Ean-ViWet ' Sino-Vietnamese ' by traditional scholars. This article contains some ab- breviations: a native word and/or its meaning is identi- fied by V (Vietnamese), and its written symbol in the demotic script by N (n8m), whereas a word of Chinese origin is represented by SV (Sino-Vietnamese) and its written symbol preceded by H (}Tan). Letters refer to the glossary of Chinese and demotic characters found at the end of the article.

s Called quo^c-ngi4' ' national language.' A11 examples cited in this article appear in their Romanized forms (in italics ) preceded by transcriptions ( between slashes ) conforming with the phonemicization presented in my paper Qt4oc-Ngt4': The SIodern WritiWng System iWn ViWet- nam ( Washington, D. C., 1955 ) and my course Speak Vretnamese ( Saigon: School of Languages, 1957 ) as well as in my ViWetnamese Phrase Book (Saigon: Viet-

both of them were replaced by the Roman script 3

devised more recently by Catholic missionaries.

the ninth or tenth century of our era: see R. A. D. Forrest, The ChiWnese Language ( London, Faber and Faber, 1948), 51. Every Chinese written symbol has a Vietnamese pronunciation which is fairly close to that of Ancient Chinese and present-day Cantonese. Chinese loan-words have been called :Ean-ViWet ' Sino-Vietnamese ' by traditional scholars. This article contains some ab- breviations: a native word and/or its meaning is identi- fied by V (Vietnamese), and its written symbol in the demotic script by N (n8m), whereas a word of Chinese origin is represented by SV (Sino-Vietnamese) and its written symbol preceded by H (}Tan). Letters refer to the glossary of Chinese and demotic characters found at the end of the article.

s Called quo^c-ngi4' ' national language.' A11 examples cited in this article appear in their Romanized forms (in italics ) preceded by transcriptions ( between slashes ) conforming with the phonemicization presented in my paper Qt4oc-Ngt4': The SIodern WritiWng System iWn ViWet- nam ( Washington, D. C., 1955 ) and my course Speak Vretnamese ( Saigon: School of Languages, 1957 ) as well as in my ViWetnamese Phrase Book (Saigon: Viet-

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NGUYEN: Chqi' No^m, the Demotic System of Writing In Vietnam 271

1. The exact date of the invention of ch?i' nom and the identity of its author (or authors) have not been conclusively determined. Ean-Thuyen,4 a writer and poet who lived at the end of the thirteenth century, under the Tran dynasty, is sup- posed to have been the first to compose poetry in the vernacular. Eowever, it can be ascertained from this only that chqz' nom had already existed in Ean Thuyen's time, and not that he himself devised it or that it dated precisely from his time. The late Professor Duong Quang Eam even went so far as to advance the hypothesis that chu' nom could possibly have existed already at the end of the eighth century.5 Eis argument rested on his- torical facts. The title of Be Cai Oai-Vu'o'ng 'The Great King (who is like the) Father and Mother (of the people) ' was bestowed upon Phung Eung, the national hero who in 791 rose against Chinese rule. That title, contended Professor Eam, must have had a written form, and the latter must have been in chqz' rom, since it contained two indigenous kinship terms b'o 'father' and cai 'mother.' 6 The mere existence of the title,

namese->merican Association, 1959). Cf. the two pho- nemic solutions given in Murray B. Emeneau, Studres in Vietnamese ( Annamese ) Grammar ( Berkeley, Califor- nia: University of California Press, 1951), 9-22, and those given in R. B. Jones and Huynh Sanh Thong, An IntrodFuction to Spoken Vietnamese (Washington, D. C.: American Council of Learned Societies, 1957) and Wil- liam A. Smalley and Nguyen Van Van, Tie'ng Vset cho cac giao-st, Vietnamese for Slissionaries: A CJoqxrse in the Spoken and Written Langqbage of CJentral Vietnarn (Dalat, Vietnam: Imprimerie Evangelique, 1954).

4 This scholar's real name was Nguyen Thuyen. A native of Lai-ha Village, District of Thanh-lam (nowa- days Nam-sach), Province of Hai-duong, North Vietnam, Nguyen Thuyen received his doctorate under the reign of Emperor Tran Thai Ton (1225-1257) . In the fall of 1282, while holding the post of Minister of Justice, he was commissioned by Emperor Tran Nhan Ton to write a message to a crocodile which had come to the Red River. After his writing allegedly done in chu' nom- drove the animal away, the emperor allowed him to change his family name from Nguyen to Han, because a similar incident had occurred several decades before in China to the poet-scholar Han Du or Han Yu (768- 824). The anecdote was related in Xham-dinh Viet-su Thong-giam CJqbong-mqbc [Outline of Vietnamese History Written by Order of the Emperor], 7, 26a. Quoted by Duong Quang Ham, Viet-Nans Van-Eoc Su-Yeu [Out- line Eistory of Vietnamese Literature] (3rd Edition, Hanoi: Ministry of National Education, 1951), 105.

6 Duong Quang Ham, op. cit., p. 101. 6 These two terms of relationship are cited in Nguyen

Van To, " Langue et Litterature Annamites: Notes Critiques," Bulletin de l'PUcole Froncoise d'^l30treme-

whose inscription we lack anyway, is not sufficient evidence for the identification of the writing sys- tem used at that time.

In any event there is presently a consensus of opinion 7 that the earliest document written in the demotic script was a stele discovered in :Eo Thanh Son, Ninh Binh Province, North Vietnam. It bore an inscription dating from the year 1343 (under the reign of Emperor Tran Du Ton) and listing twenty Vietnamese village names in ch?i' rom.

2. As a writing system chu' nom consists of modi- fied Chinese characters, which may be used singly or in combination.

2.1. A single Chinese character is used to repre- sent a single monosyllabic morpheme in Vietna- mese.8

2.1.1. A Vietnamese morpheme may be repre- sented by a Chinese character denoting the same thing regardless of the Sino-Vietnamese pronun- ciation of the Chinese symbol. Examples:

V /muy/ mvi ' smell, odor ' is represented by E (a) SV /vi./ vz ' flavor, taste.'

V /vi.sk/ viec ' work, job, af3Sair, business, event, action' is represented by E (b) SV /zi.k/ dzch ' service, conscription, corvee.'

2.1.2. The Chinese symbol has a fised pronun- ciation which is the same as that of the Vietnamese morpheme.

2.1.2.1. Both the native and the Sino-Vietnamese words have the same meaning. Examples:

V /tay/ tai 'talent' is written E (c) (SV /ta-y/ tai).

V /maP/mang ' destiny, life ' is written E (d) ( SV /ma * / mang ) .

2.1.2.2. The Chinese character is employed to represent a Vietnamese morpheme which is homo- phonous with the segment represented by the Chi- nese symbol regardless of meaning. Examples:

V /mQt/ mot ' one (numeral) is written E (e ) SV /mQt/ mo. t (' no, not ') .

Orient, 30 ( 1930), 1-2, 144-45 and Tran Trong Eim, Viet- Nam Su Luoc [Outline of T7ietnomese History] (Hinoi: Tan-Viet, 1951 ), 65.

7 Henri Maspero, " Etudes sur la Phonetique His- torique de la Langue Annamite: Les Initiales," Bulletin de l'E7cole Froncoise d'Plwtreme-Orient, 12 (1912), 8, 5-9.

8 For a definition of the Vietnamese "word," see Emeneau, op. cit., pp. 2-4.

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NGIJYEN: Chu' Nom, the Demotic System of Writing In Vietnam 272

V /saw/ khong ' no, not ' is written E (f) SV /saw/ khong (' vacuum, air, space ').

V /kwa/ qua ' to pass, go past ' is written H (g) SV /kwa@/ qua ('lance').

V /ban/ ban 'to sell' is written H (h) SV /ba * n/ ban (' half ') .

V /dve/dve ' to put, place, let ' is written H (i) SV /d7e/ d7e (' bottom ') .

2.1.3. The Chinese character stands for a word whose pronunciation merely suggests that of the corresponding Sino-Vietnamese. Examples:

V /da y/ do'i ' life, existence ' is written E (j ) SV /day/ dai 'generation, time, life.'

V /a/ 70' 'to be located at, in ' is written H (k) SV /ul/ tb' ' at, in.'

V /koy/ coi ' to be orphaned ' is written E (l) SV /ko/ co ' orphan.'

V /kuak/ cqzoc (classifier for nouns denoting games, fights, parties, meetings, etc.) ' is written H (m) SV /kuk, kuak/ cuc ' bureau, office; situa- tion, state of afEairs.'

V /sula/ xt4'a ' to be ancient, old-fashioned' is written E (n) SV /sa / so' ' at the beginning, at first.'

V /ge/ ghte ' chair ' is written E (o) SV /k7i/ k7y 'table.'

V /kuan/ ct4'on ' (classifier for nouns denoting books, volumes) ' is written E (p) SV /kwian/ quy7en ' roll.'

2.2. A monosyllabic morpheme in Vietnamese is represented by two Chinese characters one or both of which may be " radicals." 9

2.2.1. Of the two characters serving so to speak as immediate components in the graphemic com- pound, one is the phonetic element and the other is the signific element. The result is a type of pseudo-Chinese or neo-Chinese script undecipher- able to Chinese themselves. Examples:

N (q) standing for V /den/ d'en 'to reach, arrive (at) ' is made up of H (r) (SY /ci/ cht) 'to arrive' and H (s) SV /dian/ dien ('code, dietionary ').

N (t) standing for V /nam/ nam ' year ' is made up of H (u) (SV /nian/ nzen ' year ' and H (v) SV /na *m/ nam (' south ') .

9 For a statement on the system of 214 Chinese radi- cals, see Yuen Ren Chao and Lien Sheng Yang, Concrse Dictronory of Spoken (7htnese ( Cambridge, Massachu- setts: Harvard University Press, 1947), v-xxvii.

N (w) standing for V /nsy/ noi ' to speak, talk, say' is made up of E (X) (SV /Xaw/ kh7au) ' mouth ' and E (y) SV/nQy/ noz (' inside ') .

N (z) standing for V /cam/ tram 'hundred' is made up of E (aa) (SV /bayk/ bach) 'hun- dred ' and E (ab) SV /lam/ lom (' forest ') .

N (ac) standing for V /sin/ xin 'to ask, beg' is made up of E (X) (SV /Xsw/ kh7at4) 'mouth' and E (ad) SV /thian/ thien (' thousand ').

Other examples: See page 273. According to Duong Quang Eam, the semantic

part of this type of character does not have a fised position, except when it is one of the 214 radicals of the Chinese lesicon, in which case it is placed either on top or on the left-hand side.l°

2.2.2. Both immediate components in the combi- nation may indicate the meaning: we then have a " pure demotic " character. Thus, /cs y/ tr'o't V 'sky, heaven' is represented by N (ae), itself a combination of E (af) (/thian/ thien) SV 'sky, heaven ' and E (ag) (/thula/ thqz'o'ng) SV ' up, above.' There is not even a most remote hint on

. . .

pronunclatlon.

2.3. Some demotic or vulgar characters may con- sist of a semantic component from chi4' nho (H) and a phonetic compound from chu' nom (N). Thus V /lay/ lo' ' words, speech, statement' is represented by the complicated grapheme N (ah) which consists of E (X) SV (/Xsw/ kh7&u) ' mouth ' and N (ae) V /ca y/ tro'i ' sky, heaven ' (see 2.2.2 above).

2.4. Diacritical marks such as (ai) in the upper right hand corner and (aj ) in the upper left corner are said to be used also, but this writer has not seen any example in the tests he has access to. Further study of more estensive materials will be necessary before any statement can be made re- garding those symbols employed to indicate tone.

3. In traditional Vietnam, Chinese was held in high esteem and carried with it all the prestige of an educational medium with the sanetion of civil service examinations from the village level to the national level at the Court of Hue. As a conse- quence, chii' noAm for a long time was relegated to the rank of an undignified writing system not at all worthy of serious authors. Indeed it rarely appeared in any documents that had some vague

10 Duong Quang Ham, op. cit., p. 102.

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NGUYEN: Chqt' No^m, the Demotic System of Writirwg In Vietnam 273

Other examples: QU8C-NGU'

Ml:ORPREME SPELLING

y

/zaw/ Sa ' daughter-in-law'

PHONETIC SIGNIFIC

H* /n=/

twoman'

Ei /zo/ do ( 'because ' )

S /da-/ da ( 'much, maw' )

e /d&y/ ( your' )

JW /ma l ma ('hemp')

g /ma t/ g ( 'end' )

XQ 9 /mon/ mdn

('door')

t /ni/ ( ' should ' )

w /t/ t1 ( ' to thinle' )

<D /tian/ ( ' iSirst ' )

nA

/Si/ kht __

'to go'

- /B/ mhi * -

' two '

§; /;il/ nhi 'but'

// c 'eye'

^ /vain/ YwS '10,000'

0 /Z/ nht 'ear'

/z/ < __ 'ear

4, Xzawy/ danh

/di/ 'to go

/ha . y/ 'two'

/m. / 'but, y

/mst/ 'eye'

di

L^_

- b

hai

-

et'

Ys mav .__

/mu@n/

'10,000'

m

/n£/

'to listen'

/taXg/ 'ear'

/ten/ ' name n

/thdy/ ' to see '

;L

- -

i /ko/ cs ' old, ancient '

,pS /Xo/ S

'old, ancient '

connection with officialdom, and most poets and scholars preferred to compose exclusively in Chi- nese. Whenever chu' nons was employed to tran- scribe popular literature, an author felt free to choose to remain unidentified.1l This explains that, at the present time, chx' nons possesses only

11 All these works are available nowadays in qubc-npuw' versions. There are even French translations of the most important ones, such as Doan-trxong Tan-thanh

antiquarian interest-as a writing system-for those concerned with ancient tests.

This writer's opinion is that the decadence or better the disuse of chu' norn was due not so much to its lack of prestige among men of letters, but the very fact that it was not adequate as a

(or Rirn Van Rieu) by Nguyen Du, aung Oan Ngatn- Rhtbc by Nguyen Gia Thieu, Luc Van Tien by Nguyen Dinh Chieu etc.

DEMOTIC

CHARACTER

N

'name ' t /kidnl !ciX /t1; /the/ i

'to see' ('body')

7 /8X*/, ( 'beginn1rg )

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274 NGUYEN: Chx' No^ns, the Demotic Systens of Writing In Vietnans

writing system. The inadequacy of the demotic script in representing Vietnamese can be sum- marized as follows:

a. The system may use one Chinese grapheme to transcribe two different words having the same meaning, one a native word and the other a Chi- nese loan-word. Thus the symbol H (ak) may represent sometimes /von/ v'on V ' capital ' and other times /basn/ ban SV ' root, foundation, basis, capital.'

b. Also one word may be represented by two dif3Terent graphemes. The transcription of the word /den/ ten 'to reach, arrive (at, in) ' (see first example in 2.2.1) was found to fluctuate be- tween the two characters N (q) and N (al). This kind of variation can be quite estensive and is a function of the range of associations in the mind of the litterateur.

c. Since Vietnamese phonemes outnumber Chi- nese phonemes, Chinese characters proved insuffi- cient to transcribe all Vietnamese sounds, and at best only approsimated them. Finals (or rhymes) such as /aw cw en on awu awk, etc./ are difficult to transcribe with Chinese characters. No differ- ence could be indicated between the two back vowels /o and o/. Vietnamese words beginning with a velar stop /k or g/ are represented by Chi- nese characters pronounced by Vietnamese-with voiceless unaspirated /k-/. Characters pronounced with an initial lateral in Chinese would be em- ployed whether the Vietnamese phoneme is /1/ or /r/.

lfor the above reasons the reading of a chu' norn test requires a great deal of speculation within the contest and, being thus reduced to mere guess-

work, cannot always be one hundred per cent accurate.

Diguet,l2 one of the advocates of chu' nons, had a good point when he showed that the ambiguity possible in the Roman script because of the e2r- istence of innumerable homophones 13 could be avoided in the demotic script. V /nam/ nans ' year ' could be written N (t) and V /nam/ nans ' five ' could be written N (am) . Both graphemes use the phonetic component H (v) SV /nasm/ narn ('south'), but the former has H (u) SV /nian/ nien ' year ' and the latter has H (an) SV /Mu/ ngu ' five.'

Even nowadays ch?i' norn also gives the philolo- gist access to the original tests of ancient Vietna- mese literature.l4 In terms of phonemics, however, the Roman script invented by Western missionaries

from Portugal, Italy and Spain-and later per- fected or codified by the French Jesuit scholar- missionary Alexandre de Rhodesl5 has proved more adequate as a writing system. Despite some inconsistencies it has indeed gradually gained the full status of the " national language " to be used in literature, correspondence, education and by the press and the government.

12 Edouard Diguet, " De la Langue Annamite Parlle et Ecrite," Revue Indochinoise, August 1905, 226--32.

13 For a statement on Vietnamese homonymy, see Mur- ray B. Emeneau, " Homonyms and Puns in Annamese," Lanpuape, 23 (1947), 239-44.

1 Cf. Duong Quang Ham, " Le chu' nom ou Ecriture Demotique: Son Importance dans l'Etude de l'Ancienne Litterature Annamite," Bxtletin de t'Instruction P1bb- lique, March 1942, 277-86.

l6De Rhodes (1591-1660) wrote a Dictionarixnz An- narniticurn Lusitanurn et Latinurn, which was printed in Rome in 1649.

GLOSSARY

YX 14 z As

aa. W

ab.

ac. Cz*

ad. +

ae. ,

ai. >:_

q $ r. ,

t. j",

U. + Y. F W. e

X. a

a. %,4;_

b * 45

c. j d. /5gt

e ;3(_

f. '

h. +

ag X

ah. ob

ai. a

a:. a

ak. $ al. gL am. g an. i

i ,7E

k. 8;4*'

1. SAt m. oXi

o. Aa p. +

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