Christopher Marlowe and the Renaissance of Tragedy

7/23/2019 Christopher Marlowe and the Renaissance of Tragedy

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CHRISTOPHER MARLOWE AND THE RENAISSANCE OF TRAGEDY

DOUGLAS COLE

PRAEGER Westport, Connecticut London

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The Library o Con!ress has cata"o!ed the hardco#er edition as o""o$s%

Co"e, Dou!"as&

Christopher 'ar"o$e and the renaissance o tra!edy ( Dou!"as Co"e&

p& c)&--*Contributions in dra)a and theatre studies& +SS ./0-012.3 no& /04 *Lives of the

theatre4

+nc"udes bib"io!raphica" reerences and inde5&

+S6 -0.0-278./-8 *hardco#er% a"9& paper4

.& 'ar"o$e, Christopher, .8/:-.81.--Criticis) and interpretation& 2& 'ar"o$e, Christopher,

.8/:-.810--Sta!e history--En!"and& 0& Theater--En!"and--;istory--./th century& :& Tra!edy&

+& Tit"e& PR2/7:&C81 .118 .118 by Dou!"as Co"e

A"" ri!hts reser#ed& o portion o this boo9 )ay be reproduced, by any process or techni?ue

$ithout the e5press $ritten consent o the pub"isher&

A hardco#er edition o Christopher Marlowe and the Renaissance of Tragedyis a#ai"ab"e

ro) Green$ood Press, an i)print o Green$ood Pub"ishin! Group, +nc& *Contributions in

Dra)a and Theatre Studies, u)ber /0,Lives of the Theatre3 +S6 -0.0-278./-84&

Library o Con!ress Cata"o! Card u)ber% 18-20.1 +S6% -278-10/70-2 *pb9&4

@irst pub"ished in .118

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Copyright ackno!"#g$"nt%

The editors and pub"isher !rateu""y ac9no$"ed!e per)ission to reprint the o""o$in!

copyri!hted )ateria"%

E5cerpts ro) A& D& Wrai!ht,In Search of Christopher Marlowe: A Pictorial Biography&

Photo!raphy by Fir!inia @& Stern& London% 'acdona"d, .1/8& Re-issued in paperbound

edition, .110, London, Ada) ;art&

-i#-

Cont"nt%

I!!&%tration% #ii

For"or#byosh 6eer, Christopher +nnes, andSi)on Wi""ia)s i5

Pro!og&" 5i

Chrono!ogy 5iii

'( Matt"r% o) Li)" an# D"ath .

*( Th" Wor!# o) th" Th"atr" in th" R"ign o) E!i+a,"th 20

-( Di#o .&""n o) Carthag"/ Trag"#y in th" C!a%%ica!

Tra#ition :0

0( Ta$,&r!ain" th" Gr"at/ Tragica! Di%co&r%" an# Sp"ctac!" 81

1( Machia2"!!ian Trag"#y/ Th" Ma%%acr" at Pari% an#

Th" 3" o) Ma!ta 71

4( E#ar# II/ Trag"#y in th" D" Ca%i,&% Tra#ition 11

5( Doctor Fa&%t&%/ Trag"#y in th" A!!"gorica! Tra#ition .2.

6( Mar!o"7% L"gacy to Trag"#y .:1

App"n#i8 A/ Tho$a% 9y#7% Acc&%ation% o) Mar!o" .88

App"n#i8 :/ Richar# :ain"%7 Not" .87

Not"% .81

-#-

Work% Cit"# ./8

In#"8 .7.

-#i-

I!!&%tration%

'( S&ppo%"# portrait o) Chri%toph"r Mar!o" .?(
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$ere p"ayed by adu"t co)panies in the Jpub"icJ or outdoor theatres& The scant records o the

Chape" Chi"drenIs peror)ance history do not oer any he"p in i5in! a date3 on"y a e$

pro#incia" appearances are on record or the years .8


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pub"ication in .81:& ;ad 'ar"o$e seen hi)se" pri)ari"y as a poetic dra)atist o this sort,

rather than one $ith a sharp sense o theatrica" opportunities, his Dido $ou"d probab"y ha#e

ta9en on a )ore predictab"e and con#entiona" "iterary shape--i#e acts separated by chora"

inter"udes, p"us a )a5i)u) o )ora" co))entary pro#ided not on"y by the chorus but a"so by

debates and e#en by the so"itary conessions o se"-accusin! prota!onists& The the)atic

possibi"ities o destructi#e passions in the courts o the !reat $ere ob#ious in the stories oboth C"eopatra and Dido, and one characteristic o hu)anist tra!edy $as to insist on such

the)es e5p"icit"y and repetiti#e"y& Thus, Danie" i""ed his irst act $ith one "on! )ono"o!ue by

C"eopatra, e"aboratin! her reso"ution to die, be!innin! $ith her re"ection on the death o

Antony%

Who no$ thro$n do$n, dis!raced, conounded "ies

Crushed $ith the $ei!ht o Sha)e and +na)y,

@o""o$in! thIun"uc9y party o )ine eyes,

The trains o "ust and i)beci"ity,

Whereby )y disso"ution is beco)e

The !ra#e o E!ypt, and the $rac9 o a""3'y unoreseein! $ea9ness )ust ento)b

'y countryIs a)e and !"ory $ith )y a""&

* Danie" .811Q .1//, .&.7-2:4

6eratin! her o$n sins o "ust and pride, she hopes to restore so)e sense o di!nity by a

coura!eous suicide, thereby )a9in! an e5a)p"e o herse"

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to posterity, so that uture princes $i"" not a"" into the sa)e trap o se"-indu"!ent p"easures&

Danie" o""o$ed the scene $ith an E!yptian chorus "a)entin! the suerin!s that had resu"ted

ro) Jher disordered "ust,J these J)o)entary p"easures, u!iti#e de"i!htsJ *.&28/4& The

conessiona" stance o Cleopatra, her atte)pt to )a9e a)ends or her past e#i"s in the act o

suicide, and, abo#e a"", her se"-conscious sense o her e5e)p"ary status a"" re#ea" the p"ayIs

insistence on her )ora" si!niicance% This is tra!edy $ith a )essa!e& The Senecan rhetoric o

e)otiona" a)p"iication has been inused $ith )ora" cate!oriation& And it is re"ent"ess,

abo#e a"" in the chora" passa!es&

The circu)stances o DidoIs situation, especia""y the ro"e o the !ods in in"ictin! "o#e upon

her, )a9e her )ore the #icti) o others than is the case $ith Danie" Cleopatra& 'orere#ea"in! is the dierence in ho$ Danie" and 'ar"o$e treated their heroines, )easured by the

9ind o psycho"o!ica" ocus per)itted these $o)en in their distress& The e)oti#e,

conessiona", and re"ecti#e )ode deri#ed ro) the Senecan )ono"o!ue is not ound in

'ar"o$eIs script& Dido has her )ono"o!ues, to be sure, but they are ne#er ocused on herse",

)uch "ess on herse" as )ora" e2e%pl$%, nor are they e#er retrospecti#e& +nstead, they are

a"$ays ocused on the crisis o the )o)ent& Si)i"ar"y, 'ar"o$e pro#ided no chorus or

subsidiary character to render Hud!)ents about Dido& ;ere the action )ust $or9 upon the

audience direct"y, as indeed is the case in )ost E"iabethan popu"ar theatre& +n reHectin! the

con#entions o hu)anist tra!edy, e#en or a subHect that co)es out o the hu)anist "iterary

tradition, 'ar"o$e opted or a theatrica" )ode o co))unication, a )ode that accents action

and e)b"e) as its chie si!na"s&


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The #ariety o action and o tone that )ar9s the p"ay a"so sets it apart ro) its principa"

source, Fir!i"Aeneid& Fir!i"Is !ods and !oddesses so)eti)es beha#e $ith the arbitrary crue"ty

and Hea"ousy that characteries their beha#ior in the )yths and $ritin!s o the ancient Gree9s&

There is no precedent in the Ro)an epic, ho$e#er, or the co)ic di)ensions o such scenes

as the openin! one o upiter Jdand"in! Gany)ede upon his 9nee,J or those in $hich the

touch o the dis!uised Cupid i)pe"s Dido into a see-sa$ )i5 o po"ite decoru) and rudedisdain $ith +arbas * 0&.&.-8:4 or turns the a!ed urse to thou!hts o "usty "o#e *:&84& O ?uite

another co"or is the )e"odra)atic a)p"iication o the th$arted-"o#e )oti in the ro"es o

+arbas and Anna, $hose suicides )i)ic DidoIs o$n at the ina" con"a!ration& DidoIs ro"e, too,

is )ore co)p"e5, not on"y in scenes that sho$ her as the #icti) o con"ictin! i)pu"ses but

a"so in other non-Fir!i"ian passa!es $here the )ore "o#e-"orn and or!i#in! aspects o her

character, deri#ed probab"y ro) O#idIs i)a!e o her in)eroides,

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o#erco)e the outra!ed #indicti#eness o Fir!i"Is characteriation& +n sti"" another inno#ation--

na)e"y, the doub"in! o AeneasI atte)pts to depart--'ar"o$e )ana!ed to co)p"icate hischaracter as $e"", $hi"e de#e"opin! $ith )ore irony the perspecti#es on tra!ic "o#e& otab"e

or #ariety, too, are the uses o scenic de#ices, props, and spectac"e, inc"udin! the statue o

Pria%, the portrait !a""ery o DidoIs suitors, the stor), the cere)onia" besto$a" o cro$n and

scepter upon Aeneas, the coniscated shipsI tac9"e that beco)es the tar!et o DidoIs co)p"aint,

and the ritua" pyre&

Co)ic scenes had no part in hu)anist tra!edy, but, in the "ess or)a" and se"-conscious"y

"iterary dra)a o the Tudor popu"ar sta!e, they $ere oten present& One popu"ar p"ay ro) the

.8/s cou"d proc"ai) itse" unabashed"yA La%entable Tragedy' %i2edf$ll of pleasant %irth'

containing the life of Ca%bises' @ing of Persia& Mi2ing)irth or co)edy into other$ise

serious p"ays oten too9 the or) o a co)ic subp"ot or a !roup o Junder"in!J characters,

$hose actions )i!ht or )i!ht not intersect $ith those o the )aHor i!ures& As $e 9no$ ro)

Sha9espeareIs "ater $or9, such characters can be put to e5ce""ent use $ithin those "i)its3 $hat

)atters )ost is ho$ they are )ade to unction in re"ation to the $ho"e& Co)ic scenes appear

in a"" o 'ar"o$eIs p"ays, $ith the e5ception o&dward II& +n )i5in! co)edy into his

tra!edies, 'ar"o$e $as thus o""o$in! a co))on tradition&

+n the case o Dido, )oreo#er, se#era" o the co)ic scenes depend or part o their

eecti#eness on the castin! o #ery s)a"" boys in the ro"es o Gany)ede, Ascanius, and

Cupid, $ho can sit easi"y in the "ap or be carried in the ar)s o the o"der boys $ho p"ay

5$piter, Dido, and the urse& 'oreo#er, the s)a"" boysI ro"es are rendered $ith #ery chi"d"i9edetai"%5$piter$oos Gany)ede $ith the pro)ise o de"i!hts that his unbounded po$er can

pro#ide--Fu"can *the "a)e4 $i"" dance or hi), unoIs peacoc9s $i"" be p"uc9ed or eathers to

)a9e his an, or e#en ;er)esI $in!eathers $i"" be p"uc9ed i Gany)ede shou"d ancy the)3

)ean$hi"e, upiter !i#es the "ad unoIs $eddin! He$e"s& Gany)ede, )uch too in!enuous to

appreciate the irony o any o these J!od"i9eJ !its, si)p"y responds%

+ $ou"d ha#e a He$e" or )ine ear,

And a ine brooch to put in )y hat,

And then +I"" hu! $ith you an hundred ti)es& *.&.&:/-:


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)ore o a sincere sta9e in her e5pression o "o#e& She $i"" beco)e its tra!ic #icti), but not its

absurd e5a)p"e& 'ar"o$eIs scenario accentuates the tra!ic by ra)in! it $ith co)ic contrasts&

'ar"o$e stayed air"y c"ose to those sections o Fir!i"Is poe) that he used in his p"ay, but did

not atte)pt to reshape the) accordin! to Senecan con#entions& ;e pro#ided no chorus, no

sententiae, no "urid rhetoric in#o"#in! the )ytho"o!ica" under$or"d to e5press the chie)o)ents o !rie or ra!e& ;is c"osest approach to the Senecan )ode is in AeneasI ta"e o the

a"" o Troy, $here certain di#er!ences ro) Fir!i", such as PyrrhusI hac9in! o o o"d Pria)Is

beseechin! hands, re"ect the Senecan penchant or !rotes?ue detai"& Si)i"ar"y, 'ar"o$e did

not use the !odsI co))and that Aeneas depart or +ta"y as an opportunity to sta!e a )ora"

debate about the decision, as Do"ce had done, or e5a)p"e& 'ar"o$eAeneas*in :&04,

co))andin! his o""o$ers i))ediate"y to prepare to sai", does i)a!ine or a )o)ent $hat

DidoIs reaction is "i9e"y to be, re"ects to hi)se" that "ea#in! $ithout biddin! are$e"" J$ere

to trans!ress a!ainst a"" "a$s o "o#eJ *"ine :


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O 9eep the) sti"", and "et )e !ae )y i""&

o$ "oo9s Aeneas "i9e i))orta" o#e%

O $here is Gany)ede, to ho"d his cup,

And 'ercury to "y or $hat he ca""sM

Ten thousand Cupids ho#er in the air

And an it in AeneasI "o#e"y ace *:&:&::-:14

What Dido e5presses as an ad)irin! co)p"i)ent, the audience )ust ta9e ironica""y, reca""in!

the tone o the p"ayIs irre#erent openin! tab"eau& AeneasI $orthiness, "i9e upiterIs, is ca""ed

into ?uestion& DidoIs addition o an!e"ic Cupids to attend Aeneas e#o9es sti"" another irony,

since the a!ency o Cupid in this story has been to #icti)ie Dido& The "o#er Dido "oo9s upon

as di#ine at this )o)ent *$ho is thus )ar9ed as "ess than $hat

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she percei#es hi) to be4 beco)es a sad si!n o her de"uded de#otion, a!ain accentin! her

#u"nerabi"ity $hi"e "ea#in! the i)a!e o Aeneas at this )o)ent a$9$ard"y a)bi#a"ent&

Their ne5t interchan!e reinorces the i)pression& DidoIs tone turns ro) one o Hubi"ant

ad)iration to ro)antic inti)acy%

O that the c"ouds $ere here $herein thou "edIst,

That thou and + unseen )i!ht sport ourse"#es

;ea#en, en#ious o our Hoys, is $a5en pa"e,

And $hen $e $hisper, then the stars a"" do$n,

To be parta9ers o our honey ta"9& *:&:&8-8:4

The a""usion to the c"ouds presu)ab"y har9s bac9 to Fir!i"Is description o ho$ Fenus hid

Aeneas in a c"oud to !et hi) sae"y to Cartha!e& o$ Dido yearns or such a )irac"e si)p"y

to be a"one $ith Aeneas& ;er "yricis) then in#o9es other sorts o J)irac"esJ in $hich the

hea#ens e)er!e inerior to the Hoys o their inti)acy& 'ar"o$eIs s9i"" in )odu"atin! the tone

o his "o#ersI i)a!inations is rea""y ?uite re)ar9ab"e& Co)pare these "ines o DidoIs $ith

those that Aeneas, in the precedin! scene, i)a!ines her sayin! in response to the ne$s o his

departure%

JCo)e bac9, co)e bac9J + hear her cry aar,

JAnd "et )e "in9 thy body to )y "ips,

That, tied to!ether by the stri#in! ton!ues,We )ay as one sai" into +ta"y&J *:&0&27-04

The )ore b"atant eroticis) here, redo"ent o the O#idian e"e!ies that 'ar"o$e trans"ated, )ay

possib"y be an atte)pt to distin!uish a )ascu"ine perception o se5 ro) DidoIs e)inine one3

it sure"y stresses by contrast the superior richness o $hat Dido e5periences in "o#e& 6ac9 in

the reconci"iation scene, 'ar"o$e pro#ided sti"" another contrast to DidoIs "o#e rhetoric in

AeneasI decided"y un"yrica" response to her "ines abo#e%

O Dido, patroness o a"" our "i#es,

When + "ea#e thee, death be )y punish)ent

S$e"", ra!in! seas, ro$n, $ay$ard Destinies3


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6"o$, $inds3 threaten, ye roc9s and sandy she"#es

This is the harbour that Aeneas see9s& *:&:&88-814

6"o$, $inds, indeed& Aeneas )ay )ean $hat he says, or the )o)ent, but it is )uch harder to

ta9e his protestations serious"y in the conte5t o

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the #aci""ation and pre#arication that 'ar"o$e has in#ented or hi)& We 9no$, o course, that

he $i"" !o bac9 on his $ord, Hust as $e 9ne$ it $hen $e heard his irst !rand #o$ o ide"ity

in the ca#e scene *0&:&:2-843 that 'ar"o$e shou"d !i#e hi) t$o such )o)ents to s$ear

undyin! "oya"ty is urther indication o the sense o se"-de"usion he persistent"y stressed in

"o#ersI beha#ior&

'ar"o$e besto$ed on Dido a !reater i)a!inati#e ran!e than he did or Aeneas, $ith practica"

oresi!ht at one end and ha""ucinatory $ish-u"i"")ent at the other& ust ater she yie"ds the

cro$n to Aeneas, and e#en as she !"ories in his 9in!"y i)a!e, ears that he $i"" try to "ea#ea!ain push to the surace *she ob#ious"y has not been tota""y con#inced by his ne$"y

proc"ai)ed #o$s4& ;er initia" e)otiona" response to that ear is a )i5ture o $ish-u"i""in!

antasy and erotic #ision, but 'ar"o$e )ade her catch herse" in )id-antasy and turn to )ore

practica" $ays o 9eepin! her )an%

O that + had a char) to 9eep the $inds

Within the c"osure o a !o"den ba"",

Or that the Tyrrhene sea $ere in )ine ar)s,

That he )i!ht suer ship$rac9 on )y breast

As ot as he atte)pts to hoist up sai"

+ )ust pre#ent hi)3 $ishin! $i"" not ser#e& *:&:&11-.:4

She orders her nurse to ta9e his son Ascanius hosta!e to a country retreat, and she has her

ser#ants coniscate his shipsI oars, tac9"in!, and sai"s3 sti"", she cannot !o so ar as to burn his

ships--or ear o JAeneasI ro$n&J There are "itt"e ironies bui"t into each o these )easures as

the e5trapo"ated p"ot uno"ds% The rea" Ascanius, o course, is in FenusI hands, and he $i"" be

returned by ;er)es direct"y to Aeneas a"on! $ith the direct behest to "ea#e3 $hen Aeneas

inds his ri!!in! !one, his ri#a" +arbas is )ore than ready to supp"y hi) $ith substitutes& 6ut

'ar"o$e in#ested another 9ind o irony in DidoIs conc"udin! "ines ro) the speech abo#e%

+ he orsa9e )e not, + ne#er die,@or in his "oo9s + see eternity,

And heI"" )a9e )e i))orta" $ith a 9iss& *:&:&.2.-204

;yperbo"e, antasy, and eroticis) )er!e a!ain in a )o)ent o e)otiona" intensity that is

undercut abso"ute"y by our prescient 9no$"ed!e that she $i"" die as a resu"t o his abandonin!

her and that the on"y i))orta"ity he $i"" !rant her, indirect"y, is the )e)orab"e "e!end that

she $i"" beco)e in death& * 'ar"o$e used that Ji))orta" $ith a 9issJ "ine in sti"" another

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intense"y rapturous and radica""y ironic speech in*octor #a$st$s, $hen @austus e)braces thede)onic or) o ;e"en o Troy&4


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'ar"o$e rounded out the scene $ith another )aHor )ono"o!ue or Dido, pro#o9ed by the

coniscated ri!!in! that her ser#ants de"i#er to her& With so)e$hat artiicia" or)a"ity, the

scene )o#es her throu!h a trip"e apostrophe to the sai"s, the oars, and the tac9"in!, in $hich

she berates the%or the dis"oya" departure atte)pt, rather than Aeneas *JO Dido, b"a)e not

hi), but brea9 his oarsJ4& 'ar"o$eIs i)a!e o Dido is a!ain c"oser to O#idIs here than to

Fir!i"Is, con#eyin! her essentia" re"uctance to censure hi), or to direct her an!er a!ainst hi)&Usin! the props as $ays to de"ect her an!er and her hurt is a theatrica""y eecti#e )eans to

de)onstrate si)u"taneous"y the stren!th o those ee"in!s, her sot spot or Aeneas in spite o

her sense o his readiness to "ea#e, the ironic uti"ity o her de"usion that she can assu)e

actua" rather than i)a!inary contro" o her situation, and the tra!ic irony o her abso"ute

dedication to the one thin! that $i"" u"ti)ate"y destroy her&

Dido does, o course, #ent her $rath direct"y at Aeneas in their "ast encounter, $hich stays

#ery c"ose to Fir!i" *e#en incorporatin! i#e "ines o direct ?uotation ro) the Latin4& 6ut

a!ain, an e5ceptiona" a"teration in the sceneIs conc"usion si!na"s 'ar"o$eIs insistence on

DidoIs )ore #u"nerab"e and $ish-u"i""in! traits& Fir!i"Is Dido, ater accusin! Aeneas and

#o$in! re#en!e, $a"9s out on hi), "ea#in! hi) deep"y troub"ed about ha#in! to "ea#e one$hose passion has been e5pressed $ith such orce& 'ar"o$eIs Dido a"so )o#es to$ard a

$rathu" c"i)a5 but then oers an u"ti)atu) su!!estin! that a"" )ay yet be redee)ed%

Why starest thou in )y aceM + thou $i"t stay

Leap in )ine ar)s% )ine ar)s are open $ide&

+ not, turn ro) )e, and +I"" turn ro) thee3

@or thou!h thou hast the heart to say are$e"",

+ ha#e not po$er to stay thee& *8&.&.71-


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to as9 Aeneas to return, this ti)e or Ja tide or t$o,J so that Dido can !radua""y "earn to bear

the separation& With each detai", 'ar"o$e stressed DidoIs eorts--in i)a!ination, in

co))ands and petitions--to re)a9e the painu" e#ents, to turn thin!s around ro) the $ay

they unhappi"y are& With each ne$ atte)pt, the audienceIs sense o ine#itab"e uti"ity )ounts&

Once )ore, beore Dido )o#es to her reso"ution o suicide, 'ar"o$e in#ented or her aurther ha""ucinatory )ono"o!ue& ;e did not push her in the direction o Fir!i"Is picture o a

)addened $o)an drea)in! that she is hunted by Aeneas, a renied #icti) "i9ened to Orestes

"eein! the @uries or to )ad Pentheus *Aeneid I


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*F++& .18-1/4

The irony o conscious se"-destruction is b"ended in DidoIs "ast actions $ith a parado5ica"

?ua"ity o assu)in! contro" o#er her destiny& As in theAeneid, she tric9s others into thin9in!

that the ritua" pyre is intended on"y to destroy the )e)entos o Aeneas& This is a death she

chooses and directs& That 'ar"o$e shou"d chan!e the i))ediate )eans o suicide ro)stabbin! to burnin! indicates not on"y his instinct or spectacu"ar sta!e eects *the actor

p"ayin! Dido presu)ab"y a""s into a trapdoor behind the "a)es4, but, )ore si!niicant"y, his

stress on the ironica""y e)b"e)atic aspects o his prota!onistsI death scenes& Do $e not sti""

hear the echo o DidoIs uncontro""ab"e p"ea o "on!in! to Aeneas in the ca#e sceneM

The )an that + do eye $hereIer + a),

Whose a)orous ace, "i9e Paean, spar9"es ire, & & &

Pro)etheus hath put on CupidIs shape,

-88-

And + )ust perish in his burnin! ar)s&

Aeneas, O Aeneas, ?uench these "a)es *0&:&.7-224

DidoIs deepest desire and the $ay she dies re"ect one another3 indeed, her ear"ier cry o

passion un9no$in!"y prophesies her ate&

That the rustration o passionate desire can "ead to se"-destruction is a the)e urther

a)p"iied by 'ar"o$eIs in#ented "o#e-suicides o +arbas and Anna, a"thou!h the surprisin!

speed $ith $hich they dispatch the)se"#es in the $a9e o DidoIs "ast !rand speech "ends a

)echanica""y contri#ed ?ua"ity to the ina"e& Sti"", these other rustrated "o#ers, $ho ha#e not

been "itera""y tar!eted by Cupid hi)se", do su!!est that 'ar"o$e $as reachin! or a $ay to

uni#ersa"ie his the)e $ithout re"yin! on the )ore con#entiona" co))entary o chora"

pronounce)ents& ;e preerred the e)b"e)atic action, a"thou!h in this instance he )ay ha#e

orced it too a$9$ard"y& +t is a preerence $e $i"" see a!ain and a!ain in the conc"udin!

scenes o his other p"ays&

Dido re)ains the on"y )aHor e)a"e ro"e that 'ar"o$e de#e"oped in his short career& She is

c"ear"y the centra" i!ure in the p"ay, do)inatin! a"" others, inc"udin! Aeneas, in ter)s o

psycho"o!ica" and histrionic interest& 'ar"o$e and ashe )ay $e"" ha#e been dra$n to the

subHect as theatrica" )ateria" by its suitabi"ity or the particu"ar ta"ents o boy actin! troupes3

these co)panies see) to ha#e de#e"oped a certain de!ree o specia"iation in $hat 'ichae"Shapiro has ca""ed the Jpathetic heroine p"ay,J $hich stands out a)on! their other

specia"ties--ro)antic co)edy, satire, and parody--as the one serious or tra!ic cate!ory $here

they cou"d co)pete $ith the adu"t co)panies * Shapiro .177, .8:&4& Writin! a script $ith a

"eadin! e)a"e ro"e $ou"d be a ris9y #enture indeed $ithout a #ery ta"ented boy actor to

render it& As ;& & O"i#er has noted ater ha#in! seen a )odern re#i#a" o the $or9 by a boysI

cast, he $as struc9 by ho$ )uch )ore Jrea"istica""yJ the $o)enIs parts appeared in contrast

to the )a"e ro"es * O"i#er .1/


43/132

since $e ha#e no )odern counterpart or the "e#e" and e5tent o trainin! that such E"iabethan

boys under$ent& One )ay sti"" i)a!ine, or a"" that, that sin!in! )i!ht ha#e been "ess o a

de)andin! cha""en!e than actin! or the )aHority o the), that bo"d and si)p"e ro"es

-8/-

*as a"" but those o Dido and Aeneas the)se"#es are in this p"ay4 $ou"d be hand"ed $ith "ess

troub"e, and that the e$ $ho cou"d )eet the de)and o the )aHor ro"es $ou"d do $e"" $ith

the) i they cou"d be hand"ed in a sty"e o Joratorica" dec"a)ationJ--such as $e ind, or

e5a)p"e, in AeneasI narrati#e o TroyIs a""& .1 We ha#e a"ready noted ho$ the p"ay )a9es

specia" use o the s)a""er boys in the troupe& And it is at "east possib"e that one o the actors

in 'ar"o$eIs transor)ation o Dido into a soter and )ore #u"nerab"e i!ure than Fir!i"Is

character $as his sense that such a ro"e )i!ht be rendered )ore con#incin!"y by a boy actor&

6ut*idois )ore than an e5ercise in adaptation to particu"ar theatrica" circu)stances& The

tra!ic pattern in the re"ationship o Dido $ith Aeneas $as a"ready a !i#en in the "iterary

tradition, but its specia" treat)ent by 'ar"o$e re#ea"s tendencies in the p"ay$ri!ht that aresu!!esti#e o his o$n pattern or tra!edy--a pattern that e"aborates $ith unusua" subt"ety the

)anio"d and oten ironic connections bet$een desire and destruction& This pattern is not

reducib"e to the )ora"istic c"ich that !i#in! in to "ust "eads to ruin& ;is p"ay is not rea""y

about "ust, or e#en "ust !"a)oried by its adherents& or is it shaped to e)phasie in so)e

"u!ubrious $ay the crue" i)pact o ate and the !ods upon innocent hu)an #icti)& A"thou!h

Fir!i" brou!ht the a!ency o Fenus and Cupid into the narrati#e *and 'ar"o$e o""o$ed hi),

$ith co)ic #ariations4, in neither the epic nor the p"ay do $e ind ourse"#es Jb"a)in!J the

!ods or the "o#e aair--Cupid disso"#es a"" too readi"y into a $a"9in! sy)bo"& Once Dido and

Aeneas proc"ai) their "o#e or one another, $e do not discount DidoIs passionate ee"in!s as

an artiicia" i)position& Aeneas )ay do so $hen ;er)es te""s hi) that Cupid started it a"", but

no audience is "i9e"y to side $ith hi) in that instant dis)issa"& 'ar"o$e has been too busy

sho$in! us the intensity and sincerity o DidoIs rapturous de#otion, in#entin! ne$ scenes to

do so, )a9in! us sy)pathetic $ith her "on!in! to 9eep the "o#e intact e#en in the ace o

AeneasI atte)pts to "ea#e& And yet, e#en as he e"aborated on her sense o "on!in!, he

i)pressed upon us its ine#itab"e rustration& The one thin! that Dido ee"s has u"i""ed her

*and it is 'ar"o$eIs ne$ scenes o her poetic raptures that con#ey this ee"in!4 is the one

thin! she )ust "ose& The tra!ic parado5 is there, in that )utua" contradiction, rather than in

the death o a )i!hty ?ueen&

'ar"o$eIs s9i"" !ets us ar )ore interested in DidoIs stru!!"e than in AeneasIdecision to "ea#e

or stay& +t is at irst a co)ic stru!!"e to )aintain her poise and di!nity $hen irst beset byCupidIs touch& That ?uic9"y beco)es a stru!!"e to e5press herse" ree"y in a situation $here

decoru) ar!ues other$ise, but, in the ca#e scene, it is no "on!er $ho""y co)ic, or e#en there

the sense o her bein! CupidIs puppet is a"ready e#aporatin!&

-87-

When she does spea9 ree"y and achie#e her desire, 'ar"o$e has ra)ed it ironica""y, by

re)indin! us both o the "a)es $e 9no$ "ie in her uture and o the dotin! !estures o upiter

that be!an the p"ay& Thereater, the stru!!"e is to ho"d on to the treasure she has brie"y $on--a

doo)ed stru!!"e that is no$ tra!ic rather than co)ic& +ncreasin!"y th$arted by an ad#erse

rea"ity, she ta9es reu!e in antastic #isions o reconci"iation and reunion that cannot be& Thedesire or the i)possib"e, rather than outra!ed hu)i"iation, deines her radica" suerin!&
http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=15098596http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=15098596http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=15098596


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A!ain, 'ar"o$e has )er!ed sy)pathy $ith irony% ;is Aeneas is not ?uite $orth such

de#otion, but Dido can see nothin! o $orth apart ro) hi)& The intensity o her "o#e is

unar!uab"e, but it a"so b"inds her& +ndeed, it "eads to the ina" irony o beco)in! her o$n

)urderer& Desire, de"usion, and destruction p"ot the cur#e o her e5perience *as they do or

@austus and Ed$ard ++4& +n 'ar"o$eIs conception o tra!edy, these are a"" bound to!ether in

one&

E?ua""y i)portant is the techni?ue 'ar"o$e e)p"oyed to co))unicate that conception& ;e

a#oided the )ore con#entiona", !enera"iin! captions typica" o hu)anist tra!edy, but he did

)ana!e, as so)e hu)anist tra!edy has done, to estab"ish a certain de!ree o tension in

proHectin! a doub"e perception o his prota!onist& Danie" Cleopatra, or e5a)p"e, or a"" its

chora" )ora"iin!, )ana!es to !enerate considerab"e sy)pathy or C"eopatra *a !ood bit o it

by )a9in! her so se"-conscious o her past e5cesses43 there is a )aniest tension bet$een the

Hud!)ent an audience is "i9e"y to )a9e about heron the basis o her o$n speeches and the

ne!ati#e Hud!)ent continua""y supp"ied by the chorus& 'ar"o$eIs doub"e perception o Dido

is not so )uch one o con"ictin! Hud!)ents as it is o perspecti#es& One perspecti#e e)er!es

ro) the prota!onistIs speeches, to!ether $ith the i)a!es and #isions that inor) the ee"in!sin those speeches3 the other is supp"ied by so)e ra)e$or9 o irony that re#ea"s to the

audience a contradictory aspect o the prota!onistIs ee"in!s, a destructi#e doub"e )eanin! in

her i)a!ery or !estures that she cannot see at the )o)ent& The resu"t is not )ora"

a)bi#a"ence so )uch as it is tra!ic parado5% a co)p"e5ity that resists disentan!"e)ent&

-8


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Which cannot !o but thirty )i"es a-day

Co)pare $ith Caesars, and $ith Canniba"s,

And TroHan Gree9sM nay, rather da)n the) $ith

Kin! Cerberus3 and "et the $e"9in roar *2&:&.7/-


46/132

read% Ta%b$rlaine the !reat+ "ho' fro% a Scythian shepherd by his rare and wonderf$l

con$ests beca%e a %ost p$issant and %ighty %onarch' and 9for his tyranny' and terror in

war was ter%ed The Sco$rge of !od+ *ivided into two tragical disco$rses' as they were

s$ndry ti%es showed $pon stages in the City of London by the right honorable the Lord

Ad%iral his servants& +n addition, Part ++Is hi!h"i!hts $ere "ater !i#en the o""o$in! bi""in!%

The second part of the bloody con$ests of %ighty Ta%b$rlaine+ "ith his i%passionate f$ryfor the death of his lady and love' fair enocrate' his for% of e2hortation and discipline to his

three sons' and the %anner of his own death& JRare and $onderu"J *i a"so Jb"oodyJ4

con?uests by a shepherd-turned-)onarch, notorious or his Jtyranny and terror in $arJ--such

is the stu o tra!edy as i)p"ied by this e5tended tide& One o the "ater reprints added a

headin! that reads JThe Tra!ica" Con?uests o Ta)bur"aineJ--sti"" another indication o ho$

"e5ib"y the adHecti#e cou"d be app"ied& Rather than reerrin! pri)ari"y to a or)a" or

structura" pattern, or e#en to a disaster that bea""s a prota!onist, Jtra!ica"J yo9ed to

JdiscoursesJ and Jcon?uestsJ denoted a sty"e or a ?ua"ity& 'ar"o$eIs brie but characteriin!

pro"o!ue to Part + inc"udes a si)i"ar usa!e%

@ro) Hi!!in! #eins o rhy)in! )other $its,And such conceits as c"o$na!e 9eeps in pay,

WeI"" "ead you to the state"y tent o $ar,

Where you sha"" hear the Scythian Ta)bur"aine

Threatenin! the $or"d $ith hi!h astoundin! ter)s

And scour!in! 9in!do)s $ith his con?uerin! s$ord&

Fie$ but his picture in this tra!ic !"ass,

And then app"aud his ortunes as you p"ease& *.-


47/132


48/132

ound there to the or) and rhetorica" sty"e associated $ith Senecan tra!edy& T$o notab"e

e5a)p"es $ere produced at the +nns o Court in the "atter part o the si5teenth century%

Gorboduc * .8/.-/24, a)ous a"so as the irst tra!edy co)posed in b"an9 #erse, and The

'isortunes o Arthur * .8


49/132

'ar"o$e, ?uite un"i9e his dra)atic predecessors, did not try to dress his tyrant-prota!onist in

borro$ed Senecan robes& +nstead, he in#ented a sty"e o speech that deines )ore particu"ar"y

the )oti#ation and the passion that dri#es Ta)bur"aine and )es)eries his a""ies& @or the),

and, to a certain de!ree, or the audience as $e"", to "isten to Ta)bur"aine is to under!o

seduction& JCo)e "i#e $ith )e and be )y "o#eJ is in Part + transor)ed into JCo)e $ar $ith

)e and be )y tributary 9in!s&J The ra$ po"itica" bribe at the core o the in#itation isena)e"ed o#er $ith the )ore #isionary de"i!hts o ne$ound po$er--ridin! Jin triu)ph

throu!h Persepo"is&J Ordinary )ora" criteria are b"urred in the ecstasy o anticipated b"iss& The

te)ptation is irresistib"e--at "east or Therida)as, Teche""es, and Usu)casane, $hose ro"es

e#o"#e ro) con#erts to a""ies to cheerin! *and Heerin!4 s?uad to chora" an!e"s sin!in! the

praises o their de)i!od& This pattern a"so app"ies to enocrate, $hose )ore orthodo5

senti)ents and )is!i#in!s o conscience are a"$ays o#er$he")ed by her de#otion to

Ta)bur"aine& At the end o Part +, they are a"" $earin! cro$ns&

The ori!ina"ity o 'ar"o$eIs transor)ation o the tyrant-prota!onist is a"" the )ore

re)ar9ab"e $hen one considers the historica" i)a!e o Ta)bur"aine a#ai"ab"e in si5teenth-

century European accounts& A"thou!h these #aried in so)e speciic detai"s, they shared a!enera" esti)ate o this "ate ourteenth-century Tartar con?ueror as a coura!eous, ener!etic,

)i"itary and ad)inistrati#e !enius $ith a reputation or his barbaric treat)ent o ene)ies and

or both !enerosity and ir) discip"ine in dea"in! $ith his ar)ies& The )easure o his success

as a con?ueror see)ed to the) near"y beyond para""e" but a9in to that o A"e5ander the Great&

+n docu)entin! his "on! career *$hich cu")inated, by the $ay, $ith the deeat o the Tur9ish

E)peror 6aHaet $hen Ta)bur"aine $as a"ready in his "ate si5ties4, the si5teenth-century

historians pro#ided se#era" detai"s that 'ar"o$e incorporated into his p"ay% Ta)bur"aineIs

ori!ins as a poor herder, his ear"y p"unders as a bri!and, his con#ersion o a ca#a"ry "eader and

his conspiracy $ith the Persian 9in!Is brother to usurp the cro$n, his o$n usurpation o the

Persian throne, his practice durin! sie!es o chan!in! the co"ors o his ensi!nia to si!niy the

)ountin! se#erity o his threatened reprisa"s, his hu)i"iation o the con?uered 6aHaet by

ca!in! hi) and eedin! hi) tab"e scraps, and his $ho"esa"e s"au!hter o an unar)ed ci#i"ian

e)bassy sent by a besie!ed city to p"ead or )ercy& And, a"thou!h he did not use it in the

conte5t in $hich it appeared in the accounts, 'ar"o$e ound there a"so Ta)bur"aineIs

persona" response to a char!e o crue"ty $ith respect to the s"au!hter o those innocent

a)bassadors%

-//-

he ans$ered in )ost urious $rath, and ire, his ace red and iery, his eyes a"" "a)in!, $ith

burnin! spar9"es as it $ere b"ain! out on e#ery side, JThou supposest )e to be a )an, butthou too )uch abusest )e, or none other a) + but the $rath and #en!eance o God, and ruin

o the $or"d&J * @ortescue .87.Q .18., 21/4

This see)s to be the on"y report o Ta)bur"aineIs o$n $ords& That they J$or9edJ in this

instance is attested by the additiona" co))ent that the protester $as ne#er seen in ca)p

a!ain& They pro#ide an i)portant 9ey to Ta)bur"aineIs se"-concept, as $e"" as a )ar9 o his

pride and passion, but they are a ar cry ro) the )ore ro)antic se"-!"oriication e5pressed in

'ar"o$eIs p"ay& +ndeed, the $ho"e out"ine o the historica" Ta)bur"aineIs e5traordinari"y

successu" acco)p"ish)ents in $ar and in bui"din! the su)ptuous city o Sa)ar9and inc"udes

no reerence to any !it o e"o?uence or persuasion& 'ar"o$e !a#e hi) that&


50/132

+t $as a !it centra" to 'ar"o$eIs dra)atic strate!y or con#eyin! Ta)bur"aineIs do)inatin!

po$er *a strate!y Sha9espeare "ater ound #a"uab"e in portrayin! ;enry F as a )aster o

rhetoric4& The )artia" pro$ess o Ta)bur"aine )i!ht ha#e been de)onstrated by sta!ed batt"e

scenes, but 'ar"o$e see)s to ha#e ta9en pains to a#oid that% 'ost o the batt"es are o-sta!e,

and $e are presented instead $ith pre-batt"e scenes o boastin! or cha""en!e and $ith post-

batt"e scenes o #ictorious #auntin!& E#en Part +Is c"i)actic encounter bet$een Ta)bur"aineand 6aHaet ra!es o-sta!e $hi"e the audience $atches enocrate and abina en!a!e in a

#erba" barra!e o )utua" insu"ts and threats& Words and the orce o $i"" behind the) are the

theatrica" $eapons o choice here& The openin! o the p"ay sets the tone, $ith the Pro"o!ueIs

in#itation to "isten to Ta)bur"aine Jthreatenin! the $or"d $ith hi!h astoundin! ter)s,J

contrasted at once $ith Kin! 'ycetesI conessed inabi"ity to e5press e#en his o$n !rie

because he "ac9s a J!reat and thunderin! speech&J

The !reatness, $e disco#er, is not )ere"y in the #o"u)e but a"so in the ran!e and scope o the

i)a!ery throu!h $hich Ta)bur"aine )a!niies e#erythin! about hi)se" and his drea)s, in

the pi"ed-hi!h hyperbo"e and s$e""in! periods o the #erse para!raphs o his oratory& +t see)s

inconcei#ab"e that 'ar"o$e $ou"d ha#e orchestrated such a ro"e $ithout so)e conidencethat it $ou"d ind an actor $ith the re?uisite ta"ent to brin! it o successu""y, and it is at "east

possib"e that, a)on! other thin!s, $e ha#e in Ta)bur"aine a script $ritten $ith precise"y such

an actor as Ed$ard A""eyn in )ind& +n any case, the choice to )a9e Ta)bur"aine a $ord-

$arrior a"so pro#ided a )eans o "ettin! poetic crat rather than sensationa" )artia" action

con#ey the i)a!e o !reatness&

-/7-

'ar"o$e certain"y did not shrin9 ro) sta!in! sensationa" thin!s, but $hen such thin!s do

appear on sta!e, $e disco#er that they are not eats o )artia" art but e)b"e)atic spectac"es o

do)ination3 it is not the stru!!"e but the satisyin! taste o po$er that counts )ost& 'ar"o$e,

ta9in! his cue ro) the historica" anecdote o 6aHaetIs treat)ent, added the e5tra hu)i"iation

o usin! a hu)an as a ootstoo" and a)p"iied the #isua" i)a!e in the spectac"e o

Ta)bur"aineIs 9in!-dra$n chariot in Part ++& The co)bination o these t$o theatrica" choices

in the representation o po$er--breath-ta9in! )a!ni"o?uence and hu)i"iatin! spectac"e--su)s

up in "itt"e the basic parado5 o Ta)bur"aine, the superhu)an achie#er $ho re"ishes

subhu)an !estures&

6esides !rantin! Ta)bur"aine an e"o?uence undocu)ented in history, 'ar"o$e added se#era"

other si!niicant !its& ;e pro#ided hi) $ith enocrate, $ho, as the 9idnapped princess o a

ri#a" ru"er, bears )ore re"ation to the $or"d o chi#a"ric ro)ance than to the historica"Ta)bur"aineIs hare) o $i#es, inc"udin! a Tartar JheadJ $ie $hose counse" in !o#ern)ent

Ta)bur"aine habitua""y sou!ht& 'ar"o$e pro#ided hi) $ith a !"orious physi?ue, ce"ebrated in

'enaphonIs heroic description at the start o Act ++--a!ain, a notab"e Je"e#ationJ ro) the

historica" Ta)bur"aine, $hose na)e in the si5teenth century $as a corruption o JTi)ur the

La)e,J a tit"e !i#en to Ti)ur Khan ater a cripp"in! accident& And, or a brie but si!niicant

)o)ent near the end o Part +, 'ar"o$e pro#ided Ta)bur"aine $ith his on"y inner con"ict% an

uncharacteristica""y se"-?uestionin! )o)ent $hen he $onders $hether his desire or

enocrateIs beauty is ittin! or a )artia" hero& The ans$er see)s to be Jo courseJ-beauty is

the spur to #a"iant and transcendin! deeds& 'ar"o$e dre$ this )oti out o the treasury o

chi#a"ric ro)ance as $e""&


51/132

+n )any $ays, Part + a")ost beco)es a chapter out o heroic ro)ance, $ere it not or the

occasiona""y disconcertin! si!ns o a 9ind o #io"ence and a de"i!ht in hu)i"iation that see)

to dey chi#a"ry& The treat)ent o 6aHaet and his $ie, as $e"" as the s"au!hter o the #ir!ins

o Da)ascus, are the chie e5a)p"es here& 'ar"o$e accentuated the )e"odra)atic in both

instances, a)p"iyin! the historica" account in the case o 6aHaet considerab"y by sta!in! a

doub"e suicide and an inter#a" o insane ra#in! or abina& ;e then added a third corpse to theina" tab"eau o Part + by brin!in! on the dyin! Arabia, the other "o#er o enocrate& JA""

si!hts o po$er to !race )y #ictory,J Ta)bur"aine co))ents on the three dead bodies beneath

hi)& Ater a"" that seducti#e !"ory, the audience is presented $ith the prob"e) o adHustin! its

response to the carna!e that, in Ta)bur"aineIs o$n !"oss, ho"ds up a )irror J$herein & & & )ay

be seen ( ;is honour, that consists in sheddin! b"ood&J +s this a re)inder o the Jtra!ic

-/


52/132

-/1-

And $e descend into thIinerna" #au"ts,

To ha"e the @ata" Sisters by the hair,

And thro$ the) in the trip"e )oat o he"",

@or ta9in! hence )y air enocrate&Casane and Therida)as, to ar)s

Raise ca#a"icros hi!her than the c"ouds,

And $ith the cannon brea9 the ra)e o hea#en, & & &

6eho"d )e here, di#ine enocrate,

Ra#in!, i)patient, desperate and )ad,

6rea9in! )y stee"ed "ance& *2&:&1/-..04

;is orders to )ount a ca)pai!n a!ainst hea#en and he"", acco)panied by the $i"d !esture o

$oundin! the earth, are, o course, ?uite in "ine $ith the $ay he has a"$ays asserted po$er,

but here they are )aniest"y uti"e& ;is o""o$ers try to brin! hi) bac9 to rea"ity, and ur!e

patience% JShe is dead, ( And a"" this ra!in! cannot )a9e her "i#eJ *2&:&..1-24&

To!ether $ith this ne$ e)phasis on Ta)bur"aineIs i)potent ra!e in the ace o death and

disease, $e disco#er in Part ++ a shit in the i)a!ery that 'ar"o$e $o#e into the boasts and

#isions o Ta)bur"aine& The !"ories o his po$er, sti"" oten i!ured in ce"estia" or di#ine

)etaphors, are associated )ore and )ore star9"y $ith !ore and #io"ence& The persistent ironic

Hu5taposition o the !rotes?ue $ith the !"orious increasin!"y ca""s into ?uestion, i not into

re#u"sion, the habit o )ind that identiies one $ith the other&

'ar"o$e pro#ided a sort o pre"ude to this the)e in the irst scene o Part ++, $here

Ta)bur"aine is concerned that his three youn! sons )ay "ac9 the )artia" #i!or he considers so

#ita" to carryin! on the tas9 o $or"d con?uest& JRe#en!e, $ar, death and crue"tyJ )ust reside

in a ittin! heir%

@or in a ie"d $hose supericies

+s co#ered $ith a "i?uid purp"e #ei",

And sprin9"ed $ith the brains o s"au!htered )en,

'y roya" chair o state sha"" be ad#anced%

And he that )eans to p"ace hi)se" therein

'ust ar)ed $ade up to his chin in b"ood& *.&:&71-


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The )etaphor o b"ood turns "itera" in atherIs ne5t "esson, $hen Ta)bur"aine inishes his

discourse on ortiications $ith an e5hortation to ear"essness in the )idst o carna!e and

stabs his o$n ar) to he"p de)onstrate that J6"ood is the !od o $arIs rich "i#eryJ *0&2&../4&

;e bids his sons to bathe their hands in his b"ood, JWhi"e + sit s)i"in! to beho"d the si!htJ

*.214& T$o o the) do so and e#en ur!e their ather to cut their o$n ar)s, too& Ca"yphas,

ho$e#er, the b"ac9 sheep o the a)i"y, protests that he inds it Ja pitiu" si!ht&J

Ca"yphas ne#er does accept Ta)bur"aineIs teachin! and preers to sit out the ne5t !reat batt"e,

p"ayin! cards $ith a ser#ant& +n a co)ic scene $ith his brothers, he sends the) o to i!ht

$ith a s"o!an prophetic o Sha9espeareIs @a"sta% JTa9e you the honour, + $i"" ta9e )y ease, (

'y $isdo) sha"" e5cuse )y co$ardiceJ *:&.&:1-84& 6ut Ta)bur"aine does not e5cuse hi)&

Learnin! o Ca"yphasI truancy, he 9i""s hi) in a burst o se"-!"oriyin! rhetoric%

;ere o#e, recei#e his aintin! sou" a!ain,

A or) not )eet to !i#e that subHect essence,

Whose )atter is the "esh o Ta)bur"aine,

Wherein an incorporea" spirit )o#es,'ade o the )ou"d $hereo thyse" consists,

Which )a9es )e #a"iant, proud, a)bitious,

Ready to "e#y po$er a!ainst thy throne,

That + )i!ht )o#e the turnin! spheres o hea#en,

@or earth and a"" this airy re!ion

Cannot contain the state o Ta)bur"aine& *:&.&.1-.


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+ )ust app"y )yse" to it those ter)s,

+n $ar, in b"ood, in death, in crue"ty& *:&.&.:


55/132

Ta)bur"aineIs notion o )ateria" po$er3 it is an a)p"iied #ersion o the sort o de"i!ht he

too9 ear"ier in ca!in! 6aHaet and in usin! hi) as a ootstoo"& The #isua" i)a!e )ay $e"" ha#e

been deri#ed ro) the openin! du)b sho$ o a .8// p"ay, ocasta, $hich had been reprinted

or the second ti)e in .8


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ine#itab"e death as the desire o the !ods to in#est hi) in Ja hi!her throneJ3 he no$ "oo9s to

s$eeter ruitions than earth"y cro$ns and !rie#es or his sons and e""o$ $arriors $ho $i""

ha#e to "i#e $ithout hi)& ;e !oes out, as he ca)e in, b"ain! his o$n !"ory&

;o$ that !"ory has been deined in the inter#a", ho$e#er, re)ains as the si!na" irony o

'ar"o$eIs doub"e p"ay& ;e did not present the con#entiona" story o a tyrant $ho )eets $ithretribution but instead e5posed the $or9in!s o an i)a!ination that concei#es o !reatness

painted in b"ood, inds de"i!ht in !ratuitous hu)i"iation, destruction, and terror, and in#ests it

a"" $ith a di#ine, transcendent si!niicance& The tra!ic i)p"ication is e"t by the audience in

the sense o the ironic !ap bet$een the !od"i9e c"ai)s that Ta)bur"aine i)poses on a"" his

)oti#es and deeds, on the one hand, and the !rotes?ue"y #io"ent actua"ity o their

conse?uences, on the other& Superhu)an aspiration has beco)e subhu)an destruction and

sti"" ca""s itse" di#ine&

The E"iabethan response to Ta)bur"aine, as docu)ented in a""usions to it, ocuses, not

surprisin!"y, on the bo"d and sensationa" suraces o the p"ay as peror)ed, rather than on its

i)p"icit ironies& The p"ayIs a)bi#a"ent co)bination o heroic )otis ro) chi#a"ric ro)anceand !rotes?ue #io"ence indicatin! per#erse crue"ty see)s to ha#e been sp"it in t$o or the

E"iabethans and thus drained o its irony& ;ence, t$o apparent atte)pts to capita"ie on the

p"ayIs popu"arity% The Co)ica" ;istory o A"phonsus, Kin! o Ara!on and The Tra!ica" Rei!n

o Se"i)us& A"phonsus, !enera""y attributed to Greene, o""o$s the pattern o 'ar"o$eIs Part +

by tracin! the successi#e #ictories o a superhu)an con?ueror $ho boasts that he contro"s

@ortune herse", cro$ns his three associates, and )o#es to a c"i)actic triu)ph a!ainst a

Tur9ish potentate $hose dau!hter he )arries in triu)ph at the end& Sti"", this $or9 "ac9s any

i)itation o Ta)bur"aineIs pere)ptory or sardonic crue"ty& Se"i)us, on the other hand, ta9es

the opposite tac9, as its u"" tit"e pro)ises% The #irst Part of the Tragical Reign of Seli%$s'

so%eti%e &%peror of the T$r,s' and grandfather to hi% that now reigneth+ "herein is shown

how he %ost $nnat$rally raised wars against his own father Ba-a;et' and prevailing therein'

in the end ca$sed hi% to be poisoned+ Also with the %$rdering of his two brethren' Corc$t and

Aco%at& The p"ay sho$s the rise to po$er o a tota""y e#i" and unscrupu"ous tyrant $ho )eets

$ith no retribution or his )isdeeds& One o three sons to 6aHaet *a descendant o the 6aHaet

o Ta)bur"aineIs ti)e4, Se"i)us p"ots to o#erthro$ his a!ed ather and b"oc9 his brothers ro)

po$er& 'ore interestin! than this ra$ a)bition, ho$e#er, is his e"aborate se"-Hustiication, set

orth in a .8-"ine )ono"o!ue in rhy)e roya", e5poundin! his conte)pt or the sanctions o

re"i!ion, o

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po"itica" order, and o a)i"y, a"" o $hich he discounts as )ere e5pedients to 9eep "esser )en

in chec9& The on"y authority he respects is that o indi#idua" po$er%

6ut $e, $hose )ind in hea#en"y thou!hts is c"ad,

Whose body doth a !"orious spirit bear,

That hath no bounds, but "ieth e#ery$here,

Why shou"d $e see9 to )a9e that sou" a s"a#e,

To $hich da)e ature so "ar!e reedo) !a#eM *0:1-804

Se"i)us thus echoes Ta)bur"aineIs in#ocation o ature as the orce that teaches us to ha#e

aspirin! )inds, and his Jhea#en"y thou!hts,J "i9e Ta)bur"aineIs, are a"so directed to #ery)ateria" !oa"s& Such thou!hts are certain"y not those o re"i!ion, or e#en o a c"assica"


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ocuses instead on the parado5 o a specia" stren!th that carries $ithin itse" the !er)s o its

o$n destruction& One o his characters, Epernon, pro#ides a sort o chora" su))ation o the

prob"e)%

Oh, o $hat contraries consists a )an

O $hat i)possib"e )i5tures Fice and #irtue,Corruption, and eternness, at one ti)e,

And in one subHect, "et to!ether "oose

We ha#e not any stren!th but $ea9ens us,

o !reatness but doth crush us into air&

Our 9no$"ed!es do "i!ht us but to err,

Our orna)ents are burthens, our de"i!hts

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Are our tor)entors, iends that, raisId in ears,

At partin! sha9e our roos about our ears& *8&0&.


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Co)e "et us )arch a!ainst the po$ers o hea#en,

And set b"ac9 strea)ers in the ir)a)ent,

To si!niy the s"au!hter o the !ods& *Pt& ++% 8&0&:


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$idespread a#ai"abi"ity o 'achia#e""iIs o$n $or9s in En!"ish trans"ation& ;istorians ha#e

a"so noted that Genti""et, a Protestant )a!istrate ro) Grenob"e, c"ear"y intended his $or9 not

Hust as an attac9 on $hat he thou!ht $ere 'achia#e""ian princip"es o statecrat, but as a

pri)ary $arnin! that conte)porary @rench po"itics had beco)e dan!erous"y conta)inated by

the practice o those princip"es& @or hi), the cu")inatin! e5a)p"e o that corruption $as the

6artho"o)e$Is Day )assacre o the ;u!uenots&20

The distorted and e5a!!erated i)a!e o 'achia#e""i, in other $ords, $as the irst to i)press

itse" upon the popu"ar i)a!ination, and it did so in connection $ith the recent #io"ent e#ents

in @rance& That i)a!e see)s to ha#e been in circu"ation beore the dra)atists o the .8


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Such a corrupted and patch$or9 te5t pro#ides "itt"e basis or poetic or rhetorica" ana"ysis, but

it does ne#erthe"ess oer a basic s9etch o the scenario and !enera" tone o the action

presented& 'oreo#er, the particu"ar ro"e o Guise, rendered $ith u""er detai" than those o the

other characters, su!!ests that an actor $ho p"ayed Guise is "i9e"y to ha#e been one o those

$hose )e)ories pieced the te5t to!ether&

+n any e#ent, the out"ine o the p"ay and the basic characteriation o the Du9e o Guise re#ea"

a air"y crude eort on 'ar"o$eIs part to con#ert the a"ready sensationa"istic reports o @rench

po"itica" and re"i!ious b"oodshed into sensationa"istic theatre& Scho"ars, especia""y Pau"

Kocher * .1:74 and u"ia 6ri!!s, $ho ha#e e5a)ined the conte)porary sources o the p"ay

*)ain"y by outra!ed Protestant pa)ph"eteers and historians, but a"so so)e by Catho"ic

reporters4 ha#e de)onstrated ho$ c"ose"y 'ar"o$e adhered to the e#ents and Hud!)ents

pro#ided in the)&

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That hatcheth up such b"oody practices3

And here protest eterna" "o#e to thee,

And to the ueen o En!"and specia""y,

Who) God hath b"essId or hatin! papistry& *Sc& 2.&87-7.4

The depiction o ;enry o a#arre as the consistent"y God-earin! and pious Protestant "eaderis si)i"ar *an i)a!e that )ust ha#e struc9 En!"ish audiences at re#i#a"s o this p"ay ater u"y

.810 $ith unintended irony, since ;enry beca)e a Catho"ic at that ti)e4& The inescapab"e

"in9 bet$een the re"i!ious and po"itica" $arare o the day is urther stressed in such )o)ents

as Kin! ;enry +++Is ear"ier triu)pha" !"oss on his assassination o the Du9e o Guise, $hich

"ists a)on! GuiseIs cri)es se#era" ite)s that issue i)p"ausib"y ro) this Catho"ic )onarchIs

)outh%

Did he not dra$ a sort o En!"ish priests @ro) Douay to the se)inary at Rhei)s, To hatch

orth treason I!ainst their natura" ?ueenM Did he not cause the 9in! o SpainIs hu!e "eet To

threaten En!"and & & & M *Sc& .


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@ro) irst to "ast, the Du9e o Guise is portrayed as supre)e"y conte)ptuous o his

ad#ersaries and #icti)s& The so"e )odiication in his attitude arises in his reaction to Kin!

;enry +++Is de)and that he disband his ar)y& Then, p"ayin! or ti)e, he s$itches ro)

unabashed inso"ence to ei!ned co)p"iance, )ar9in! the shit $ith an e5p"icit aside% J+ )ust

disse)b"eJ *Sc& .1&/.4& This e5a)p"e o 'achia#e""ian e5pediency is )atched i))ediate"y

by his roya" opponent, $ho reso"#es secret"y to do a$ay $ith Guise& This is the point $herethe Du9e is seen to ha#e o#er-reached hi)se" and $here the Kin! turns the tab"es on hi)&

The assassination o Guise o""o$s a short inter#enin! scene that pro#ides the Protestant

a#arre $ith an opportunity to e5press his reso"#e to aid ;enry in the !od"y cause o

deeatin! the Du9e& When Guise $a"9s into the Kin!Is trap, the te5t captions the )o)ent in a

none-too-subt"e aside by Kin! ;enry *$hich a"so happens to )irror the ironic c"i)a5 o The

e$ o 'a"ta4% JCo)e, Guise, and see thy traitorous !ui"e outreachId, ( And perish in the pit

thou )adest or )eJ *Sc& 2.&00-0:4&

E#en thou!h the pattern o retribution is here p"ayed out, 'ar"o$e insisted that his prota!onist

)aintain his sense o superiority, re)orse"essness, and disdain or his ad#ersaries to the end&

Li9e the e$ 6arabas and

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A pension and a dispensation too3

And by that pri#i"e!e to $or9 upon,

'y po"icy hath ra)Id re"i!ion&

Re"i!ion% 6 *iabole

@ie, + a) asha)Id, ho$e#er that + see),

To thin9 a $ord o such a si)p"e sound,O so !reat )atter shou"d be )ade the !round& *Sc& 2&87-//4

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$hose e5traordinary ener!ies harbor $ithin the) the e5p"osi#e capacity or both destruction

and se"-destruction& 6y contrast, the curses and #aunts o the dyin! Guise see) )ere b"uster&

+n bet$een these )o)ents, 'ar"o$e indu"!ed in another 9ind o contrast% the )acabre

de)onstration o ho$ the aspirin! Guise e5ecutes his se"-!"oriyin! )ission& GuiseIs career

in action is a caricature o )ordant crue"ty&

;is initia" #icti), ueen 'ar!aret o a#arre, is 9i""ed by the e5otic )eans o !"o#es scented

$ith a poisonous ra!rance--a detai" supp"ied in the sources but not associated $ith Guise& ;is

ro"e in the assassination o the Lord Ad)ira", the "eader o the ;u!uenot cause, is presented

$ith crude sa#a!ery& Ater GuiseIs posted sniper succeeds on"y in $oundin! the Ad)ira",

other hench)en stab hi) in his bed3 the corpse is then thro$n do$n into the court $here the

$aitin! Guise tra)p"es on the body& Other #icti)s o the )assacre are presented as

deense"ess and unar)ed3 their he"p"ess situation at the )o)ent o death is near"y a"$ays

)ar9ed $ith so)e derisi#e Hest on the part o Guise or his co)panion s"ayers& There is an odd

eect in the handu" o scenes that represent the )assacre itse"% GuiseIs recurrent presence

su!!ests that he persona""y is en!a!ed in directin! the s"au!hter o as )any indi#idua" #icti)s

as possib"e--here, there, and e#ery$here& This is )ore a representation o bruta" ener!y thano 'achia#e""ianis), $here the art is to re)ain concea"ed and ha#e others e5ecute oneIs

destructi#e ai)s& 6y that standard, the i!ure o Catherine de 'edici in this p"ay is )ore

c"ear"y the 'achia#e", $i""in! e#en to poison her o$n sons secret"y i they stand opposed to

her $i""& onethe"ess, as a dra)atic tactic, !i#in! Guise such ubi?uity in the #io"ent actions

*)u"tip"ied beyond the historica" accounts4, o""o$in! so s$it"y upon his "on! so"i"o?uy, is

'ar"o$eIs $ay o ironica""y )atchin! aspirin! rhetoric $ith de!radin! practice& +t is the

trade)ar9 or his brand o tra!edy& +n The 'assacre at Paris, this pattern is seen in its crudest

or), and it is so o#er"aid $ith the ideo"o!ica" #i"iication o Guise as Protestant Ene)y

u)ber One that its psycho"o!ica" interest is bare"y #isib"e& ;o$ )uch o an i)pact

'ar"o$eIs p"ay had on ear"y se#enteenth-century treat)ents as GuiseIs career, such as ohn

Webster The Guise or ;enry Shir"ey The Du9e o Guise, $e sha"" ne#er 9no$, or these "ater

p"ays ha#e not sur#i#ed&

THE 3EW OF MALTA

The Du9e o Guise and 'achia#e""i are e5p"icit"y "in9ed in the unusua" pro"o!ue that

introduces The e$ o 'a"ta%28

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The tone is set% 9no$in!, satiric, in#itin! the audience to enHoy a disp"ay o hypocrisy and

treachery that their orthodo5 )ora" standards conde)n but that, the spea9er canni"y i)p"ies,

they )ay secret"y ad)ire and e#en practice& 'achia#e""i is not on"y introducin! 6arabas the

e$ and as9in! the audience to J!race hi) as he deser#es&J ;e is a"so introducin! the

audience to the)se"#es, cha""en!in! the) to ac9no$"ed!e their o$n hidden co)p"icity in the

?ua"ities that deine the popu"ar i)a!e o 'achia#e""i as the u"ti)ate opportunist $hose cratyand unscrupu"ous tactics $or9 beneath a )as9 o ri!hteousness& J;ere + a), a)on! you,J

'achia#e""i says in eect, Ja i!ure o e#i" $ith $ho) you ha#e a "o#e-hate re"ationship3 and

this e""o$ tra#e"er o )ine, 6arabas, is not )ere"y a "o#e-hate Wic9ed Other *as you "i9e to

cate!orie )e, too4 but a distorted )irror o your o$n secret #a"ues&J

This is a re)ar9ab"e introduction, )ost unusua" in the $ay it co)pro)ises the presu)ed

)ora" standards o the audience, as $e"" as in the $ay it estab"ishes an e)b"e)atic

perspecti#e or the uno"din! dra)a& This Jtra!edy o a e$J is to be seen as an i)a!e o our

hypocrisy& Our response to it, the author i)p"ies, )ay pro#e as deep"y a)bi#a"ent--and se"-

e5posin!--as our response to 'achia#e""iIs cha""en!in! ideas& +, as the subse?uent action

?uic9"y sho$s, 6arabas beco)es a caricature o e#i", it is not, as in the case o the Du9e oGuise, a caricature that can be co)ortab"y identiied $ith the ene)y& 'ar"o$eIs strate!y here

inc"udes the )anipu"ation o the)atic conte5t and satiric tone to trap his audience into a 9ind

o unheeded co)ic a""iance $ith his )onstrous prota!onist& +t is a strate!y that tries to catch

us co)ica""y ad)irin! $hat $e presu)ab"y ho"d as )ora""y hateu"&

Such a strate!y and such a tone do not it as $e"" $ith si5teenth-century con#entions o

tra!edy as they do $ith certain con#entions o Tudor

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Fice, $hi"e the dyna)ics o the presentation push their e)otions in the opposite direction& +n

the theatrica" e5perience, they ind the)se"#es distanced ro) the $it"ess hu)an and a""ied

$ith the $itty #i""ain& +n )ora" dra)a, this parado5 )ay $e"" ser#e the )ora" purpose o the

p"ay, or it su!!ests indirect"y that the audience )e)bers are )ore attached to the Fice o the

p"ay than they shou"d be or $ou"d $i""in!"y ad)it% JAd)ired + a) o those that hate )e

)ost&J

To note this pattern and strate!y in the tradition o )ora"ity dra)a is a"so to see that )ore

than 'ar"o$eIs pro"o!ue is re"e#ant here& The on!oin! presentation o his centra" character,

6arabas, is concei#ed a"on! the "ines o the Fice in the )ora"ity p"ays, a"thou!h by no )eans

restricted to that con#ention& The e$Is openin! )ono"o!ue ce"ebrates his a#arice,

-1-

and, as the ensuin! action uno"ds in a"" its episodic co)p"e5ity, $e disco#er that a#arice is

one #ice that unites #irtua""y a"" the actions in the script% Tur9s, Christians, and e$s are a""

en!a!ed in )easures to e5p"oit one anotherIs $ea"th& The riars are )o#ed to #io"ent ri#a"ry intheir hope to beneit ro) 6arabasI $ea"th3 the ba$dy-house coup"e, 6e""a)ira and Pi"ia-

6ora, conspire $ith +tha)ore to e5tort )oney ro) 6arabas3 and the Tur9ish 6asso, $hen

as9ed by the 'a"tese "eaders $hat $ind and purpose ha#e brou!ht hi) to the is"and, responds

$ith a sa"ient caption or this a#aricious uni#erse% JThe $ind that b"o$eth a"" the $or"d

besides, ( Desire o !o"dJ *0&8&0-:4& 6arabas, ho$e#er, is not en!a!ed in brin!in! others to

)ora" destruction by the "ure o a#arice3 rather he uses their predisposition to !reed to

)anipu"ate the) into physica""y destructi#e situations, eedin! his o$n desire or re#en!e

a!ainst those $ho ha#e done or $ou"d do hi) $ron!& Sti"", his dup"icitous $ay o en!ineerin!

the destruction o his unsuspectin! ene)ies, abo#e a"" the constant use o asides and o

Jpartia"J asides that inish a sentence $ith an ironic phrase that re#ea"s his hidden purpose and

!oes unheard by his inter"ocutor, re#ea"s his theatrica" ancestor, the Fice& So, too, does the

re)ar9ab"e cata"o!ue o present and past secret cri)es he !"oatin!"y enu)erates to +tha)ore,

his ne$ s"a#e, in the third scene o Act T$o3 here he is no "on!er a personiication o a#arice,

but o de"i!ht in destruction%

As or )yse", + $a"9 abroad a-ni!hts,

And 9i"" sic9 peop"e !roanin! under $a""s%

So)eti)es + !o about and poison $e""s3

And no$ and then, to cherish Christian thie#es,

+ a) content to "ose so)e o )y cro$ns3

That + )ay, $a"9in! in )y !a""ery,See Ie) !o pinioned a"on! by )y door&

6ein! youn! + studied physic, and be!an

To practise irst upon the +ta"ian3

There + enriched the priests $ith buria"s,

And a"$ays 9ept the se5tonIs ar)s in ure

With di!!in! !ra#es and rin!in! dead )enIs 9ne""s%

And ater that $as + an en!ineer,

And in the $ars It$i5t @rance and Ger)any, Under pretence o he"pin! Char"es the @ith,

S"e$ riend and ene)y $ith )y strata!e)s&

Then ater that $as + an usurer,

And $ith e5tortin!, coenin!, oreitin!,And tric9s be"on!in! unto bro9ery,


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-1.-

+ i""ed the Hai"s $ith ban9routs in a year,

And $ith youn! orphans p"anted hospita"s,

And e#ery )oon )ade so)e or other )ad,

And no$ and then one han! hi)se" or !rie,Pinnin! upon his breast a "on! !reat scro""

;o$ + $ith interest tor)ented hi)&

6ut )ar9 ho$ + a) b"est or p"a!uin! the),

+ ha#e as )uch coin as $i"" buy the to$n&

6ut te"" )e no$, ho$ hast thou spent thy ti)eM *2&0&.7


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co)petiti#e !reed and secret "echery, and by the opportunistic @ernee, Go#ernor o 'a"ta,

$hose in#ocation o di#ine pro#idence at the c"ose o the p"ay c"oa9s in a pious or)u"a the

actua" eicacy o his o$n capacity or doub"e-dea"in!& 'ar"o$e persistent"y e5posed se"-

a!!randie)ent as the co))on deno)inator )oti#atin! the actions o #irtua""y a"" his

characters, sa#e Abi!ai"& +)p"e)ented as it is throu!h a tone o cynica" )oc9ery, this

e5posure "o$s direct"y ro) the i)p"ications o 'ar"o$eIs 9no$in! pro"o!ue& +t is a"so tiedto 'achia#e""iIs obser#ation in The Prince that prudent ru"ers ou!ht not to 9eep aith $hen

that $ou"d har) their interests% J+ )en $ere a"" !ood, this precept $ou"d not be a !ood one,

but as they are bad, and $ou"d not obser#e their aith $ith you, so you are not bound to 9eep

aith $ith the)J * 'achia#e""i .1:, /:4& 6arabasI)otto--J&go %ihi%et s$% se%per

pro2i%$sJ *$hich the )odern $or"d trans"ates into J"oo9in! out or u)ber OneJ4--is the "a$

o the 'achia#e""ian "and&

And yet, that "a$ does not pro#ide an entire"y satisactory rationa"e or the ra$ ener!ies o the

script, the )ore arcica" di)ensions o this sa#a!e arce, $hich, despite its c"ear e5p"oitation

o )ora"ity p"ay de#ices and its satiric i)p"ications about the uni#ersa"ity o 'achia#e""ian

hypocrisy, consistent"y spi""s its co"ors outside those "ines& As $e $atch 6arabas in action, $edisco#er a i!ure $hose ener!ies and de"i!hts are not a"" co)prehensib"e as those o a

'achia#e""ian Fice, or the end that Hustiies 6arabasI )eans is not the ac?uisition o po$er&

+ndeed, $hen his co)pound betraya"s "ead to the o#erthro$ o 'a"ta by the Tur9s, $ho then

re$ard hi) $ith the !o#ernorship, he ?uic9"y re#ea"s his distrust o po"itica" po$er and p"ots

chie"y to use his status as a )eans o e5chan!e to increase his $ea"th, conspirin! $ith his o"d

ene)y @ernee to destroy the Tur9s& Ta9in! another 'achia#e""ian into his conidence, o

course, pro#es his ironic undoin!, Hust as it #io"ates his usua" princip"e o trustin! no one& 6ut

)ore than that, this choice see)s to ste) ro) a sti"" )ore

-10-

ur!ent princip"e under"yin! )ost o his actions% to ta9e de"i!ht in his o$n intricate and

decepti#e )anipu"ations or their o$n sa9e& Watchin! 6arabas at $or9, $hether baitin! and

o#erseein! the )utua""y destructi#e due" o his dau!hterIs suitors, preparin! the poisoned

porrid!e or the nunnery, "urin! the en#ious riars to their destruction, dis!uisin! hi)se" as a

)usician to counterp"ot a!ainst +tha)ore and his ba$dy-house a""ies *see +""ustration 14, or

busi"y ha))erin! a$ay at the trapdoor and pu""ey en!ineered to destroy Ca"y)ath, $e see

so)eone $ho enHoys the )eans or their o$n sa9e, rather than a true 'achia#e""ian, or

$ho) a particu"ar end Hustiies the )eans& +t is the c"e#er doin! that counts, not the ruits o

the process, both or 6arabas and or the audience& o )atter that his actions are a"$ays

e!re!ious in their destructi#e care"essness o $ho or ho$ )any are s"ain in his eort to !etbac9 at an ene)y& 'ar"o$e, in ocusin! on 6arabasI contortionist s9i""s and in 9eepin! )ost

o his #icti)s either "at or do$nri!ht unsy)pathetic, induced the audience to share in the

de"i!hts o cunnin! #i""ainy& The act that )ost o 6arabasI sche)es are the)se"#es speedy

i)pro#isations, in response to cha""en!es and chances that he cou"d neither p"an nor predict, is

a urther si!n o their distance ro) the careu""y pre)editated p"ottin! o po"itica"

)aneu#erin! and one-up)anship& 'ar"o$eIs p"ot is an i)p"ausib"e concatenation o

surprisin! situations and re#ersa"s--the bac9bone o arcica" structure-that test the )ett"e o

6ara bas as a tactician rather than as a strate!ist, or a"" his pride in Jstrata!e)s&J There is a

re"ated "ac9 o concern on 'ar"o$eIs part or pro#idin! 6arabas $ith a do)inatin! )oti#ation

or ?uest that )i!ht "end coherence to his destructi#e escapades& The stereotypica" de"i!ht in

ac?uirin! $ea"th $ith $hich 6arabas be!ins the p"ay does not rea""y e5p"ain the per#erse)ode o re#en!e he underta9es a!ainst @e)ee or his $ho"esa"e poisonin! o the nuns& ;is


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hosti"ity to$ard the riars and +tha)oreIs ne$ cohorts is spurred by their threats o b"ac9)ai",

a near"y )echanica" deensi#e reaction, $hi"e his a""iance $ith the Tur9ish )arauders is the

product o sheer happenstance& 6y the ti)e that )o)ent co)es, ho$e#er, the audience is not

"oo9in! or p"ausib"e )oti#ations but is )ore "i9e"y $onderin! $hat the )iracu"ous"y

resurrected 6arabas $i"" oer ne5t in the #ein o ne$ outra!es& The diy disp"ay o his

bra#ura deceptions and the sheer e5cess o his destructi#e ener!y and in!enuity ha#e beco)ethe ocus o attention& E#en as the )ayhe) esca"ates in its ran!e, intensity, and pace, $e

rea"ie that the p"ay is not orcin! us to count the corpses or taste the b"ood& The c"i)ate o

arce, $here destructi#e conse?uences are )uted or disre!arded, be!ins to shape our

responses& +tha)ore, beore he turns a!ainst 6arabas, ser#es as a 9ind o co)ic cheer"eader,

Hoinin! in his re"ish and pro#idin! reinorce)ent or the absurd

-1:-

!!&%tration


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co)pany peror)ed it bet$een @ebruary .812 and .810, as $e"" as $hen it $as re#i#ed by

other co)panies p"ayin! at ;ens"o$eIs theatre bet$een @ebruary .81: and une .81/&

6arabas beca)e one o A""eynIs )ost )e)orab"e ro"es, and the p"ay $as re#i#ed in ./. and

a!ain--both at Court and at the Coc9pit--c"oser to ./00, $hen the on"y e5tant printed edition

$as pub"ished& *We do not 9no$ $hen 'ar"o$e $rote it, a"thou!h the pro"o!ueIs reerence to

the death o Guise $ou"d p"ace it ater Dece)ber .8


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+n the irst o these scenes, Ed$ard, $hose orces ha#e been deeated by the barons in "ea!ue

$ith the ueen and Ro!er 'orti)er, is disco#ered in the We"sh abbey $here he has sou!ht

secret reu!e& ;e is apparent"y c"oa9ed in either a )on9Is habit or so)e co))on !arb

assu)ed to he"p dis!uise hi)se", as indicated by his e5c"a)ation and !esture "ate in the

scene% J;ence, ei!ned $eeds, unei!ned are )y $oesJ *:&/&1/4& 6eore his ad#ersaries co)e

upon hi), ho$e#er, his $ords and actions portray his a""en condition% )iserab"y distressed,an5ious about possib"e betraya", and, or a "ic9erin! )o)ent, uncharacteristica""y atte)ptin!

a 6oethian response to ad#ersity $ith the conso"ation o phi"osophy%

@ather, thy ace shou"d harbour no deceit3

Oh hadst thou e#er been a 9in!, thy heart

-11-

Pierced deep"y $ith sense o )y distress,

Cou"d not but ta9e co)passion o )y state3

State"y and proud, in riches and in train,Whi"o) + $as po$eru" and u"" o po)p,

6ut $hat is he $ho) ru"e and e)piry

;a#e not in "ie or death )ade )iserab"eM

Co)e Spencer, co)e 6a"doc9, co)e, sit do$n by )e,

'a9e tria" no$ o that phi"osophy,

That in our a)ous nurseries o arts

Thou suc9edst ro) P"ato and ro) Aristot"e&

@ather, this "ie conte)p"ati#e is hea#en,

Oh that + )i!ht this "ie in ?uiet "ead3

6ut $e a"as are, chased, and you )y riends,

Nour "i#es and )y dishonour they pursue3

Net !ent"e )on9s, or treasure, !o"d nor ee,

Do you betray us and our co)pany& *:&/&


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Too true it is, $e% dies vidit veniens s$perb$%'

)$nc dies vidit f$giens iacente%& 6ut Leicester, "ea#e to !ro$ so passionate & & & *:&/&8.-884

-.-

The Latin caption, a ?uotation ro) Seneca Thyestes*/.0-/.:4, adds a or)a" "ourish to theironic situation o a""en pride and )i!ht *J;e $ho) the be!innin! o the day sa$ hi!h and

)i!hty, the end o the day sa$ cast do$nJ4& Less or)a" but e#en )ore eecti#e in its

orebodin! i)p"ications is the presence in the conc"udin! part o this scene o the 'o$er *that

J!"oo)y e""o$ in a )ead be"o$J as Spencer describes hi) :&/&0Q4, $ho has "ed the ene)y

to their ?uarry% as C"iord Leech noted "on! a!o * .181, .104, this i!ure )ust be identiied

by his scythe, $hich in turn transor)s hi), $ithin such a conte5t, into an e)b"e) o Death&

Ed$ard sti"" has )uch )ore to suer beore the ti)e o his terrib"e death, but this e)b"e)atic

scene o his deeat stands as a #erba" and #isua" re)inder o one si)p"e 9ind o tra!ic

paradi!) a)i"iar to E"iabethans% the a"" o the )i!hty, the potentate rendered po$er"ess, or,

in the phrase o Sha9espeareIs Richard ++, Jsad stories o the death o 9in!s&J The paradi!)predated the de#e"op)ent o tra!ic E"iabethan history p"ays& +t $ent bac9, in act, to the

nondra)atic narrati#e tradition o ta"es depictin! the do$na"" o the !reat& This tradition is

no$ ca""ed Jde casib$stra!edy,J in reerence to Gio#anni 6occaccioIs in"uentia" Latin )ode",

*e Casib$s


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interpreti#e hints that su!!ested that both Ed$ard and 'orti)er Jbe"on!edJ a)on! those

careers e5e)p"ary o tra!edy& ;e did so $e"" beore 'ichae" DraytonIs #erse narrati#es, Peirs

!aveston* .81:4 andMorti%eriados* .81/4, as $e"" as beore Richard icco"sI ./.

addition o Ed$ardIs career to theMirror& ;is turnin! to the )ore contentious chapters in

En!"andIs history or theatrica" )ateria" )ay $e"" ha#e been inspired by the success o

Sha9espeareIs orays into the rei!n o ;enry F+, but 'ar"o$e see)s to ha#e been the irst toind a or)u"a to pro#ide so)e tra!ic unity to such )ateria", in character as $e"" as in

incident&21 Sha9espeare c"ear"y sa$ the #irtue in 'ar"o$eIs achie#e)ent and bui"t upon it in

de#e"opin! his conception orRichard II&

The endea#or to )o"d historica" )atter into tra!ic shape $as hard"y a no#e" one in Tudor

dra)a, but the usua" pattern, to Hud!e by the e$ e5tant p"ays o this sort, had in#o"#ed the

studious i)itation o Senecan or)a" techni?ues& !orbod$c, based on Georey o

'on)outhIs history o ancient 6ritain and produced at the +nns o Court in the ear"y .8/s, is

perhaps the )ost a)ous e5a)p"e, notab"e not on"y or its inno#ati#e use o b"an9 #erse but

a"so or the sustained e"e#ation *a"beit "on!-$inded and )onotonous to the )odern ear4 o its

rhetoric, $hich Sir Phi"ip Sidney praised as )atchin! the hei!hts o SenecaIs sty"e&!orbod$cIs "on! )ono"o!ues and debates, its choruses and sententious )a5i)s, and e#en its

un-Senecan a""e!orica" du)bsho$s precedin! each act a"" point c"ear"y to

-.0-

the se"-conscious eort to )er!e the the)atic )otis o po"itica" a)bition, re#en!e, and ci#i"

chaos $ith the inherited or)s o c"assica" tra!edy& 0 A !eneration "ater, $hen 'ar"o$e and

Sha9espeare, a"on! $ith se#era" anony)ous authors, too9 up the cha""en!e, it $as c"ear that

the Jc"assica"J pattern $ou"d no "on!er ser#e& That there $as a taste or Jhistorica"J p"ays

see)s a)p"y de)onstrated by tit"es in the Ad)ira"Is 'enIs repertory in the .81s, but )ost o

these ha#e been "ost, and those e$ that ha#e sur#i#ed su!!est a )aHor re"iance on sensationa"

acts o treachery and #io"ence&

Sha9espeare)enry


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78/132

that $ithin a $hi"e, he !a#e hi)se" to $antonness, passin! his ti)e in #o"uptuous p"easure,

and riotous e5cess% and to he"p the) or$ard in that 9ind o "ie, the oresaid Piers & & &

urnished his court $ith co)panies o Hesters, ruians, "atterin! parasites, )usicians, and

other #i"e and nau!hty riba"ds, that the 9in! )i!ht spend both days and ni!hts in Hestin!,

p"ayin!, b"an9etin!, and in such other i"thy and dishonorab"e e5ercises& * ;o"inshed .


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@ro) one point o #ie$, such an insistent ocus on the indi#idua"Is responsibi"ity or ad#ersity

)ay $e"" see) not on"y a si)p"istic e5a!!eration but a"so antithetica" to both ancient and

)odern notions o tra!edy3 it c"ear"y i!nores the )ore perp"e5in! prob"e) o suerin! that

a"icts the innocent& onethe"ess, it is a do)inant notion in E"iabethan tra!ic poetry and

he"ps to e5p"ain the decided"y un-Aristote"ian con#ention o tra!ic prota!onists $ho are

)ora""y $ea9 or e#i"& @ro) sti"" another point o #ie$, the notion o se"-destruction in#itesthe e"aboration o ironies that can be sensed and deined as tra!ic% the pursuit o a !oa" that

hides $ithin itse" its o$n sinister ne!ation& 'ar"o$eIs rendition o Ed$ardIs and 'orti)erIs

se"-destructi#e careers re#ea"s a stron! response to such an in#itation& +t re#ea"s urther

ironies as $e"", particu"ar"y $ith respect to the e5p"icit"y )ora"iin! di)ensions o his

historica" sources and de casib$sana"o!ues& As $e sha"" see, 'ar"o$e careu""y resisted the

con#ention o ha#in! his a""en i!ures reco!nie or e#en decry their o$n past )isdeeds& ot

e#en retributi#e ad#ersity $i"" sha9e the) ro) the attach)ent to their ori!ina" obsessions&

'ar"o$e centered $hat ;o"inshed ca""ed Jthe pitiu" tra!edy o this 9in!Is ti)eJ in persona"

dri#es and interpersona" con"icts, si)p"iyin! the ran!e and shitin! co)position o Ed$ardIs

baronia" ad#ersaries by concentratin! on the i!ure o Ro!er 'orti)er o Wi!)ore as thechie anta!onist& ;is )ost notab"e departure ro) the out"ine o Ed$ardIs rei!n as pro#ided

by ;o"inshed and ohn Sto$--apart ro) #irtua""y i!norin! the "on! and co)p"icated

hosti"ities in Scot"and, +re"and, and @rance--$as

-.7-

to !i#e 'orti)er a tota""y unhistorica" ro"e in the baronia" opposition to Ga#eston that )ar9ed

the openin! years o Ed$ardIs rei!n& ;e thereby positioned hi) ro) the start not on"y as a

"eadin! po"itica" ri#a" but a"so as a ri#a" or the ueenIs aections& +n historica" act, 'orti)er

irst appeared as an opponent in .02., nine years ater Ga#estonIs death, $hen he and )any

other barons hosti"e to the Spencers Hoined orces in an atte)pt to oust these "atter a#orites o

the Kin!& 'ar"o$eIs o#era"" co)pression o ti)e, )oreo#er, by $hich Ed$ardIs t$enty-year

rei!n is )ade to see) "i9e on"y a year or t$o, co)p"e)ents the eects o continuity achie#ed

by anticipatin! 'orti)erIs participation in Ed$ardIs do$na""& 6ut )ore than continuity is at

sta9e here3 the persona" rather than po"itica" bases or ri#a"ry are accentuated by 'ar"o$eIs

)a9in! )uch o t$o se5ua" trian!"es in the ear"y scenes o the p"ay% The ueen "o#es

Ed$ard, $ho preers Ga#eston3 'orti)er, seein! the ueen cast o by Ed$ard, sees a"so his

opportunities $ith her& And Ga#eston, $ho )a"icious"y p"ants in Ed$ardIs )ind the notion

that +sabe" has adu"terous "eanin!s to$ard 'orti)er "on! beore either o the) has )ade a

)o#e in such a direction, pro#es, ironica""y, to be a prophet& 'ar"o$e see)s to ha#e ta9en

so)e pains to insinuate erotic and persona""y #indicti#e )oti#ations into his s9etch o thesere"ationships, thus e5pandin! and co)p"icatin! the historica" i)a!e o the #ice-ridden Kin!

and his a)i"iar& Ga#eston thus not on"y "eads the Kin! a"on! a path that ends in destruction

or the) both, but his presence a"so ser#es indirect"y to open the $ay to the "iaison bet$een

'orti)er and the ueen& 6y a 9ind o in#ented se5ua" po"itics, 'ar"o$e precipitated the

con"icts that destroy a"" the parties in#o"#ed&

@or 'orti)er and +sabe", the JdestructionJ ta9es not Hust the or) o so)e u"ti)ate

punish)ent but interi) )ora" de!radation as $e""& Each be!ins as an idea"ist% she, dedicated

to her husband, and he, to the !ood o the country $hose $e"are is Heopardied by Ed$ardIs

inatuation& Each ends as a tyrannica" #i""ain, co""aboratin! in treachery, hypocrisy, and

)urder& +n his re#ision o the "ast sta!es o this history, 'ar"o$e )a!niied and iso"ated the)a"icious hosti"ity to$ard Ed$ard in the ro"es o 'orti)er and the ueen3 ;o"inshedIs


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account, a"thou!h #ery c"ear about their "iaison and 'orti)erIs po$er behind the scenes, had

not indicated 'orti)er as the "eadin! a!ent in Ed$ardIs death, e#en thou!h he recorded that

Par"ia)ent "ater char!ed 'orti)er $ith that cri)e& ;is i))ediate description o the

e5ecution co))and in a)bi!uous"y $orded Latin attributed it to the 6ishop o ;ereord, $ho

had ear"ier suered !reat pri#ations at the hands o Ed$ard and $hose intense #indicti#eness

a""ied hi) $ith the destructi#e $ishes o the ueen& 'ar"o$eIs reduction o ;ereordIs ro"e isnot on"y a tactic o dra)atic econo)y3 it a"so he"ps to a)p"iy the i)a!e

-.


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I!!&%tration '>( .1/1 Prospect Theatre Co)pany production o Ed$ard ++& The tra!edy o

obsession% Ed$ard the Kin! * +an 'c9e""en, "et4 consorts $ith Piers Ga#eston * a)es

Laurenson4& *Photo courtesy o 'ander 'icthenson Theatre Co""ection&4

-..-

is then arbitrari"y stripped o his property and J!i#enJ as prisoner to Ga#eston to do $ith as he

"i9es, is )ar9ed by sardonic crue"ty in both Ed$ard and Ga#eston& Ed$ardIs hu)i"iatin!

treat)ent o his $ie o""o$s short"y ater$ard& On )ore than one "ater occasion, the p"ay

sho$s Ed$ardIs inabi"ity to ocus on ur!ent )atters o orei!n aairs $hen beset by the )ore

e)otiona""y pressin! issue o Ga#estonIs banish)ent& Later, e#en beore the Kin! is at the

point o $e"co)in! Spencer and 6a"doc9 into his ser#ice, 'ar"o$e presented the t$o o the)

en!a!ed in a cynica" discussion o ho$ to )o#e up in the $or"d #ia "attery and hypocrisy

*2&.&.-884&

That Ed$ardIs de#otion is )isp"aced and e5tre)e beco)es e#ident enou!h& E#en )orei)portant or the pattern o tra!ic irony is the sense that, in deendin! that de#otion in such

arbitrary and a!!ressi#e $ays, he is creatin! and e5pandin! the opposition that $i"" one day

destroy hi)& ;e creates his o$n ene)ies& This )ay $e"" be another reason or 'ar"o$eIs

i!norin! the historica" batt"es $ith Scot"and, $here the ene)y is not so JconstructedJ as a

direct conse?uence o Ed$ardIs attach)ent to his a#orites& Thus, there is a specia" irony in

one o the $ays that 'ar"o$e sho$ed Ed$ard assertin! his roya" po$er% the heapin! o tit"es

and oices on his riends& With each such )easure, he anta!onies and a"ienates the "ords o

the rea"), indirect"y )a9in! ad#ersaries as he !rants honors to his riends&

'ar"o$eIs deinition o con"ict bet$een pri#ate and pub"ic #a"ues in the career o Ed$ard ++,

it shou"d be stressed, is not "ocated, as it $ou"d be so oten in "ater tra!edy, $ithin theprota!onist& Un"i9e Aeneas *or, indeed, un"i9e 'ar"o$eIs Dido4, Ed$ard ne#er concei#es o

his prob"e) as a choice bet$een con"ictin! c"ai)s o "o#e and duty& E#en $hen he is

persuaded to banish Ga#eston, it is )ore a )atter o his bein! bro$beaten by his opponents

rather than )a9in! the hard or se"-sacriicin! choice& +n act, he hi)se" turns at once to

bro$beatin! his $ie in order to !et Ga#eston bac9& Ed$ard ne#er has the c"arity o #ision to

see that u"i""in! his pri#ate desires is destructi#e to the pub"ic $ea", )uch "ess ra)e the

issue as a con"ict or choice& ;e has no interna" batt"es, a"thou!h he suers $hen he has "ost

the e5terna" ones& 'ar"o$e consistent"y characteried hi) as one incapab"e o seein! hi)se"

*or part o hi)se"4 as his o$n ene)y or his o$n prob"e)& ;is incapacity to see $hat the rest

o the p"ay insists that the audience see is sti"" another )ar9 o 'ar"o$eIs art in bui"din! tra!ic

irony& ;istorica" p"ay$ri!hts habitua""y re"y on the i)pact o historica" hindsi!ht to !i#e ed!e

to their ironic eects3 in )ost cases, irony arises ro) situations in $hich the prota!onist does

not 9no$ so)ethin! that the audience 9no$s "ies in his uture& 6ut 'ar"o$e stressed

-...-

a"so the prota!onistIs i!norance o the present, and e#en o the past-Ed$ardIs not wanting to

see what is happeningas a resu"t o his actions or to see ho$ his past actions ha#e a"ready "ed

to i"" conse?uences& 'ar"o$eIs tra!ic prota!onists do not try to ashion the)se"#es so )uch as

they try to ashion their Ja#oriteJ $or"ds, $hich happen not to correspond to the $or"ds in

$hich they )ust "i#e and die&
http://www.questia.com/ib701444p0110.fpx


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Thus, persona" obsession dri#es Ed$ard to his doo), and he does not see it& 'ar"o$eIs

te"escoped ti)e-ra)e, $hich pushes cause and destructi#e eect c"oser to!ether than

ordinary chrono"o!y a""o$s, e)phasies the point& Pacin! and co)pression, $ith one scene

"o$in! into the ne5t $ith hard"y any notice o inter#enin! ti)e, "end a Hu!!ernaut ?ua"ity to

Ed$ardIs career and stress the $ay his assertions o pri#ate $i"" ironica""y bac9ire& And,

a"thou!h $e are to"d that the 9in!do) suers, the p"ay co)es to its c"i)a5 by stressin! $hatthe Kin! suers&

The scene o Ed$ardIs deposition *8&.4 i))ediate"y o""o$s the scene o his arrest& +n it,

'ar"o$e !a#e Ed$ard u""est rein to #ent his !rie, an!er, and rustration at the "oss o po$er&

;o"inshed noted, terse"y enou!h, that $hen the Kin! irst heard the re?uest that he or)a""y

resi!n his cro$n in order to ensure the accession o his son, JThe 9in! bein! sore troub"ed to

hear such disp"easant ne$s, $as brou!ht into a )ar#e"ous a!ony3 but in the end, or the ?uiet

o the rea") and doubt o urther dan!er to hi)se", he deter)ined to o""o$ their ad#iceJ

* ;o"inshed .


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Let ne#er si"ent ni!ht possess this c"i)e3

Stand sti"" you $atches o the e"e)ent,

A"" ti)es and seasons rest you at a stay,

That Ed$ard )ay be sti"" air

En!"andIs 9in!& *8&.&81-/


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)eanin! o

Christopher Marlowe and the Renaissance of Tragedy

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