Chile Diasporas

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Transcript of Chile Diasporas

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Chile' Transition to a Knowledge Based EconomyRole of Chilean professionals abroad

Draft for comments1

Molly Pollack E.

May 2004

1 Preliminary draft prepared for The World Bank.

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INDEX

I. Introduction

II. High skilled migrants abroad as a key resource of knowledge-based economy

1. The knowledge economy2. Competitiveness: How is Chile doing?

a) Institutional framework b) Human capital, technological innovation and diffusion

III. A snapshot of Chilean professionals abroad

A. Quantification and characterization of Chilean professionals abroad

1. Educational profile of migrants2. Chilean Students abroad

B. Empirical evidence: survey to a sample of high skilled migrants

1. The survey2. Main obstacles to collaborate with the home country3. Required conditions to return4. Actions to be taken

a) Actions to change attitudes

b) Actions in the job marketc) Actions to make more transparent the supply and demand of high skilled migrants

d) Economic contexte) Institutional arrangements

i) Research institutions and universitiesii) Government

5. Main areas Chilean professionals could contribute

IV. Policy implications

1. Are specific policies required in Chile?2. Proposal of actions

a) Networksb) Improving the job matching process

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c) Insure workers against instability in job marketd) Enhance opportunities for workerse) To monitor labor policies, enforce regulations and promote

harmonious labor relations

ANNEX 1 Survey to high skilled migrants from Chile

ANNEX 2 Declaración de Viña del Mar

ANNEX 3 High skilled networks

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II. High skilled migrants abroad as a key resource of knowledge-based economy

1. The knowledge economy

The “knowledge economy” is a concept made up in recent years to indicate theimportance of learning and knowledge in competitiveness in a global world. The notionstresses the role of knowledge as one of the determinants of economic growth 2. Still, for aknowledge economy to be successful, the context where it develops should meet certainconditions.

i) An efficient policy framework and strong economic incentives which induce humancapital formation and innovation;

ii) A high level of human capital to take advantage of scientific and technologicalprogress;

(i) An effective innovation system, which adapts existing innovations to the economyand expands the frontier of knowledge, and

(ii)  A high penetration of information and communications technologies, that  reducesthe costs of transaction and increases the flow of information.

The Chilean economy is to a large extent based on natural resources, notably mining,fishing, forestry and agriculture (Table 1). Copper accounts for more than 10% of GDP andaround 40% of export earnings. Industrial exports are also based on natural resources. Thus,17% of total exports, and 36% of industrial exports correspond to salmon or fishmeal.

Table 1Chile: Exports of Goods

Year 2002Goods Million US$ Percentage

Source: Central Bank of Chile

2For a detailed explanation of this concept see “The four pillars of the knowledge

economy”, Dahlman (2000).

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Total

• Mining

• Copper

• Others

• Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing

• Fruits• Others

• Industry

• Food (salmon and fishmeal)

• Beverages and tobacco

• Forestry and furniture

• Cellulose and paper derivatives

• Chemical products

• Others (metal, electric, basic industry)

100.042375

10

92481747

786

The concept of knowledge economy is more related to “how” the economy produces, thanto “what” produces. Therefore, the application of knowledge is not only important in high-tech sectors, but also is meaningful for the exploitation of natural resources3.

The empirical evidence shows that productivity gains from technology are equal or moreimportant in natural resource sectors than in manufacturing, whereas science andtechnology tend to reinforce comparative advantages.

In Chile, the natural resource sectors are to some extent based on the application of sophisticated technology. Chile has boosted productivity and output of these sectors byadapting and improving new technologies. A good example in this regard is constituted bythe development of the mining sector, which has been benefited by Australian andCanadian know-how and investments. In addition, the fruit sector’ s success is explained bythe incorporation of adapted foreign technologies to local conditions, by private sectorentrepreneurs. The significant growth experienced by both sectors show the importance of innovation and technological development (World Bank, 2003).

Despite the successful experience of the Chilean economy, there is still need of furtherdevelopment. Chile’s manufacturing valued added per capita, although higher than theregional average, is still much lower than that of the OECD countries. This is partly due tothe significance of micro, small and medium enterprises in the Chilean economy. Thissector is far behind the rest of the economy in terms of technological development andknowledge formation. In the Chilean economy, high-tech products constitute a low share of total export earnings compared to economies such as Argentina, Mexico and Brazil, andgrowth is based more on factor accumulation than in innovation in production. Therefore,the Chilean economy is in a stage where it is becoming urgent to start considering theknowledge economy as a priority. This is particularly true if Chile is going to continuegrowing in a competitive world.

3 From Natural Resources to the Knowledge Economy (World Bank, 2002)

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2. How is Chile doing?

Chile is doing better than most Latin American countries, but still is far behind developedcountries. According to the Competitiveness Indices elaborated by the IMD and the WEF,

the Chilean economy is in a relatively better position than most Latin American countries,but still far away from developed countries. But the relative position of the countryregarding the different components of those indicators varies a lot. This is a very importantfactor that has to be taken into account, if Chile is going to continue growing in acompetitive manner.

On table 2 a selected set of factors of competitiveness included in the WEF Report ispresented. The selection was made considering those factors more directly related to theknowledge economy. The variables are classified into five categories: macroeconomicenvironment, technological innovation and diffusion, information and communicationstechnology, institutions and laws, and company operations and strategy.

Table 2Chile: Selected competitiveness indicators

2002Indicator Rank Score Meaning of score

Macroeconomic environment

Venture capital availability 44 2,9 1=no availability7=availability

Access to foreign capital markets 48 6,0 1=prohibited7=free

Financial regulation and supervision 19 5,7 1=inadequate7= world' s most stringent

Technological innovation and diffusion

Technological sophistication 25 4,6 1=lags behind most countries7=among world’s leaders

Quality of scientific research institution 43 4,3 1=non existent7=the best in their fields

Company spending on R&D 37 3,7 1=non existent7=heavy relative to international peers

Subsidies for firm-level R&D 40 3,1 1= never occur7=are widespread and large

Tax-credits for firm-level R&D 53 2,7 1= never occur7=are widespread and large

University/industry research collaboration 39 3,7 1=minimal or non existent7=intensive and ongoing

Availability of scientists and engineers 65 3,6 1= non existent or rare7=widely available

Brain drain 11 5,2 1=normally leave to pursueopportunities elsewhere7= almost always remain in the country

Women in the economy 65 3,6 1= limited and usually takes place inless important jobs7= equal to that of man

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Research and Development Spending 35 0,68 Overall R&D spending as a percentageof GDP

Skill based exports 65 1,2 Average skill based manufacturesexports as a percentage of GDP, 1997 to1999

Information and Communications technology

Speed and cost of Internet access 21 5,0 1=slow and expensive7=as fast and cheap as anywhere in theworld

Public access to Internet 44 3,4 1=very limited7=prevasive-most people have frequentaccess

High skilled IT job market 25 5,3 1=must leave the country to find good jobs7=have their pick of well-paid, desirable

 jobs within the country

Government on-line services 14 5,3 1=not available7=commonly available

Internet users 30 1155,3 Internet users per 10.000 inhabitants,2000

Institutional framework

Property rights 26 5,6 Financial assets and wealth are 1=poorlydelineated and not protected by law7=clearly delineated and protected bylaw

Intellectual property protection 33 4,2 1=weak or non existent7=equal to the world’s most stringent

Favoritism in decisions of government officials 22 4,0 1= usually favor well connected firmsand individuals7= are neutral among firms andindividuals

Competence of public officials 66 2,1 1=lower than the private sector

7=higher than the private sectorBurden of regulation 29 3,3 1=burdensome7=not burdensome

Irregular payments in government procurement 13 6,4 1= common7=never

Administrative burden for startups 41 4,4 1=extremely difficult7=easy

Days to start a firm 54 60 Considering licence and permitrequirements: what is the typical numberof days to start a new firm ((medianresponse)

Company operations and strategy

Nature of competitive advantage 44 3,1 Competitive advantage of companies isdue to 1= low cost labor or naturalresources7=unique product and processes

Capacity for innovation 37 3,6 Companies obtain technology1=exclusively from foreign companies7= by pioneering their own newproducts or processes

Reliance on professional managers 32 4,9 Senior manager positions 1=are oftenheld by relatives7=go only to skill professionals

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Pay and productivity 20 4,5 1=pay not related to productivity7=strongly related to productivity

Source: WEF (2002)

As explained in a previous section, Chile is doing well in the macroeconomic area, butproblems remain in the microeconomic area. For more than two decades the Chileaneconomy has been subjected to intense international competition. Chile was the first LatinAmerican country to abandon the import substitution strategy and open the economy toforeign trade and investment.

In spite of consolidation of the financial markets and the bank system, Chile’s insufficientaccess to risk capital, is considered a significant constraint (García and Pollack, 2004). Theindicators of venture capital availability and access to foreign capital markets confirm thisasseveration.

a) Institutional framework

Chile counts with an institutional framework far better than most Latin American countries.In order to illustrate the reasons for this statement, a selected set of components of theGrowth Competitiveness Index (WEF) are summarized on table 2. The regulations andlegal context is consolidated and property rights are well secured. Among 75 countriesconsidered in the Report, Chile occupies position 26 in the component of property rights 4,with a score of 5,6. Likewise, levels of corruption are lower in Chile than in most otherLAC countries. Chile ranks number 10 in the ranking of corruption among 75 countries,being in a better position than several European countries, Asian countries and the USA.However, Chile is doing badly in the area of intellectual property rights. Although Chile’sintellectual property regime is considered to be one of the best in Latin America, the World

Economic Forum indicators show that the level of intellectual property protection is stillinsufficient. Chile is in position 33 among the 75 countries, with a score of 4,2.

The existence of administrative barriers constitutes an obstacle to start new businesses,although these obstacles are less prevalent in Chile than in most other LAC countries. Thenumber of days required to accomplish all the legal requirements to start a new business isapproximately 60 days. This time compares to 7 days in United Kingdom, 10 in NewZealand, 30 in Japan, USA, Taiwan, Panama, Uruguay and Paraguay, 45 in Argentina andColombia; 48 in Nicaragua. Chile shares the same position with Bolivia, Brazil, Costa Rica,Ecuador, Peru and Venezuela. The only Latin American countries that surpass the 60 daysto start a business are Honduras (75 days) and Mexico (90 days). The time and the cost of 

business registration far exceed the OECD average.

b) Human capital, technological innovation and diffusion

4 Chile scores 5,6 in this indicator, where financial assets and wealth are 1= poorly delineated and notprotected by law, 7=clearly delineated and protected by law.

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Human capital is an essential part of the knowledge economy. A constant flow of skilledworkers is a necessity if an economy is to take full advantage of constantly improvingtechnologies. Moreover, Chile’s policy framework and incentives for innovation andhuman capital formation are halfway operating in some areas. These constraints areconfirmed by the WEF indicators.

• The stock of scientists and engineers is low. The Chilean system suffers from a lack of research personnel. The supply of PhDs is very low compared to leading LatinAmerican economies. There is still a need for a critical mass of highly skilled scientists.The annual PhD production has been increasing over the last years, but the number of doctoral graduates in engineering and technology is significantly behind the levels of countries such as Argentina, Cuba and Mexico. Consequently, the attempts to increasethe stock of PhDs need to be further supported if Chile is to develop a “critical mass” of researchers and scientists. Inadequate human capital decreases the knowledgeabsorptive capacity of Chilean firms and their tendency to collaborate in R&D, whichimpede innovation.

• Weak links between universities and industry to undertake applied research. There isalmost a complete separation between research institutes and industry. A few attemptshave been undertaken, but still this links have to be strengthened.

•  Low women participation in the labor market. Chile is characterized by one of thelowest participation rates of women in economic activity. Women participation is only37%, the lowest among Latin American countries, and much lower than all developedcountries.

• Skilled based exports. As stated before, Chile’s exports are concentrated mainly in

natural resources. This is corroborated by the WEB index on the proportion of skillbased exports in GDP. Chile is in position 65 among the 75 countries included in theWEF report.

•  Low professional level of S&T teachers in basic education. Chile is among the regionalleaders as regards years of schooling of teachers in basic education (World Bank,1999). Accordingly, Chile has experienced substantial improvement of studentperformance in mathematics and science during the last decades.

• Quality and relevance of tertiary education varies considerably. As pointed out inWorld Bank (1998) the quality of tertiary education differs substantially in Chile with

public universities generally ahead of private universities. Local variationsnotwithstanding, it remains without doubt that the quality of Chilean tertiary educationlags far behind the levels of OECD countries. University education in Chile “meets theneeds of a competitive economy” to a higher degree than in other LAC countries suchas Mexico, Brazil and Argentina (IMD, 2001). Still, the relevance of Chilean highereducation is far behind countries such as Israel, Finland, Ireland and USA. Moreover,Chile has been relatively unsuccessful in supplying “skills for the knowledge economy”and fall behind with regard to the development of "hard" skills (science and

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engineering). Previous studies show that the lack of hard skills constitutes a majorbottleneck to the development of the Chilean economy (Brunner 2001). According tothese studies, Chile has concentrated in "soft" skills (such as journalism and laws).

• Total R&D expenditures lag OECD levels. A precondition for an effective innovation

system is the availability of sufficient resources. In the case of Chile, expenditures forR&D do not only lag behind most developed countries, but are also behind a number of countries in the region. Hence, Chile spends less than both Brazil and Costa Rica interms of expenditures as share of GDP, and is even further behind countries such as theUnited States and Korea, which on average spend around 3% of GDP on R&D, whereasChile spends 0.5% of GDP.

• Quality of research is inadequate. Chilean researchers are considered among the best incertain areas. However, while progress has been substantial it has not been sufficient forthe country’s aspirations and still a lot remains to be done. Firm level data suggest thatthe quality of Chile’s scientific institutions is lower than countries such as Korea and

India and far behind, for example, Finland and the United States (Maloney, 2003). Lowquality of science reduces incentives for the competing private sector to cooperate withpublic researchers and consequently diminishes innovation.

•  Low participation in international networks. The Chilean trade and investment regimeprovides for a considerable transfer of technology from international trade andinvestment partners. As already indicated, this has played an important role indeveloping the natural resource-based sectors in Chile. Despite its integration into theworld economy, Chile is yet to take full advantage of international knowledge networksas a source of innovation (Maloney, 2003). The number of Chilean scientific articleswith international co-authorship has grown in recent year, indicating a rising level of 

international cooperation by the academia in Chile.

•  Research no relevant for policies. Chile’s public R&D system has been relativelysuccessful. Chile scores higher than other Latin American countries in terms of scientific publications per resident. Still, the added value of this research remainsquestionable and has been of little use to the private sector, directly and indirectly. Thenumber of resident patent applications, for example, has remained low throughout the1990s. This reflects the inward orientation of the academic personnel, whichtraditionally has paid little attention to the needs of the enterprise sector (Lundvall,2002). Collaboration among stakeholders of the Chilean innovation system has beenvery scarce. Although this is changing, partnerships and joint ventures are yet not as

relevant as should be to push firms and research centers to work jointly.

•  Limited private sector  R&D. Presently, the bulk of Chilean research is financed by theGovernment and carried out by public research institutions and universities. The privatesector is responsible for executing only about 10% of the total R&D expenditures inChile, a share, which is significantly lower than that of the private sector in Argentina(29.5%), Brazil (43.5%) and the United States (75%). Thus, there is a considerablepotential for improving Chile’s innovation system by complementing public research

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with an expansion in private sector R&D. This constitutes a significant challenge and itmay not be sufficient to reform the institutional framework and provide strongeconomic incentives. A change of mind-set and a stronger knowledge absorptioncapacity in the private sector may also be warranted.

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III. A snapshot of Chilean professionals abroad

A. Quantitative estimation of Chilean professionals abroad

To estimate the volume of skilled migrants is not an easy task given the limitedstatistical information available. In the case of Latin America, a project on internationalmigration from Latin American countries (IMILA) has been carried out by CELADE(Latin American Demographic Center). This project has developed a data base whichcontains some basic information regarding international migration for the countries of theregion. However, the available data faces some constraints, considering that IMILA dataare gathered from census rounds in the Latin American countries in the USA and Canada.Therefore, there are no information from European countries, Australia and Japan,countries that have attracted Latin American emigrants during the last decades.Furthermore, the IMILA project has not completed yet the processing of the 2000 censusround, what makes impossible to present these figures in this version of this paper.

In the case of Europe, an important part of Latin American immigration has been theconsequence of the regaining of the ancestors’ citizenship by the descendants of Europeanswho migrated to Latin America in the past. As European countries tend to identify theimmigrants by their citizenship rather than by their country of birth, it is still more complexto estimate the number of Latin American migrants to those countries.

Another restriction to appraise the number and profile of Chilean high skilled migrants isconstituted by the existence of different approaches regarding the expression “skilledworkers”, in various countries, and even within the same country, scholars use differentperspectives. In a study by Pellegrino and Calvo (2001) they noticed that migrationtypologies can be set from different perspectives. One based on indicators (economic,political, religious, etc.) and another based on its length (permanent, transitory, circularmovements). Additionally, in the case of high skilled migrants, they advised about theimportance of considering the institutional insertion of migrants. It is critical to differentiateby labor insertion. They may work in multinational enterprises, or in national firms in thereceiving country, in international organizations, in academic or research institutions, orthey can be students or even work as independent professionals.

Other authors suggest other typologies. Iradale R. (1999) divides migrants into fourcategories: by motivation, origin and destination of flows, according to migrants’incorporation mechanism and the duration of stay.

It is important to note that both the identification of the kind of migratory movement andthe definition of skilled migrants are two necessary conditions to make serious studies onthe impact of high skilled migrants in both the host and the home country. Still, thesestudies are difficult to undertake due to the lack of reliable data and the heterogeneouscharacter of the existing categorizations.

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To estimate the volume of Chilean high skilled migrants is a very complex matter, sinceChile has not explicitly been included in studies that consider group of countries, such asthe existing OECD studies. With the only exception of the IMILA project, which comprisesChilean migrants among others, no studies of skilled migrants from Chile are known.Accordingly, in this study, the data available from the IMILA project is used in order to get

a gross estimate of high skilled Chilean migrants living in other Latin American countries,in Canada and in the USA.

The last data available from the IMILA project is based on the 1990’s censuses. Tables 1and 2 present interesting information about Chileans living abroad and about professionalsand technicians working in other Latin American countries, Canada and the United States.

The population born in Chile and living abroad is presented on table 1.

Table 1

Population born in Chile and living abroad, by country1970, 1980 and 1990

Host country1970 1980 1990

ArgentinaBoliviaBrasilColombiaCosta RicaCuba

EcuadorEl SalvadorGuatemalaHaitiHondurasMexicoNicaraguaPanamaParaguayPeruDominican

RepublicUruguayVenezuela

142.150

1.900

670

126239

12

845100476359

7.52547

1.0062.999

207.1767.508

17.830

1.277

5.747

263

3.345

1.1631.5605.976

1.43924.703

218.2193.909

20.4371.496

4.948209185

2.501115975

2.2644.652

1.72620.787

Total LatinAmerica

158.454 277.987 282.421

Canada 17.805

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United States 15.393 35.127 50.322

Total NorthAmerica

15.393 52.932 50.322

Total 173.847 330.919 332.742

Table 2Percentage of professionals and technicians within economically active population

born in Chile and living abroad1970,1989 and 1990

Host country1970 1980 1990

ArgentinaBoliviaBrazilColombiaCosta RicaCubaEcuadorEl Salvador

GuatemalaHaitiHondurasMexicoNicaraguaPanamaParaguayPeruDominicanRepublicUruguay

Venezuela

2,3

56,1

40,514,3

48,047,636,119,3

62,1

33,6

3,315,927,3

46,8

37,6

53,8

31,717,3

15,023,0

3,929,524,4

27,038,1

41,5

42,254,932,219,423,9

15,421,2

Total LatinAmerica

3,4 7,9 7,9

Canada 18,1

United States 25,1 19,9 15,7

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Total NorthAmerica

25,1 19,3 15,7

Total 5,3 10,0 9,1

Source: IMILA, CELADE

In 1990, according to census data, 332.742 Chileans were residing in other Latin Americancountries, in Canada or in the U.S.A. Comparing this number with the number of Chileanmigrants both in 1970 and in 1980, it is perceived that the large expansion occurs in theseventies. During that decade, the number of migrants almost doubled the number of migrants in 1970. Meanwhile, in the eighties the rise in the number of Chileans livingabroad was insignificant.

Still, it is not only the gross figure that needs to be analyzed. There are other features that

distinguish this process that are summarized below. Most Chilean migrants reside in Argentina (66% of total migrants to this group of countries), followed by the USA (15% of this total). Brasil and Venezuela also get 6%of Chilean migrants each.

 The Latin American region got 85% of Chilean migrants in 1990, down from the 91%in 1970. The USA is becoming an important destiny for Chilean migrants. In 1970around 9% of total migrants were living in that country, percentage that increased to11% in 1980 and to 15% in 1990.

Table 2 shows the proportion of professionals and technicians within the economicallyactive population (migrants) born in Chile and living abroad. The conclusions of theanalysis of these figures are remarkable.

 In 1990 one out of ten Chilean migrants were professionals or technicians, up from oneout of 20 in 1970.

 The distribution of these professionals and technicians is not homogeneous amongcountries. The incidence of professionals and technicians is higher among migrants tothe U.S.A. than to the Latin American region as an average, but the incidence of thisgroup is higher in most Latin American countries, with the only exception of Argentina.

 In countries like Mexico, Nicaragua and Ecuador, between 38 and 55% of the migrantsto those countries are professionals or technicians. This percentage fluctuates between15,4% and 32,2% in the other Latin American countries.

 The proportion of professionals and technicians among Chilean migrants has declinedfrom 25,1% to 15,7%, while this proportion among the Chilean migrants to LatinAmerica stays in 7,9% in 1980 and 1990, down from 3,4% in 1970.

 It is important to note the significant increase in the proportion of professionals andtechnicians within the total migrants to Bolivia. One out of three Chilean peoplemigrating to that country belongs to this skilled group.

 The main conclusion from this table is the high incidence of professionals andtechnicians among Chilean migrants to this group of countries.

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1. Educational profile of migrants

According to data from the National Science Foundation, the educational level of Latin

American migrants in the U.S.A. is very heterogeneous. The average Latin Americanimmigrant tended to have a lower educational level than Asian and European immigrantsand, therefore, they tend to concentrate in less skilled activities. However, the number of people with post- graduate degrees and those engaged in professional and technicalactivities was very significant compared to the overall number of people with the sameskills in the home countries. In the specific case of migrants from Chile, the percentage of people with PhDs is higher that that of the average foreign population in the USA(Pellegrino 2002).

In 1997, eleven Latin American countries were among the 50 countries with the largestnumber of S&T migrants. Table 3 presents information regarding scientists, engineers,computer experts and social scientists from Latin America living in the USA.

Table 3Number of Scientists and Engineers admitted in the USA according to

country of origin(1993)

Home country Total Engineers NaturalScientists

Mathematiciansand Computer

experts

SocialScientists

All countriesWest EuropeEast EuropeAsiaAfrica

Central andNorth America

CanadaMexicoOthers

South AmericaArgentina

BoliviaBrazilChileColombiaEcuadorPeruVenezuelaOthers

2353525402937

24957689

1432

507165760

817138

18118

3413743

14110682

14497159917859176418

868

300121547

47972

1055

97328977362

3901463468

2558100

150

802050

12034

1181619

51210

5

4157390213

3061146

174

1031556

13622

534

619

3191810

97988

47116225

140

249

107

8210

211

326

713

55

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Other Areas 161 72 41 37 11

Source: Pellegrino (2002) from National Science Foundation.

The above table shows that in 1993 there were admitted 34 Chilean Scientists in the USA.This figure is low compared with other countries, but what is important to notice is thatmost of them belong to the area of Natural Sciences followed by Engineers.

2. Chilean students abroad

The number of Chilean students in the USA in 1997/1998 reaches, according to a report of the Institute of International Education, to 1146. They are distributed as shown on table 4.

Table 4Chilean students in the USA, according to area of study

1997/ 1998(%)

Agriculture 3,2

Business 17,7

Education 1,6

Engineering 18,2

Arts 5,5

Health 2,2

Humanities 3,4

Health and Computer Sciences 5,7

Physical Sciences 11,8

Social Sciences 9,5

Others 21,2

Survey (sample size) 803

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Students (number) 1146

Source: Pellegrino (2001) from Institute of International Education. Open Doors Report,1998/ 1999.

.

Chilean students in the USA are inserted mostly in three fields of study: Engineering,Business and Physical Sciences. Engineering and Business share 36% of all Chileanstudents in that country. This is meaningful, whereas those students have the opportunity tostay in the country once they obtain their degrees. Many of them decide to stay longer, whatincreases the probability of a permanent migration.

3. Most recent and subtle evidence: Chileans in theUSA, Costa Rica and Mexico

The absence of reliable data on Chileans high skilled professionals working in foreigncountries is one of the problems faced by studies of this kind. However, by using scant dataavailable in some selected countries we can have an idea of the profile of these migrants.Additionally, some information is available in the USA population census regardingforeign population living in the USA.

In this section, data from the 2000 USA Census and the IMILA project are used to getindirect and partial information on Chileans living abroad.

a) The profile of foreign born population in the USA in year 2000

Data from the USA Population Census allows us to get the number and the characteristicsof foreign born population living in the USA. Unfortunately, it was not possible to get databy country of origin, but only by regions.

On figure 1 the foreign born population living in the USA in year 2000 distributedaccording to home region is presented. As we are interested in high skilled migrants, wepresent population 25 years and older, by region of birth and educational attainment. Thereare 1.5 million South Americans 25 years and older living in the USA, what is equivalent to

6% of the foreign population in the USA of this age strata. Latin Americans contribute withhalf the total foreign population of that age group in that country, and Mexico alone makesup for 25% of that total.

But what is important on this figure is the educational profile of the different groups of migrants. 26% of South Americans migrants hold a Bachelor's degree or more and 89% arehigh school graduated or more. In comparison with migrants from other regions, the South

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Americans are more educated than the migrants from the rest of the Latin AmericanRegion, but less educated than those coming from Europe, Asia or Africa.

On Figure 2 we can see that 23,3% of the South Americans living in the USA (16 years andolder) hold managerial and professional positions. This is a very high proportion as

compares with the situation of the rest of the Latin Americans working in the USA.

Figure 1

Figure 2

During year 2000, a significant number of Chilean non- immigrants wereadmitted as temporary workers, exchange visitors and intra- company

transferees. As Table 5 shows, more than 6,000 Chileans were admitted withtemporary workers. More than 2,000 correspond to intra-company transferees.This kind of high-skilled people could make valuable contributions to theChilean development.

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Table 5USA: Chilean nonimmigrants admitted as temporary workers, exchange

visitors, and intracompany transferees

Workers with specialty occupations 1,978Exchange visitors 1,488

Intracompany transferees workers withextraordinary ability of achievement

2,096

Others 732

Total 6,294

Source: 2002 Yearbook of Immigration Statistics

In fact, they work in many fields (Table 6), and they could make contributions from theirdifferent perspectives.

Table 6

USA: H-1B Chilean beneficiaries by occupation *

Fiscal year 2002Computer related 43

Fashion models 3

Managers and Officials n.e.c. 60

Miscelaneous professional and managerial 19

Administrative specialization 65

Architecture, engineering, and surveying 68

Art 10

Education 73

Entertainment and recreation 5

Law and jurisprudence 6

Life sciences 17

Mathematics and physical sciences 11

Medicine and health 13

Museum, library, and archival sciences 2Religion and Theology 1

Social sciences 16

Writing 7

Unknown 9

Total 428

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• H-1B status: Aliens in specialty occupations approved to work in the United States

• Source: 2002 Yearbook of immigration statistics, October 2003 (Homeland Security,Office of Immigration Statistics)

b) Chileans in Costa Rica and Mexico

The IMILA project has processed part of the 2000 census data from the Latin Americancountries. Using this information, we got evidence on Chilean professionals working inCosta Rica and Mexico in year 2000.

There are 288 Chilean professionals in Costa Rica and 880 in Mexico. Most Chileanprofessionals in Costa Rica are inserted in the area of Teaching and ArchitectureEngineering and Health. In Mexico they work similar fields, but also a high percentage areengaged in writing activities.

Table 7

Chilean professionals working in Costa Rica and Mexico by occupational categoryYear 2000

Occupation Costa Rica Mexico

Architecture and engineering 42 70

Chemistry 4 8

Biology 14 18

Health 32 47

Teaching 73 251

Mathematics 0 8

Law 16 16

Writing 16 185

Theology 1 4

Others 90 273

Total 288 880

Source: CELADE, Data Bank, IMILA Project, preliminary figures

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An interesting feature of the Chileans living in Costa Rica is that most of them are highskilled. On table 8 we can see the distribution of the economically active population born inChile by economic activity and occupation. If we accept that the executives, professionals

and technicians can be considered as high-skilled workers, we see that 70% of Chileansworking in Costa Rica are high skilled. And this proportion is higher in particular sectors,such as Finance and Services (89% and 83% respectively). If technicians are excluded, theproportion of high skilled workers diminishes to 50% within the total and to 64% and 69%in the two correspondent sectors.

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Table 8Costa Rica: Economically active population born in Chile (older than 12 years), by

economic activity and occupation

Occupation AgricultureFishingMining

Industry Commerce Finance Services Total

Executives 2 27 39 28 29 132

Professionals

2 25 14 62 167 288

Technicians 3 32 29 34 42 159

Officeworkers

3 6 7 18 43

Serviceworkers

15 38 4 9 69

Workerswithout

qualification7 36 22 4 19 125

Total 14 138 148 139 284 816

High skilledworkers*

(%)50 60 55 89 83 70

* High skilled workers include executives, professionals and technicians.

Source: Own elaboration using preliminary data from IMILA project

The scarce availability of data on Chileans migrants and the evidence from the Costa Ricanfigures, confirm the necessity to get an idea of the kind of human resources we are "exporting", and their potential contributions. Additionally, raises the need to make a serious

effort to get reliable figures on Chilean migrants, their profile, their interests and theirhopes.

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B. Empirical evidence: survey to a sample of highskilled migrants

1. The survey

A questionnaire of 23 questions was sent to a sample of 35 Chilean professionalsliving and working in various developed countries5, and was answered by 26persons, whose characteristics are presented in the following table.

Table 9Survey Tabulations

5 See questionnaire in Annex.

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Age

30-4041-5051+

13210

Professional Activity

Researcher/ scientist/ scholarStudentExecutive/professional/ technicianBusiness ownerArts and cultureOther

7214111

III. Main field of study

Social SciencesManagementBasic SciencesInformation technologyAppliedSciencesHealth

Other

127321112

Academic degree

PhD

M.A.UniversitaryTechnology

Other

12751-

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IV. Occupation

Self employed

OwnerEmployee

Other

4116

5

V. Type of institution

Academic

Private enterprisePublic enterpriseNGOOther (InternationalOrganization)

511216

VI. Reason to emigrate

To studyBetter economic conditionsEnhance professionaldevelopmentInteractingSuccessful carrer abroadProfessional recognitionPolitical reasons

Other

66954336

How long did you expect tostay abroad(years)

1-34-55+

1076

VII. How long have you stayedabroad (years)

0-12-56-1010+

57211

How many countries have youlived on since you left yourhome country?

1

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23

1863

Contacts with home countries

Professional / business levelFamily and friendsMembership of professionalassociationsMembership of otherorganizations of Chileannationals

16242

2

How many visits to the homecountry per year

VIII. Professional

 0 1-2 3+

IX. Family and friends

 0 1-2 3+

1635

8143

X. Professional networks

XI. Chilean associations abroad

 Yes No

XII. Other networks

 Yes No

223

619

Have you consideredreturning to your homecountry?

Yes

 Temporary basis Permanent basis

49

12

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XIII. No

How do you get informationabout opportunities in yourhome country?

Yes

 Family and friends Research and academic

centers Government Internet/ newspapers

No

136110

5

Have you invested in your homecountry?

YesXIV. No

817

Have you been approached byany of the following entitiesto maintain contact andcollaborate with your homecountry?

Yes

 National Government orembassy

 University or research centers

 Private corporations and firms

 NGOs

 Other

XV. No

1651-

13

What conditions would berequired for you to feelencouraged to returning to yourhome country?

 Competitive salaries

1254

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 Job security

 Possibilities to developinvestments

 Better research facilities

 Housing facilities/ financing

 Change of political situation

 Financial support to start newentrepreneurial ideas

 Technological opportunities

 The possibility to work in yourresidence country and in Chile

 Other

No

1---

-118

3

Table 9 shows the characteristics of the sample of professionals. This sample is notstatistically representative of the professionals working abroad. Their answers will help usto give a first glance to the reasons high skilled Chileans considered when they took thedecision to migrate and what changes they expect to occur in order to be willing tocollaborate with their home country.

The age distribution of the interviewed shows that half of them belong to the range between30 and 40 years old and 11 of the 26 are older than 51 years. Most of them expected to staybetween 1 and 3 years in the host country, and were prepared to return home afterwards.Only 6 of the professionals included in the survey expected to stay more than 5 years.However, they have stayed for longer periods: 11 out of 26 (42%) have remained in thehost country for a period longer that 10 years, and 13 (50 %) have stayed more than 6 years.The former situation could be explained by various reasons. A few of those possible causesare listed below.

The sample includes professionals of different fields of expertise, but mainly executives/ professionals, followed by researchers/ scientist/ scholar. There are only two students, and

one professional who is a business owner and one that is in the field of Arts and Culture.Regarding their main fields of study, a majority is on Social Sciences, followed byManagement, and the remaining are distributed among basic Sciences, InformationTechnology, Applied Sciences, and Health.

Most of them have a very high educational level. Almost half of them hold a PhD. and 7hold a Masters Degree. Regarding their occupational category, the sample includes 16employees, 4 self employed and only one owner.

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They work in different kind of institutions, mainly in the private enterprise, as academics orin international organizations.

The reasons to emigrate are very similar in most cases. With only one exception they can

be attributed to the need to procure more professional opportunities: professionalrecognition, successful career abroad, enhance professional development, interacting withpeers of international recognition. Another reason mentioned by the professionals in thesurvey, is the need to pursue studies abroad and to look for better economic conditions. Inthree cases political reasons were the causes of the migration. This is explained by thepolitical situation in Chile during the seventies.

Summarizing, most professional migrants left for a short period and after a while theydecided to stay longer. They left with the idea of looking for better professional conditionsand stayed longer in that country. The majority of the high skilled migrants have onlystayed in one host country (69%) and only 9 of them (35%) have lived in two or threecountries since they left Chile.

All of the interviewed maintain contact with their home country, especially with family andfriends, although most of them also maintain contact at a professional level. Nevertheless,they are not members of networks or associations related to their home country. Only twoof the professionals are members of professional associations and two are members of othertype of organizations constituted by Chilean nationals. One may conclude that there is acomplete lack of incentives to be part of networks or associations that may help to havemore interactions among the high skilled migrants and their colleagues in Chile.

The former statement is as well sustained by the answers obtained from the professionalswhen asked about the number of visits they make to Chile periodically. Most of them visittheir family and friends. More than half of them visit Chile once or twice a year, but oneout of three of them do not travel to Chile at all. Regarding visits related with professionalmatters, only one out of three of the professionals answered that they travel to Chilebetween one and three times a year for those reasons.

Although they make visits to Chile, half of the professionals have not considered returningto their home country, 35% are considering returning on a permanent basis and 15% areconsidering to go back to Chile, but only on a temporary basis.

They are interested in getting information about their home country, which they get mainlythrough family and friends, and/ or Internet and newspapers. Academic centers also playcertain role in the case of scholars who are living abroad.

A remarkable conclusion extracted from the answers to the survey is referred to the poorrole played by the Government in the promotion and diffusion of opportunities for highskilled migrants in Chile. Two of the questions in the survey are related to this role. Thefirst one is related to the way in which the migrants get information about opportunities inthe home country. The second asks if they have been approached by specific entities tomaintain contact and collaborate with the home country. In the first case, only one

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professional answered that he/she gets information from the Government. In the secondquestion, again, only one professional answered that he/she has been approached by theGovernment to collaborate with his / her home country.

To make a long story short, high skilled Chilean migrants get better opportunities abroad

and the motives to return diminish as there is a complete lack of networks, actions,systematic approaches, to offer them incentives to return or contribute with their homecountry. The incentives to stay abroad exceed the incentives to return.

The former conclusion is enforced by the answers to the question about the requiredconditions to return or collaborate with Chile. Most of them consider that the conditions inthe job market should improve, to get better salaries, job security, etc. But what is evenmore relevant is that 42% of the professionals included in the survey answered that theywould like to have the opportunity of working in both countries: their home and their hostcountry. This is a very meaningful result, considering that at present there are noinstitutional arrangements that make this a real possibility.

2. Main obstacles to collaborate with the home country

This section includes a brief analysis of the leading factors considered by Chileanprofessionals living abroad as the main obstacles they face to return or to collaborate withtheir home country. At first glance, these factors appear as very heterogeneous, but oncethey are carefully examined, they can be classified into three categories: cultural, economicand institutional.

Cultural factors were mentioned by most professionals as having negative impact pn theirinterest in returning to their home country. In spite of the diversity observed among theanswers, most responses share a common denominator: the perception that Chileansresiding in Chile are not interested in hiring or working jointly with Chileans who haveobtained experience abroad. To illustrate this feeling, some of the most relevant replies aredisplayed in the table below.

Main obstacles perceived by Chileans abroad to collaborate with homecountry

 Lack of interest from institutions and individuals Chileans feel threatened Message sent by Chilean professionals in Chile: “we do not

need your help” Lack of interest in employing Chileans with experience abroad No real interest in professional cooperation “I don't think that Chileans residing in Chile are really

interested in developing close contacts with colleagues fromabroad.”

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This list of answers reflects the feeling that many professionals who have returned to Chilehave experienced. It is well known that in Chile the contacts (family or friends) 6 are morerelevant at the time of looking for a job, get promotions or making a career, than theexperience and/or academic degrees. Furthermore, the fact that they return to the countrywith more credentials (education and experience abroad) in many cases is not considered a

plus but a minus at the time of interacting with peers. Chileans professional who have neverleft the country really feel threatened. Most Chilean professionals, as one of the interviewedclearly stated, do not speak any other language than Spanish. This is becoming a constraintin a global world. However, this is still not considered a plus when negotiating salaries.

Another negative feeling mentioned by the professionals is the attitude that exists amongpeers when one of them excels in his/her work or studies. The others try to find him/ her allkind of defects in order to downgrade the quality of his/her job.

7

The two previous explanations about are important to understand the perceptions of professionals living abroad, when trying to interact with colleagues residing in Chile. Theseinstitutions are extremely critical when dealing with people with experience abroad. Theywill have to face hostile attitudes towards them, especially if they come from developedcountries. Chileans always feel they know more than people who have been working inforeign countries. Accordingly, these cultural factors and attitudes make out the contextwhere high skilled professionals living abroad should insert when returning home, if noactions are taken to change and make this scenario more friendly.

A complete different attitude is observed among professionals who have lived and studiedor worked abroad and have returned to Chile. This group of professionals is not onlywilling to work with Chileans living abroad or who have returned to the country, but theyalso try to maintain their contacts with universities, research centers or private enterprisesin the countries they used to live. This fact should be taken into account in any formulationof policies or programs dealing with the promotion of an increase in contacts andcollaboration among Chilean high skilled migrants and Chilean residents.

3. Required conditions to return

In this section a list of the more significant conditions the interviewed considered asrequirements to return or collaborate with their home country is presented. In an attempt tosimplify and systematize the answers, the suggestions can be classified into five categories:

6 The “Pituto” is more important than any other kind of credential workers may hold. This “institution”

(“pituto”) is the explanation for this feeling among the interviewed. They have left the country and they havestayed without labor connections for a certain period. In this case, their possibilities of having contacts withthe Chilean labor market that could be used as a “pituto” to help in the finding of a reasonable job diminish,and sometimes becomes null7

This Chilean attitude that contributes to diminish the incentives to return or to collaborateof Chilean high skilled migrants with the home country, is known as the institution of "chaqueteo”.

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 Chilean living in the country should recognize the potential valuable contributions of those Chileans living abroad.

 Change in the job market: more competitive and stable Less bureaucracy 

Institutional arrangements to facilitate the return of professionals Others (free flow of ideas, no travel restrictions, democratic government, free access tofinancial markets)

The above list can be categorized into two main groups. One group of modifications makesreference to the attitudes observed among Chileans living in Chile with respect to Chileanswho reside or used to live in foreign countries. A second group of changes are required totake place in the labor market, and they point out to increase job opportunities in equalconditions. These changes are difficult but they are no impossible, in particular if a politicaldecision to attract professionals abroad to contribute with the home country is taken.

In the following table a number of answers are presented in order to get to understand themigrants perceptions of the key changes required to be willing to return on a part time orpermanent basis.

I. Required conditions

 More interest in using Chileans living abroad as consultants as opposed to usingforeigners would probably benefit the industry because Chileans are aware of thelimitations and local culture. It’s hard to expect to reach similar living conditions as indeveloped countries, so the objective should be to get as much know how as possiblewithout expecting Chileans to return permanently.

 In the situation experienced by professionals living in exile for 17 years, the mainhurdle for returning is that after such long time the sons and daughters did not feel thatthey could adapt successfully in Chile and did not want to return. For the parents thereturn would have meant living thousands of miles from their families. More over, therehave been no initiatives that I know off to attract this young people to the point thattheir own children, born abroad, are not granted Chilean nationality unless they go tolive in Chile for a year. This happens while most countries in the world practice jussanguinis.

 Chile should be a safer and equitable country. The attitude of many Chileans toward those who left the country should change ( “ I

think that often those who never left Chile look at us as “traitors” because we did notexperience either the political or the economic problems of the 70s and 80s.)

 The institutional arrangements must change in order to facilitate the return of professionals,

 Job market competitive and stable Non-bureaucratic infrastructure Free flow of ideas No travel restrictions

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 Free access to financial markets

 Democracy Better salaries, working conditions and labor laws.

4. Actions to be taken

When reviewing the answers to the survey, a list of proposals for actions required toincentive the collaboration of high skilled migrants with their home country emerges. First,they consider that there are basic conditions that need to be changed, already explained inthe above section. Moreover, they perceive that no interest in getting their contribution,what is reflected, according to their perception, in negative and hostile attitudes from theirpeers residing in Chile. Additionally, they notice the lack of networks, of joint projects, andwhat is even more serious, the absence of laws dealing with facilitating the re insertion of high skilled migrants in the Chilean labor market.

In this context, they make many suggestions of actions oriented to facilitate theircollaboration with their home country.

In this section, we make an attempt to classify the list of actions required. In the tablebelow a list of some of the original answers is presented.

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Suggestions of actions to be taken

 Start a more “open mind” education for children (avoid excess of influence of thecatholic church in education)

 Increase security in the larger cities Competitive salaries, job stability and a very receptive environment and support

from the Chilean establishment to those professionals that are willing to share theirknowledge and expertise

 As far as the government is concerned, they should be able to give financialsupport to those professionals and provide through universities the facilities toconduct research

 At an academic level, I think that it would help to have more joint researchprograms between universities.

 Collect database about Chileans abroad. Make contact with them. Clearly state the needs of the country and the commitment of the government to use

them My university in Chile (at least, in my time) did not have an alumni network. The

one I am familiar with from my studies at the University of Maryland is veryactive, and this model of the alumni associations could play a very significant roleto help alumni abroad to network with their colleagues and the universities theystudied in Chile.

 Create institutions that bring professionals living abroad to consult in Chile on aregular basis.

 To survey professionals living abroad and offer them some opportunities tocontribute to Chile in terms of a match between the country needs and the personskills

 In my case to offer work in the form of consultant or short term work contracts Maintain a two ways communications and information exchange system that encourages

cooperation.

 To still increasing the commerce and financial relations with other countries and ingeneral the country globalization. To make legal recognition of professionaldegrees

 To develop temporary labor opportunities Enhance cultural development Recognition, media exposure trough documentaries, that may develop some interest

in the Chilean Industry to make the first contact, (“I did try few times calling themedia to show what’s going on in my area, but there is not interest from them, I cannot see why I would be calling the industry to go back there, if I’m not in a really

apprehensive situation here”). To incentive small investments in Chile (US$5 –15millones) tax incentives are required. In the building industry, rapid approval of projects, tax exemption for at least 10 years, liberalization

of capital markets (registration of investments in Chile and right to transfer interests, capital andprofits in the same way as in the USA)

 To create a curricula book based on the curriculum of the people that is leavingabroad. For that purpose the embassies or consulates should ask for that to thepeople that is leaving in their countries asking for interest areas in case of havingthe chance of coming back to Chile. This curricula book should be distributed to the

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most important companies in Chile and associations that look for Chileans withInternational experience, skills, etc. (I got my University degree and MBA inAdolfo Ibañez University and that Curricula book was the base of the Universitycontacts with the companies).

The actions required can be categorized into five groups: actions to change attitudes,actions to change the job market, actions to make more transparent the demand and supplyof high skilled migrants, actions to improve the economic and the institutional context.

a) Actions to change attitudes

The negative attitudes observed by high skilled migrants in Chileans residing in Chileregarding their possible collaboration, is a cultural problem whose change would take along time. They suggest the introduction of modifications to the educational system,meaning a more open mind education for children. They agree in the need to enhancecultural development in order to sensitize the population about the benefits of gettingcontributions from high skilled migrants.

Among the specific actions proposed by the professionals, the following are the morerelevant:

 Media exposure through documentaries, about the experiences of professionals livingabroad

 International interchange of students at high school level. The experience acquired bystudents in developed countries make them more willing to work in joint projects withforeigners and with Chileans living abroad

 English should be considered as a requisite to study at universities in Chile. Theknowledge of English would help Chilean professionals to be more open to foreignideas and projects. As one of the professionals stated: “Many times, Chileanprofessionals who do not speak English avoid contacts with English speaking peopleand try not to joint in projects where English is required”. This obviously constitutes aserious limitation to undertake joint projects between foreign research centers andChileans residing in Chile.

b) Actions in the job market

As stated previously, most professionals consider that the job market in Chile is notcompetitive, but based on factors as contacts, and they note a complete lack of 

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opportunities of joint projects that allow them to reside abroad working both in their homeand their host country. Many of them consider that salaries should increase and job stabilityis considered a must.

Actions that should be undertaken to improve the dynamic of the labor market can be

summarized as follows:

 The Government should give financial support to professionals living abroad interestedin contributing with their knowledge and experience.

 Universities should implement joint research programs with universities abroad. Theyshould privilege the insertion of Chileans working abroad, since their experience andunderstanding of the Chilean idiosyncrasy makes them a valuable resource.

 Government and universities should promote the creation of networks, alumniassociations, and other kind of organizations which maintain professionals and studentsliving abroad informed about the possibilities of work (temporary or permanent) inChile.

 In the same direction, a data file, including possibilities of consultant work or short -term contracts, should be available in the Internet.

c) Actions to make more transparent the demand and supply of highskilled migrants

The purpose of this group of actions is to increase the knowledge of Chileans abroad,regarding their opportunities in Chile; but also the knowledge of different Chileaninstitutions on the profile of high skilled professionals living abroad who would be willingto work or collaborate in joint projects in Chile.

The actions mentioned in the survey are oriented towards the building of a data base of thehigh skilled people living abroad.

 First a complete listing of all professional residing abroad is required. This list shouldinclude the individual characteristics of migrants, their educational profile and theexperience, their availability, and their willingness to work in Chile if they have thechance to.

 A second step considers the creation of a curricula book based on the curriculum of theprofessionals living and working abroad. This book would be distributed to companies,universities, professional associations, and to governmental institutions, that couldrequire professionals with special abilities and experience.

 Another action that should be simultaneously considered is a study to determine skillrequirements in Chile, in order to match these needs with the availability of skillsdetermined by the data base.

d) Economic context

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Some modifications in the economic context were already suggested as conditions that highskilled migrants consider as requirements to be willing to return or collaborate with theirhome country.

A few of the actions mentioned by the professionals deal with the need to give them

incentives to invest in Chile while living abroad. Mostly they complain about thebureaucracy, and the lack of incentives for small investments (tax incentives, lack of venture capital, etc). These problems are also faced by Chileans living in Chile. Therefore,a change in these matters will benefit the economy not only as a consequence of investments from people living abroad, but also from Chileans living in Chile.

Summarizing, in order to increase the willingness of high skilled professionals abroad toinvest in Chile some kind of incentives, such as tax incentives should be given to them.

e) Institutional arrangements

In this section a systematization of the answers to the issue of the required institutionalarrangements suggested by the high skilled migrants included in the survey is attemptedThe answers were mixed up with the answers to former question on actions recommended.However, it is still interesting to note that they insist in some of the suggestions, which aresummarized below. They are grouped into two categories, according to the kind of institution. The first group corresponds to research institutions and universities. Thesecond group, to Government institutions.

i) Research institutions and universities

Regarding these institutions, they recommend three kind of actions.

 The first is related to the improvement of working conditions in these institutions: bypaying higher salaries and giving financial support to joint projects between Chileanand foreign universities. A second group of actions is oriented towards the creation of mechanisms to facilitate the contacts among Chilean residing abroad and Chileansliving in Chile. These mechanisms could consist on seminars, networks of professionalsand meetings, with active participation of Chilean professionals living abroad. A thirdgroup of actions includes the financial support to joint projects. In the table below, a listof main answers to this issue is presented.

Suggestions of actions dealing with reducing theinstitutional constraints

 Educational exchanges, meetings, access to professional journals and publications, to

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students and professionals through universities and libraries, and the opportunity topublish in such journals should be encouraged and promoted.

 Invitations to professional seminars and/or to speak to students of their universities intheir home countries. With an adequate network, those activities could be organizedwithout cost for the academic institution hosting the event, since they could be

combined with visits to their home country already planned by those Chileans livingabroad. Invitations extended by those Chileans living abroad to their skilled counterparts who

live in Chile to attend professional seminars or lectures that they organize in theircountries of residence.

 Invitations to participate in joint research projects (if the project is carried out by aninstitution in Chile, by inviting Chileans working on those fields abroad; if the project iscarried out by a Chilean working in an institution abroad, by inviting their Chileancolleagues to cooperate).

 Government or Professional association sponsored events that bring Chileans back toChile to consult in different topics

 To develop academic, financial and in general all kind of cooperation betweeninstitutions

ii) Government

 One of the institutional proposals is to promote decentralization. They consider thatservices in the regions outside Santiago need to be increased and improved. Theyespecially mention health, education and entertainment. An active role should playConsulates and Embassies in helping to create a data file with all professionals livingabroad. Finally, the Government should create a fund to finance activities of the highskilled migrants and to motivate their collaboration.

A list of a sample of the answers is presented in the table below.

 Meetings and informational exchange at the Consulates level, or other organizations. The institutional arrangements must change in order to facilitate the return of 

professionals, i.e. possibility of bringing household items without paying taxes;certification in professional associations who often do not recognize a degree from anon-Chilean university, etc

 Some sort of newsletter about interactions which are already taking place and other

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possible areas of co-operation Meetings with visiting Chilean professionals and opportunities to visit them in Chile, or

an electronic forum/ message board. More investment in I+D, Exchange programs, as an example: rural community’s development may need some

help to build up sustainable ways of improving agriculture based on proven modelsdeveloped by U.S. To increase the interaction of embassies and consulates abroad with students in those areas and create

some kind of network or centralized information system to help them to interact with the rest. (“When Iwas abroad, the contact with the consulate was very limited”)

 Create some kind of fund to support students living abroad in exchange of our participation in theircurrent projects.

5. Main areas Chilean professionals could contribute

The answers to this question let the impression that Chilean professionals abroad couldmake contributions in any area. Three of the interviewed consider that those professionalscan contribute in any area as the table below shows, and one considers that Chileanprofessionals abroad can contribute in all “hard sciences”. A number of them consider theycould make contributions in the educational area, and another number consider that themain contribution could be in scientific, social and technological development. Economicsand management are also mentioned. One of the interviewed mentioned that inwinemaking, specifically in the know-how and the use of machinery to increase efficiency,Chileans migrants could make a valuable contribution.

Main areas Chileans professionals living abroad could makecontributions to the home country

 Education & business Transfer of knowledge and productive investment in start-up firms. Education, Health, Technology. 

Academic: Researcher, Scientist, Scholar Education, health, technology, create organizations abroad topromote Chile

 All “hard science” fields (Medicine, Biology, Physics, Chemistry,Astronomy, Mathematics) and their applications to the specificconditions in Chile.

 Specifically in Winemaking, know - how .and use of machinery toincrease efficiencies.

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 Training in specific areas Any!! Highly skilled emigrants could contribute to the economic and

scientific development of the country. Furthermore, they couldcontribute to the transformation of Chilean society which often

appears to be guided by 19

th

century principles and ideas. Scientific, social, technologic and financial knowledge Scientific development Every area Agriculture, Administration, Construction It is plenty of areas Mainly technological areas.(“These areas do not have good job

opportunities in Chile and, most of the time they stay abroad whenthey graduate”)

 Education-Economics

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IV. Policy implications

1. Are specific policies required in Chile?

The trends observed in high skilled migration raise the question of whether Chileshould implement policies and programs to attempt to reverse the flows or at least detectmechanisms that promote the creation of some kind of knowledge networks.

As mentioned before, human capital is the most important form of wealth in a competitivecountry. The empirical evidence shows that countries with abundance of intellectualresources achieve the highest rates of economic growth and the fastest development inscience and technology. This fact has urged many countries to include as a priority theimplementation of policies aimed at attracting highly skilled immigrants. Among the mostrelevant we can mention the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, Germany, Japan,Singapore, Hong Kong and Australia.

Political action aimed at correcting this situation is required at both the national andinternational level. For some developing countries, Taiwan could offer a useful model forlong-term management of brain drain. National policies are clearly essential to addressingthis issue. The fundamental obstacle to initiating such approaches is the lack of politicalwill – at both national and international levels. But without action, the highly skilled inscience and technology will continue to move on to more developed and wealthiereconomies.

According to Eric Goles, President of the National Commission of Scientific and

Technological Research: “It is necessary to cultivate Science”. He thinks that Chilerequires critic mass of PhD.s in practically all disciplines, because we are very few; weneed a conscience about intellectual property and patents and we need to stimulate firms tocontribute to the incorporation of scientists to applied research and development” (ElMercurio ...). He considers that Chile needs to train at least 500 scientists with PhD. degreeyearly. At present we have 3500 good scientists, and we have been able to face thechallenges of today, and we are exporting copper, fruit, agricultural and fish products. Butwe need more in technology if we want to continue growing.

Taiwan: a successful experience

As its economy took off in the 1980s, Taiwan started to attract back skilledemigrants. Between the 1950s and the 1990s, around 20 per cent of studentemigrants returned. They were encouraged by a range of policies – from providingincentives and covering the costs of moving back, to support for businessdevelopment, such as the creation of science parks that form hubs of innovative,cutting-edge technology and manufacturing.

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The 1990s saw the full opening up of the country’s economy. Returnees have helpedchange its culture into one that is dynamic, open and less bureaucratic. There hasbeen a growing realization that returnees faced by excessive bureaucracy, poorequipment and working conditions, and unfavorable social environments, are

unlikely to stay. And there is more awareness that Taiwan’s returnees want to keepin touch with their business and professional colleagues overseas.

The country’s experience shows that relevant policies must be wide-ranging,covering economic, environmental, social and political aspects. And strategies needto be developed for making knowledge networks more productive for countrieswhose skilled professionals leave to work overseas.

2. Proposal of actions

As explained above, there are different categories of high skilled migrants. The kind of interaction among these migrants and their home country is determined to some extent, bytheir labor market insertion in the host country.

One group of high skilled migrants corresponds to officials of international organizations

and employees of multinational enterprises. A second group corresponds to scholars andacademics that work at universities and research centers. Students constitute a third groupof migrants.To make proposals to promote the interaction among high skill migrants and their homecountry is very important to consider the kind of labor insertion.

For international organizations' officials and multinational enterprises' employees thepossibility of interaction is very limited. Corporations do not encourage the exchange of knowledge, and they tend to consider the transfer of technology as an indication of disloyalty to the company. Additionally, the formulation of policies concerning issues suchas the role of transnational enterprises, the transfer of technology, regulations on

intellectual property and patents are a matter of international arrangements.

Within the scientific and academic world the situation in this regard is different, where thetransfer of knowledge and scientific and technological exchanges may occur moresmoothly. Within this context, collaboration between experts is frequent and stillencouraged.

a) Networks

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The implementation of policies dealing with the promotion of links with the country of origin and of "scientific diasporas" is a strategy that has been adopted and has beensuccessful in several countries. By identifying with projects in their countries of origin themembers of this diaspora invigorate scientific and economic development, what can be

done through long distance collaboration or periodic visits.

In South Africa the SANSA network was created and was very successful. India is anexample of how different governmental policies have been aimed at stimulating links andnetworks between private entrepreneurs from inside and outside the country. A record isbeing kept since 1957 of all the scientists and technicians living in the country and abroadand special efforts are made to establish links with those that have completed or areenrolled in port-graduate studies abroad. In Switzerland a web site, Swiss-List.com, wasestablished to forge links between Swiss scientists residing in the USA and their colleaguesin the country of origin.

Korea organizes through its consulates periodic meetings with students and scientists in thereceiving countries, in order to keep alive their feelings of nationality. Also, associations of Korean scientists residing abroad have been established and attempts made at creating theconditions for their return home, scholarships have been set up and a scientific data baseaccessible from any part of the world is kept up to date. Taiwan has adopted similarpolicies (Gaillard and Gaillard, 1999) as it is illustrated on the table below.

In Latin America several programs have been implemented to promote mobility for thedevelopment of national projects. According to Meyer (1999) there are 41 knowledgeexchange networks including expatriates from 30 countries, who in some cases, have morethan one network. Meyer's list (1999) includes seven Latin American networks withheadquarters in Argentina, Colombia, El Salvador, Uruguay, Peru and Venezuela.

A scientific meeting held in Bogota in 1996, "International Scientific Migrations Today.New Problems", (Charum and Meyer, 1998) produced conceptual positions and casestudies of scientific communities established as networks, particularly Colombia's RedCaldas, which was one of the first attempts to assemble the scientific "diaspora" in LatinAmerica. The network of Uruguayans abroad is an example of a system of links betweenthe emigrant communities and the national scientific community that stimulated the returnof scientists and the creation of the Basic Sciences Development Program (PEDECIBA)following the fall of the military dictatorship in 1985.

The need to create programs to attract emigrant scientists and re-establish their ties withlocal communities in order to promote the growth of the nation's critical mass is a viableproject that has proven to be effective. However, its effectiveness will depend to a largeextent on the support it receives from national policies.

The return of migrants with skills and experiences acquired abroad is an important schemefor obtaining know-how and capital transfers.

South East Asian countries' success in achieving economic growth and scientific and

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technological development has become a paradigm for policies aimed at establishing acritical mass of highly skilled personnel. Korea is an example of successful return policies.

Many high skilled migrants returned to their country of origin. This was the result of theimprovement in economic conditions and to the policy aimed at stimulating and protecting

highly qualified human resources. This policy was implemented jointly by the governmentand the private sector. The private sector played a key role in hiring nationals residingabroad (Hyaeweol Choi, 1995). In the case of Taiwan, individuals who had returned fromthe USA initiated half the companies of the Hsinchu technological park.

However, as recent successful examples illustrate, it is not enough to rely on "voluntary"actions or to appeal to feelings of national identity. These types of proposals weresuccessful only in those countries that established sound development programs based onlocal efforts.

Even though long-distance work and virtual links are a positive reality, one must not setaside the need to insure that creative, scientific and technological activities be based in lessdeveloped countries (laboratories, academic or industrial research centers, high-techenterprises). The statement that communications' networks have rendered irrelevant thephysical source where the information originates is proven false by developed countries'policies aimed at enlisting the most skilled and innovative minds.

b) Improving the job matching process

A large amount of reallocation creates gaps and lags between firms that seek workers andworkers that seek jobs. Policymakers, in partnership with the private sector, could increasethe efficiency of the matching process by creating vacancy registries and providing jobsearch assistance. Evaluations in OECD countries suggest that such systems are highlycost-effective mechanisms for putting workers in jobs. Although these policies do not helpto create new job vacancies, they reduce frictional unemployment by more quickly fillingthe available openings. But the main advantage probably lies in the potential to increase thequality and therefore the productivity of job-worker matches. This is because better job-worker matches would likely result in greater investment in training by firms and learningby workers, which are essential for achieving growth in earnings. The reform of thesesystems requires fostering an appropriate regulatory environment for nonprofit providers,improving information systems, and expanding the range and coverage of the servicesprovided.

c) Insure workers against instability in job market

Macroeconomic volatility and vigorous job churning have created strong demand formechanisms of protection against income loss. This demand has been met by regulatingemployment stability mechanisms that are more stringent than those encountered in moredeveloped countries. However, such mechanisms constitute a primitive method of 

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insurance and can be costly. In addition, more than half of all workers do not participate insuch systems and therefore are not covered against the risk of loss of employment. Mostcountries in Latin America have reached a level of development that is comparable to thelevel the developed countries had reached when they implemented unemploymentinsurance mechanisms.5 However, the creation or expansion of such systems is challenged

by the lack of adequate registries of firms and workers, the high degree of informality in thelabor market, the small size of the state, and the lack of fiscal room to pursuecountercyclical social expenditures.Under these conditions, the type of unemploymentinsurance systems in place in developed countries may be infeasible in the region.

d) Enhance opportunities for workers

There is a widespread perception that globalization and trade integration are makingtraining policies more important. At the same time, however, increasing use of temporarycontracts and other measures to achieve flexibility are reducing firms’ and workers’incentives to invest in skills. Therefore, any policy that seeks to expand the supply of training must foster a regulatory and institutional environment in which incentives fortraining exist. In this new paradigm, training reforms go beyond the objective of overhauling public training institutions or making training more responsive to the needs of the market. The reforms involve changes in taxes, regulations, and collective bargaining.The objective is to move away from the direct provision of training and improve theincentives for firms, workers, and training providers to fund, seek, and provide high-qualitytraining. Another promising area for policy is adult education. Although it has been a lowpriority in most countries, research suggests that bringing adults back to school can be aneffective policy for increasing productivity (particularly compared with the results of public job training for unskilled workers). Latin American governments should devise ways tobring adults back to school. Possible measures include issuing tax credits to employers thatprovide time or resources for employees to attend school or giving tax relief to adultworkers while they complete their formal schooling.

e) Monitor labor policies, enforce regulations, and promote harmonious laborrelations

Countries should invest in developing institutions that collect, analyze, and processinformation, and those that implement policies and enforce regulations. Assessing thebenefits and evaluating the costs of labor policies requires skills that most laboradministration authorities (normally the ministry of labor) do not have. Althoughresearchers at universities and specialized firms can perform such monitoring, laborauthorities ought to be the ones that contract the analysis, weigh the benefits and costs, anddecide on and design the treatments to follow. This requires rebuilding the capacity of thelabor administration authority and staffing it to perform such new roles. The tasks of theauthorities are challenged by massive noncompliance.

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Recent Chilean initiative

In Chile a new initiative has taken place just recently. The Minister of ForeignRelations, through its Direction for the Chilean Community Abroad(DICOEX) organized, in November 2003, the First Workshop of Scholars andScientists residing abroad and in Chile. The workshop joined 20 scientists andscholars (10 from abroad and 10 from Chile). Its main objective is the creationof a network of Scientists and Academics residing abroad and in the country.During the meeting the required activities to establish this network wereidentified. The significance of this workshop is that is the first initiative of thiskind in Chile.

During the meeting there was agreement about the importance of creating thisnetwork and to establish mechanisms that facilitate the return and/ or thecollaboration of professionals who reside abroad. Its main conclusionsstressed the potential benefits the creation of this network would carry to theChilean economic and social development:

• Collaboration to formulate a policy on Science and Technology

• Increase in technological and scientific capacity

• Development of human capital

• More access to financial resources

• More access to experiences on management of Technology and Science

• Improvement of communication channels

• Positive impact on culture

• Contribution to development of Universities and Research Centers

• The establishment of good personal relations

The second Workshop will take place in 2004. During the year a list withprofessionals residing abroad is being prepared by DICOEX. This list is beingbased in a survey that is taking place through a WEB site.

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ANNEX 1

Survey to high skilled migrants from Chile

1. Name

2. Date of birth

3. Date of arrival to host country

4. Professional Activity

a) Researcher, scientist, scholarb) Studentc) Executive/ professional/ techniciand) Business ownere) Arts and Culturef) Other (specify)

5. Main field of study (profession)

a) Social Sciences/ Education/ Economicsb) Management/ Administration/ Finance

c) Basic Sciences/ Mathematics, Biologyd) Information technologye) Applied Sciencesf) Healthg) Other (specify)

6. Academic degree

a) Ph.Db) Masterc) College/ University

d) Technicale) Other (specify)

7. Occupation

a) Self employedb) Ownerc) Employee

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d) Other (specify)

8. Institution (please include name)

a) Academic

b) Private enterprisec) Publicd) Non Governmental Organizatione) Other (specify)

9. Reason to emigrate

a) To study abroadb) Better economic conditions abroad (salary and benefits, job stability, others).c) To enhance professional developmentd) Possibility of interacting with peers of international recognitione) Pursuing a successful career abroadf) Professional recognitiong) Political reasonsh) Other (specify)

10. How long did you expect to stay abroad (approximately) at your arrival?

11. How long have you been effectively abroad on a continuos basis?a) 0-1 yearb) 2-5 yearsc) 6-10 yearsd) More than 10 years

12. How many countries have you lived on since you left your home country?

13. Do you maintain contacts with your home country?

a) At professional/ business levelb) Contacts with family and friendsc) Membership of professional associationsd) Membership of other organizations of Chilean nationals

14. How many visits to the home country you make per year?

a) Professionali) Noneii) 1-2iii) 3 or more

b) Family and friendsi) None

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ii) 1-2iii) 3 or more

15. Professional networks

a) Do you belong to Chilean professional associations abroad (networks)?

• Yes (specify)

• No

b) To other networks?

• Yes (specify)

• No

16. Have you considered returning (to work or retire) to your home country?

a) Yes• On temporary basis

• On permanent basisb) No

17. How do you get information about opportunities in your home country?(Technological, business, academic)

a) Family and friendsb) Research or academic centersc) Government

d) Internet or newspapers

18. Have you invested in your home country?

19. Have you been approached by any of the following entities to maintain contactand collaborate with your home country?

a) National government or embassyb) Universities or research centersc) Private corporations and firmsd) Non governmental organizations

e) Other (specify)

20. What are the main obstacles you perceive for increasing professional contactwith your home country?

21. What conditions would be required for you to feel encouraged to returning toyour home country (Chile)?

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a) Competitive salariesb) Job securityc) Possibilities to develop investmentsd) Better research facilitiese) Housing facilities/ financing

f) Change of political situationg) Financial support to start new entrepreneurial ideash) Technological opportunitiesi) The possibility to work in your residence country and in Chile. j) Other (specify)

22. General recommendations

a) What actions would you recommend to be taken by government and otherinstitutions to attract high skilled Chileans abroad to increase contact/return toChile?

b) What kind of institutional arrangements could help high skilled Chileans abroadto increase professional interactions with their connationals?

c) In which areas high skilled emigrants could make their main contributions totheir home country?

23. General Comments (not included in previous sections)

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ANEXO 2

Declaración de Viña del MarTaller Preparatorio de la Red de Colaboración entre académicos y científicos de Chile

en el exterior y los residentes en el país

En la ciudad de Viña del Mar durante los días 4 y 5 de Noviembre del año 2003, ungrupo de académicos y científicos residentes en Chile y en el exterior, convocado por losMinisterios de Educación y de Relaciones Exteriores, ha sentado las bases para un proyectode cooperación que se integre al desarrollo del país.

El propósito de los chilenos residentes en el exterior de aportar efectivamente con suscapacidades al desarrollo científico, tecnológico y humano de la nación, coincide con laigual finalidad de los residentes en el país de acoger este esfuerzo en un proyecto común.Esta doble voluntad se expresa hoy en la creación de una red llamada RAYC-Chile quepermita emprender una serie de iniciativas conjuntas.

El enorme avance que la ciencia y la tecnología han experimentado en las últimas décadasobliga al país a sumarse a este proceso de evolución mundial. Han existido expectativaslatentes de incorporar al desarrollo de Chile a los científicos residentes fuera del país, lasque no pudieron concretarse oportunamente. Sin embargo, en los últimos años el país hadestinado importantes recursos para la investigación lo que refleja un compromiso de partedel Estado y crea las condiciones adecuadas para que RAYC-Chile fructifique y perdure enel tiempo.

Los activos del país comprenden no sólo los recursos naturales, sino esencialmente susrecursos humanos. La sociedad actual es, cada vez más, una “Sociedad del Conocimiento”,por lo tanto es necesario que los generadores del saber puedan hacer un aporte sustantivo aldesarrollo del país. La investigación científica que se realiza en Chile se beneficiará con eltrabajo y la experiencia acumulada de los académicos y científicos en el exterior para queeste esfuerzo vaya en beneficio del desarrollo de Chile.

El Taller Preparatorio de la Red de Cooperación entre Académicos y Científicos de ChileResidentes en el Exterior y en el País, auspiciado por la Dirección Para las ComunidadesChilenas en el Exterior del Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores (DICOEX) y el Programapara el Mejoramiento de la Calidad y Equidad de la Educación Superior del Ministerio deEducación (MECESUP), nos motiva a realizar –como primera acción- un encuentro enChile el próximo año para reunir al mayor número posible de científicos y académicos. Elobjetivo de este encuentro será el de reflexionar acerca del estado del arte de las actividadescientíficas y técnicas con un sentido crítico y constructivo, crear vínculos entre losacadémicos y científicos, así como también el de programar las actividades frituras deRAYS-Chile, todo ello, pensando en un mejor futuro para Chile.

Firman:

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Sandor Arancibia Tania Bedrax-Weiss Patricio A. Bernal Ma. Fernanda Contreras

Carlos Fortín Aldo González Pedro Labarca Jorge Litvak  

Lautaro Náñez Ricardo Oliva Juan Orellana Peralta Leo Orellana

Omar R. Ortiz Troncoso Jaime Oyarzo Giovanni Parodi HernánPeredo

Jacobo Rapaport Guillermo Schmeda Andrés Solimano

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ANNEX 3

HIGH SKILLED NETWORKS

Country

Name of Network

Type of Network

ArabCountries

The Network of Arab Scientists andTechnologists Abroad (ASTA)

Intell/Scien Diaspora Network 

Argentina Programa para la Vinculacion conCientificos y Técnicos Argentinos en elExterior (Program for the Linkage of Argentine Scientists and Technologists

Abroad) (PROCITEXT)

Developing Intell/Scien DiasporaNetwork 

Assam Transfer of Knowledge and Technologyto Assam

TOKTEN Programme

China Chinese Scholars Abroad (CHISA)Society of Chinese Bioscientists inAmericaChinese American Engineers andScientists Association of SouthernCalifornia (CESASC)

Student/Scholarly Network Local Association of ExpatriatesLocal Association of Expatriates

Colombia The Colombian Network of Researchers

and Engineers Abroad (Red Caldas)

Intell/Scien Diaspora Network 

ElSalvador

Conectandonos al Futuro de El Salvador(Connecting to El Salvodor’s Future)

Developing Intell/Scien DiasporaNetwork 

France Frognet Student/Scholarly Network  

India Silicon Valley Indian ProfessionalsAssociation (SIPA)

Worldwide Indian Network The International Association of Scientists and Engineers andTechnologists of Bharatiya OriginInterface for Non Resident IndianScientists and Technologists Programme(INRIST)

Local Association of ExpatriatesIntell/Scien Diaspora Network 

Developing Intell/Scien DiasporaNetwork Developing Intell/Scien DiasporaNetworks

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Iran The Iranian Scholars ScientificInformation Network 

Intell/Scien Diaspora Network 

Ireland The Irish Research Scientists’Association(IRSA)

Intell/Scien Diaspora Network 

Japan Japanese Associate Network (JANET) Student/Scholarly Network 

Kenya Association of Kenyans Abroad (AKA) Developing Intell/Scien DiasporaNetwork 

Korea Korean Scientists Engineers Associationof Sacramento ValleyThe Global Korean Network 

Local Association of ExpatriatesIntell/Scien Diaspora Network 

LatinAmerica

Asociation I.attino-americaine deScientifiques (Latin AmericanAssociation of Scientists) (ALAS)

Intell/Scien Diaspora Network 

Lebanon TOKTEN for Lebanon TOKTEN Programme

Morocco Moroccan Association of Researchersand Scholars Abroad (MARS)

Student/Scholarly Network 

Nigeria Association of Nigerians Abroad(A.N.A)

Intell/Scien Diaspora Network 

Norway Association of Norwegian Students Student/Scholarly Network 

Pakistan Return of Qualified Expatriate Nationalsto Pakistan

TOKTEN Programme

Palestine Programme of Assistance to thePalestine People

TOKTEN Programme

Peru Red Cientifica Peruana (PeruvianScientific Network)

Developing Intell/Scien DiasporaNetwork 

Philippines

Brain Gain Network (BGN) Intell/Scien Diaspora Network  

Poland The Polish Scientists Abroad Intell/Scien Diaspora Network  

Romania The Forum for Science and Reform(FORS)

Developing Intell/Scien DiasporaNetwork 

SouthAfrica

The South African Network of SkillsAbroad (SANSA)

Intell/Scien Diaspora Network 

Thailand The Reverse Brain Drain Project(RBD)Association of Thai Professionals inAmerica and Canada (ATPAC)The Association of Thai Professionals inEurope (ATPER)

Developing Intell/Scien. DiasporaNetwork Intell/Scien Diaspora Network Intell/Scien Diaspora Network Intell/Scien Diaspora Network 

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The Association of Thai Professionals inJapan (ATPIJ)

Tunisia The Tunisian Scientific Consortium

(TSC)

Intell/Scien Diaspora Network 

Uruguay Red Academica Uruguaya (UruguayanAcademic Network)

Developing Intell/Scien DiasporaNetwork 

Venezuela

In Contact with VenezuelaEl Programa Talento Venezolano en elExtrior (Program of Venezuelan TalentsAbroad) (TALVEN)

Developing Intell/Scien DiasporaNetworks

• The list does not include an Ethiopian network, a Croatian network and a Hungariannetwork, due to the limited information available on them.

• Source: Meyer, J-B. And Brown, M. (1999)