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First and Second Ionisation Energies

“The ionization potential, ionization energy or EI of an atom or molecule is the energy required to

remove one mole of electrons from one mole of isolated gaseous atoms or ions. More generally, the

nth ionization energy is the energy required to strip it of an nth mole of electrons after the first n − 1

mole of electrons have already been removed. It is considered in physical chemistry as a measure of

the "reluctance" of an atom or ion to surrender an electron, or the "strength" by which the electron is

bound; the greater the ionization energy, the more difficult it is to remove an electron. The ionization

potential is an indicator of the reactivity of an element. Elements with a low ionization energy tend to

be reducing agents and to form salts.

Values and trends

The next ionization energy involves removing an electron from an orbital closer to the nucleus.

Electrons in the closer orbital experience greater forces of electrostatic attraction, and thus, require

more energy to be removed.

In order to determine how many electrons are in the outermost shell of an element, one can use the

ionization energy. If, for example, it required 1,500 kJ/mol to remove one mole of electrons and

required 6,000 kJ/mol to remove another mole of electrons and then 5,000 kJ/mol, etc. this means

that the element had one electron in its outermost shell. This means that the element is a metal and in

order for this element to achieve a stable complete outer shell, it looks to destroy one electron. Thus,

the first electron is easy to remove and consequently the ionization energy is low. Notice, however,

that once the stable complete outer shell has been formed, it becomes much more difficult to remove

the next electron. If that electron can be removed the consequent one can be removed a bit more

easily.

Atomic Radius

Atomic radius, and more generally the size of an atom, is not a precisely defined physical quantity,

nor is it constant in all circumstances. The value assigned to the radius of a particular atom will

always depend on the definition chosen for "atomic radius", and different definitions are more

appropriate for different situations.

The term "atomic radius" itself is problematic: it may be restricted to the size of free atoms, or it maybe used as a general term for the different measures of the size of atoms, both bound in molecules

and free. In the latter case, which is the approach adopted here, it should also include ionic radius, as

the distinction between covalent and ionic bonding is itself somewhat arbitrary.

The atomic radius is determined entirely by the electrons: The size of the atomic nucleus is measured

in femtometres, 100,000 times smaller than the cloud of electrons. However the electrons do not

have definite positions—although they are more likely to be in certain regions than others—and the

electron cloud does not have a sharp edge.

Despite (or maybe because of) these difficulties, many different attempts have been made to quantify

the size of atoms (and ions), based both on experimental measurements and calculation methods. It isundeniable that atoms do behave as if they were spheres with a radius of 30–300 pm, that atomic size



varies in a predictable and explicable manner across the periodic table and that this variation has

important consequences for the chemistry of the elements.

Periodic trends in atomic radius

Atomic radius tends to increase as one proceeds down any group of the periodic table. This satisfies

simple intuition: atoms with more electrons have larger radii. However as one proceeds across anyrow of the periodic table, a deeper intuition is required: atoms with more numerous electrons exhibit

decreasing radius. This contraction results from the increasing number of protons in the nucleus.

Protons make little contribution to the size of the atom, but they increase the positive charge of the

nucleus, which draws the electrons into tighter orbitals.

factor principle increase with... tend to effect

electron

shells quantum mechanics

Principal Quantum Number,

Azimuthal Quantum Number

atomic

radius↑

increase on

descending a group

nuclear

charge

attractive force acting on electrons

by protons in nucleus atomic number

atomic

radius↓

decrease on passing

along a period

shielding

repulsive force acting on

outermost shell electrons by inner

electrons

number of electron shells atomic

radius↑

reduce the effect of

the 2nd factor

The increasing nuclear charge is partly counterbalanced by the increasing number of electrons in a

phenomenon that is known as shielding, which is why the size of atoms usually increases as a group

is descended. However, there are two occasions where shielding is less effective: in these cases, theatoms are smaller than would otherwise be expected.

Lanthanide contraction

The electrons in the 4f-subshell, which is progressively filled from cerium ( Z = 58) to lutetium ( Z =

71), are not particularly effective at shielding the increasing nuclear charge from the sub-shells

further out. The elements immediately following the lanthanides have atomic radii which are smaller

than would be expected and which are almost identical to the atomic radii of the elements

immediately above them. Hence hafnium has virtually the same atomic radius (and chemistry) as

zirconium, and tantalum has an atomic radius similar to niobium, and so forth. The effect of the

lanthanide contraction is noticeable up to platinum ( Z = 78), after which it is masked by a relativisticeffect known as the inert pair effect.

d-Block contraction

The d-block contraction is less pronounced than the lanthanide contraction but arises from a similar

cause. In this case, it is the poor shielding capacity of the 3d-electrons which affects the atomic radii

and chemistries of the elements immediately following the first row of the transition metals, from

gallium ( Z = 31) to bromine ( Z = 35).”



First Ionisation Energy – Spreadsheet

number symbol name 1st

1 H hydrogen 1312.0

2 He helium 2372.3

3 Li lithium 520.24 Be beryllium 899.5

5 B boron 800.6

6 C carbon 1086.5

7 N nitrogen 1402.3

8 O oxygen 1313.9

9 F fluorine 1681.0

10 Ne neon 2080.7

11 Na sodium 495.8

12 Mg magnesium 737.7

13 Al aluminium 577.5

14 Si silicon 786.5

15 P phosphorus 1011.8

16 S sulfur 999.6

17 Cl chlorine 1251.2

18 Ar argon 1520.6

19 K potassium 418.8

20 Ca calcium 589.8

21 Sc scandium 633.1

22 Ti titanium 658.8

23 V vanadium 650.9

24 Cr chromium 652.9

25 Mn manganese 717.3

26 Fe iron 762.5

27 Co cobalt 760.4

28 Ni nickel 737.1

29Cu copper 745.5

30 Zn zinc 906.4

31 Ga gallium 578.832 Ge germanium 762

33 As arsenic 947.0

34 Se selenium 941.0

35 Br bromine 1139.9

36 Kr krypton 1350.8

37 Rb rubidium 403.0

38 Sr strontium 549.5

39 Y yttrium 600

40 Zr zirconium 640.141 Nb niobium 652.1

42 Mo molybdenum 684.3

43 Tc technetium 702

44 Ru ruthenium 710.2

45 Rh rhodium 719.7

46 Pd palladium 804.4

47 Ag silver 731.0

48 Cd cadmium 867.8

49 In indium 558.3

50 Sn tin 708.6

51 Sb antimony 834

52 Te tellurium 869.3

53 I iodine 1008.4

54 Xe xenon 1170.4

55 Cs caesium 375.7

56 Ba barium 502.9



Second Ionisation Energy – Spreadsheet

number symbol name 2nd

1 H hydrogen

2 He helium 5250.5

3 Li lithium 7298.14 Be beryllium 1757.1

5 B boron 2427.1

6 C carbon 2352.6

7 N nitrogen 2856

8 O oxygen 3388.3

9 F fluorine 3374.2

10 Ne neon 3952.3

11 Na sodium 4562

12 Mg magnesium 1450.7

13 Al aluminium 1816.7

14 Si silicon 1577.1

15 P phosphorus 1907

16 S sulfur 2252

17 Cl chlorine 2298

18 Ar argon 2665.8

19 K potassium 3052

20 Ca calcium 1145.4

21 Sc scandium 1235.0

22 Ti titanium 1309.8

23 V vanadium 1414

24 Cr chromium 1590.6

25 Mn manganese 1509.0

26 Fe iron 1561.9

27 Co cobalt 1648

28 Ni nickel 1753.0

29Cu copper 1957.9

30 Zn zinc 1733.3

31 Ga gallium 1979.332 Ge germanium 1537.5

33 As arsenic 1798

34 Se selenium 2045

35 Br bromine 2103

36 Kr krypton 2350.4

37 Rb rubidium 2633

38 Sr strontium 1064.2

39 Y yttrium 1180

40 Zr zirconium 127041 Nb niobium 1380

42 Mo molybdenum 1560


44 Ru ruthenium 1620

45 Rh rhodium 1740

46 Pd palladium 1870

47 Ag silver 2070

48 Cd cadmium 1631.4

49 In indium 1820.7

50 Sn tin 1411.8

51 Sb antimony 1594.9

52 Te tellurium 1790

53 I iodine 1845.9

54 Xe xenon 2046.4

55 Cs caesium 2234.3

56 Ba barium 965.2



Atomic radii – Spreadsheet

Note: All measurements given are in picometres (pm).

number symbol name covalent

1 H hydrogen 372 He helium 32

3 Li lithium 134

4 Be beryllium 90

5 B boron 82

6 C carbon 77

7 N nitrogen 75

8 O oxygen 73

9 F fluorine 71

10 Ne neon 6911 Na sodium 154

12 Mg magnesium 130

13 Al aluminium 118

14 Si silicon 111

15 P phosphorus 106

16 S sulfur 102

17 Cl chlorine 99

18 Ar argon 97

19 K potassium 196

20 Ca calcium 174

21 Sc scandium 144

22 Ti titanium 136

23 V vanadium 125

24 Cr chromium 127

25 Mn manganese 139

26 Fe iron 125

27 Co cobalt 126

28 Ni nickel 121

29 Cu copper 138

30 Zn zinc 13131 Ga gallium 126

32 Ge germanium 122

33 As arsenic 119

34 Se selenium 116

35 Br bromine 114

36 Kr krypton 110

37 Rb rubidium 211

38 Sr strontium 192

39 Y yttrium 16240 Zr zirconium 148

41 Nb niobium 137

42 Mo molybdenum 145


44 Ru ruthenium 126

45 Rh rhodium 135

46 Pd palladium 131

47 Ag silver 153

48 Cd cadmium 148

49 In indium 144

50 Sn tin 141

51 Sb antimony 138

52 Te tellurium 135

53 I iodine 133

54 Xe xenon 130

55 Cs caesium 225

56 Ba barium 198



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