Chemistry Resource Kit - Qenos€¦ · Chemistry Resource Kit The Qenos Chemistry Resource kit has...

QenosCnr Kororoit Creek Rd and Maidstone St, Altona 3018

Ph 61 3 9258 7333 Fax 61 3 9369 6624

Chemistry

Resource Kit

The Qenos Chemistry Resource kit has been developedas an information package for secondary students andothers who wish to learn about Qenos, plasticsmanufacturing and the petrochemical industry.

This document is available on the Qenos website at: www.qenos.com

Published by Qenos Corporate Affairs Department,Dec 2001 ACN 054 196 771

Contents s Qenos Resource Kit s Page 1

Qenos Chemistry Resource KitContents1. Introduction to Qenos Altona

2. Introduction to the Altona Chemical Complex

3. Introduction to Qenos Olefins Manufacturing Site

4. Production of Ethylene

5. Introduction to Qenos Elastomers

6. Laboratory Tests and Quality Control

7. Production of BR–Polybutadiene Rubber

8. Introduction to Qenos Plastics Manufacturing Site

9. Production of Polyethylene at Qenos Plastics

10. Production of Polypropylene and Polyethylene at Qenos Resins

11. Manufacture of Polyethylene Products

12. Waste Management at Qenos Altona

13. Glossary of terms

14. Acknowledgments

Copyright © 2001 by Qenos Pty Ltd, 471-513 Kororoit Creek Road, Altona, VIC, 3018.Telephone (03) 9258 7333, Facsimile (03) 9258 4573ACN 054 196 771

This publication is designed to be used with appropriate duplicating equipment to reproduce copies for classroom use. Permission ishereby granted to classroom teachers to reproduce pages. For all other purposes, request permission in writing from Qenos.

National Library of Australia Cataloguing-In-Publication data:

Qenos resource kit.

ISBN 0 646 15357 9.

1. Qenos. 2. Chemicals–Australia. 3. Chemical industry–Australia. I. Qenos. II. Title. III. Title:Resource kit.

661.00994

Publication historyFirst published: October 1993 (published as Kemcor Resource kit)Second edition: March 1997Third edition: December 2001

Introduction to Qenos s Qenos Resource Kit s Page 1

Qenos is a leader in the production of olefins andpolymers in Australia. Qenos has majorproduction facilities at Altona, Victoria andBotany, NSW which produce plastics, rubber andpetrochemicals.

Using Bass Strait and Cooper Basin oil and gasas feedstock, Qenos adds value to an Australiannatural resource.

Qenos supply a broad range of products to theextensive plastics and rubber manufacturingsector throughout Australia.

Qenos is a vital link in the Australianmanufacturing chain.

Qenos and CustomersFrom high volume plastics and elastomersproduced locally, to a broad range of importedpolymers, Qenos’ product range is extensive.

A close relationship with shareholders,ExxonMobil and Orica, provides Qenos withaccess to valuable worldwide technical supportnetworks and an enhanced capacity to meet clientneeds. The product range falls into several areas:

OlefinsQenos produces olefins—ethylene, propylene andbutadiene—to meet its plastics and elastomersneeds and supplies other manufacturers that usethese raw materials.

Polyethylene and PolypropylenePolyethylene resins are manufactured at Qenosplants at Altona and Botany. There are severaltypes of polyethylene which have differentproperties; Qenos makes High Density, (HDPE),Low Density (LDPE) and Linear Low Density(LLDPE). Qenos also manufacturespolypropylene (PP) at Altona.

Qenos is the only Australian manufacturer ofpolyethylene and supplies manufacturers indiverse sectors such as packaging, constructionand telecommunications. Qenos has a state-of-the-art Technical Centre at Altona where anextensive range of product and application testscan be conducted.

Synthetic RubberThe only producer of synthetic rubber in Australia,Qenos operates a plant at Altona. From herepolybutadiene rubber (BR) is supplied to a widerange of industries with the tyre industry as amajor customer. Qenos also distrubutes styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR).

Engineering PlasticsQenos Engineering Plastics manufacturescustomised plastic compounds which are suppliedto a wide range of industries including appliance,automotive and wire and cable. The productsinclude nylon compounds, polyethylenecompounds and polypropylene compounds.

Other PolymersIn addition to its range of locally manufacturedproducts, Qenos also provides a range ofimported polymers, serving customers in a broadrange of industries including automotive, electricaland packaging.

Qenos and EducationQenos has produced the VCE ChemistryResource Kit in response to requests for data tosupport students in their Chemistry studies.

The Qenos Resource Kit provides supportmaterial and information for teachers andstudents in their chemistry studies, particularly atyears 11 and 12. The Qenos business hasparticular relevance to areas of study involving:

n Investigation of chemicals in everyday use

n Polymers, their properties, bonding andpolymerisation

n The selection of a polymer for a specificpurpose

n Production of ethylene, polyethylene,polypropylene and synthetic rubber

n Management of wastes, environmentalmonitoring and reporting

n Recycling of polyethylene

Introduction to Qenos

s Qenos Resource Kit s Introduction to Qenos

Figure 1The Altona Chemical Complex from the air

Introduction to Qenos s Qenos Resource Kit s Page 3

Qenos and its CommunitiesQenos is proud of its place in the Altona andBotany —and wider Australian communities.

Through the company’s focus on employeeinvolvement in setting directions for the future, itsresponsible attitude to the environment andinvolvement in local industry, schools and othercommunity groups, Qenos maintains a high levelof local commitment.

Qenos' Altona site is one of the largest employersin Melbourne’s western suburbs. Qenos hasestablished open lines of communication with thecommunity. Employees who live nearby areencouraged to become involved in local activities.Qenos maintains a high level of awareness onissues effecting the environment and community.This approach is also taken with the QenosBotany site which is part of the Botany IndustrialPark.

It’s an essential part of the Qenos approach—andpart of the way the company meets its goal ofcreating prosperity for the community and being aresponsible citizen today—and tomorrow.

Safe Handling of ChemicalsSafe procedures for the storage, handling andtransport of industrial chemicals are determinedby Federal and State legislation. AustralianStandards, Industry Standards and Qenos' safeoperating procedures.

Worksafe Australia has produced a number ofpublications relating to chemicals at work. InVictoria and NSW the Dangerous Goods Acts andthe Dangerous Goods (Storage and Handling)regulations dictate the way in which chemicalsare used, stored and placarded in the workplace.

These regulations and standards were developedto cater for a vast range of chemicals in everyday use. Qenos recognises that there will alwaysbe the potential for chemicals to do harm which iswhy we take all precautions to ensure thataccidents are kept to a minimum by displayingHazardous Chemical signs and training staff tohandle all chemicals in a correct and safemanner.

Specific information is required to be located onthe label of every package of dangerous goods.The regulations also specify how storage areasare to be designed, constructed and located inorder to minimise the risk of accidents. Otherrequirements include the separation andsegregation of goods which may reactdangerously together.

Qenos provides protection for its workers bysupplying them with sealed systems, personalprotective clothing and by also employing a

personal hygienist whose job it is to monitor anyhealth risk to employees. In all cases wherechemicals are handled in the workplace, a rangeof personal protective equipment is available to theworker, the type and range of which varies fromchemical to chemical.

These precautions are necessary when workingwith chemicals as direct bodily contact can causethe following affects:

n Contact with the skin can result in dermatitisand/or burns;

n Absorption of chemicals via the pores of theskin can lead to skin ailments;

n Inhalation of fumes, dusts and vapours canlead to respiratory problems;

n Ingestion of liquids can result in poisoning.

Because of these effects, classifications aregiven to chemicals by various bodies includingWorksafe Australia. Qenos strictly adheres tothese regulations and pertinent information abouteach chemical contained in its Material SafetyData Sheet which details:

n Trade and chemical names and otheridentification;

n Short and long term health effects;

n First aid information and advice to doctors;

n Occupational exposure standards;

n Fire and fire fighting information;

n Storage and reactivity data;

n Spill leak procedures;

n Personal protective equipment requirements.

Qenos continues to search for alternatives orsubstitutes for some chemicals currently used inproduction, which will maintain high quality in theend product and improve handling and storage.

Environmental FactsQenos is very committed to actively protecting theenvironment and safety of our employees and thepublic. There are a variety of ways in whichQenos goes about doing this and they areoutlined below.

What is a toxic waste or pollutant?The toxicity of a substance–raw material, finishedproduct or waste–depends on:

n the substance having a chemical reactioncapable of causing harm; and

n exposure to that substance–including acertain exposure time and exposure quantity.

s Qenos Resource Kit s Introduction to Qenos

All chemicals will exhibit toxic behaviour undersome condition of exposure — it is the conditionof exposure and the type of biological systembeing exposed, that determines the extent of thetoxic effect. Some chemicals will have an acutetoxic affect, i.e. after a single, short exposure.Other substances may have a subchronic orchronic toxic effect, i.e. after repeated orcontinuous exposures.

As with toxic effects on a biological system (suchas the human body), a chemical can have apolluting effect on an exposed environment, ifthere is a harmful chemical action combined witha certain exposure. Pollution however, is notlimited to chemical actions and toxic effects.Noise, offensive odours, heat and visualimpairment can all be considered forms ofpollution even if they are harmless from atoxicological point of view.

An everyday chemical such as salt (sodiumchloride) will have a toxic or polluting effect ifreleased into a fresh water stream. The salt mayaffect the vegetation or aquatic life that relies onfresh water for survival. If some organic pigmentsused in the chemical industry were introducedinto that same stream, it is possible that flora andfauna would not experience any toxic effectbecause the pigment is virtually insoluble.However, the stream could be consideredpolluted as the aesthetic enjoyment of the waterwould be impaired by discoloration.

It is important to note that the control of exposureconditions can prevent any chemical substancefrom having a toxic or polluting effect.

Introduction to the Altona Chemical Complex s Qenos Resource Kit s Page 1

Introduction to the Altona Chemical Complex

The economic advantages of the complex forthe Western Suburbs and the Victorianeconomy are considerable.

Each year the Altona complex produces goodsworth approximately $600 million, making itone of the State’s biggest industrialoperations.

The companies pay over $85 million in wagesand salaries annually to their employees. Asignificant proportion of this is spent in thelocal area which is home to a large proportionof employees.

In addition, the Altona complex companiesspend over $450 million a year on the purchaseof raw materials and services to keep theirplants going. This expenditure has an impacton other industries in Victoria, enabling them inturn to pay wages and buy materials.

Raw MaterialsQenos Olefins manufacturing and the rest ofthe Complex depend on the ready availabilityof Bass Strait oil, marine crudes and naturalgas for their operations.

Bass Strait

There are currently 18 production platformsand two sub-sea completions operating inBass Strait, which, over the past 25 years,have produced 3.5 million barrels of oil,0.12 trillion cubic metres of gas, 400 millionbarrels of LPG and 8.5 million barrels ofethane. (one barrel is equivalent toapproximately 160 litres or 6 cubic metres).

Bass Strait reached peak oil production in1985 when a record average of 500,000barrels per day was produced. Oil productionfrom Bass Strait is in decline and fell to anaverage of 220, 000 barrels per day in 1995.

A 600 km network of undersea pipelines, valvesand pumps link the platforms and carry thevarious hydrocarbons from the offshoreplatforms to the onshore processing facilitiesat Longford near Sale (217 km east ofMelbourne). The gas processing and crude oilstabilisation plant is capable of processingmore than 500,000 barrels per day of LPG andmore than 26 million cubic metres of gas perday in its three plants. The gas plants removeheavy hydrocarbons from natural gas, leavingsales quality gas for distribution to consumers.

Qenos forms a large part of the Altona ChemicalComplex. This complex is the largest productioncentre for petrochemicals, synthetic rubber andplastics in Australia.

There are seven manufacturing plants in theComplex. These are:

n Qenos Olefins manufacturing

n Qenos Elastomers manufacturing

n Qenos Plastics manufacturing

n Qenos Resins manufacturingn BASF Australia Limited

n Australian Vinyls

n Dow Chemical (Australia) Limited

Whilst Qenos, BASF, Dow and Australian Vinylseach operate independently, they gain fromsharing raw materials and services.

Economic Impact and Value ofthe ComplexWhen the complex was established in August1961, the aim was to develop a major industry forVictoria and Australia. It made economic senseto have a number of companies start at the sametime.

The result, after a quarter of a century, is one ofVictoria’s most important manufacturing sites.

The Complex accounts for:

n 4.6 per cent of the output of the basicchemicals sector of the Victorian economyand 26 per cent of employment in the sector;

n 3.3 per cent of total Victorian manufacturingindustry output.

Within the Western Suburbs, the impact of thecomplex is even greater. It provides:

n about 23 per cent of manufacturingemployment in the area;

n and because more than 70 per cent ofemployees live within the region, a significantproportion of annual wages and salaries ofapproximately $85 million is spent locally;

n around 1600 people are employed by the eightcompanies.

Building a major chemical complex is expensive.Over $200 million has already been spent atAltona. It would cost nearly $2 billion to build anew complex.

s Qenos Resource Kit s Introduction to the Altona Chemical Complex

The crude oil stabilisation facilities remove thelight hydrocarbons in crude oil which wouldevaporate when stored at atmospheric pressureand temperature.

Liquids processed at Longford are delivered via a285 km pipeline to the Long Island Pointfractionation plant and crude oil tank farm,located 72 km from Melbourne on Western PortBay (refer to figure 2). Here the crude is storedwhile the lighter components are fractionated asbutane, propane and ethane. Long Island Pointas an oil storage capacity of approximately300 ML which is enough for 2.5 days use. FromLong Island Point crude oil is loaded into tankersat the Long Island Point pier and transported11 km via pipeline to the Crib Point Jetty forloading into tankers. Refineries at Altona andGeelong are served by the 135 km Western Port/Altona/Geelong (WAG) pipeline owned by Shelland Mobil.

Source: Australian Institute of Petroleum Ltd.Melbourne.

Long Islandpoint

Shell Geelong

Mobil AltonaRefinery

crude oil pipeline

LPG pipeline

Longford

mini platform

conventional platform

monotowerdevelopments

QenosOlefins

Figure 2Supply of raw materials to Qenos Olefins

Introduction to the Altona Chemical Complex s Qenos Resource Kit s Page 3

What we make

Qenos Feedstocks, Products and Customers (Altona)

Main Products End Uses Typical Customers

Altona Olefins Ethylene

Propylene

Butadiene

Basic raw materials for production ofplastics, synthetic rubber and otherchemicals.

Qenos: Resins, Plastics,Elastomers

Dow Chemical; HuntsmanChemical

Plastics High DensityPolyethylene

Plastic materials used for automotiveparts, bottles, water and gas pipe, wireand cable insulants, miscellaneousmoulded articles, plastic componentsfor motor vehicles

Vinidex; Viscount Plastics

Visypak

Elastomers PolybutadieneRubber

New tyres, conveyor belts, generalrubber products.

Bridgestone Tyres;

South Pacific Tyres;

Toyo Limited; Bandag

Resins High DensityPolyethylene

Polypropylene

Automotive parts, bottles, packaging,electrical appliances and extensiverange of domestic and consumergoods

Vinidex; BTR Automotive

Huhtamaki Australia

s Qenos Resource Kit s Introduction to the Altona Chemical Complex

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Introduction to Qenos Olefinss Qenos Resource Kit s Page 1

Introduction to Qenos Olefins ManufacturingSite

The furnaces are at the heart of the process. Thefeedstock (gas, oil or ethane) is pumped throughtubes in the furnace. Steam is added to thefurnace at controlled rates in order to increaseyield and minimise coke formation in the furnacetubes.

Coke deposits act as an insulator inhibiting theability to ‘crack’ at optimum conditions.

The remainder of the plant separates and purifiesthe hydrocarbons into their final product forms.

The separation of these streams takes place indistillation towers, in which the lighter and lowerboiling point materials rise to the top of the tower,and the heavier and higher boiling point materialsare taken out at the bottom.

In 1961, the capacity of the plant was 45,000tonnes of ethylene per year and 21,000 tonnes ofbutadiene per year.

Today Qenos Olefins produces more than180,000 tonnes of ethylene per year, 35,000tonnes of butadiene per year and 60,000 tonnesof propylene.

180,000 tonnes of ethylene is equivalent to 50%of the Australian production.

Also produced as by-products are 130,000 tonnesof gasoline per year and 50,000 tonnes of carbonblack feedstock.

Qenos Olefins—A Brief HistoryThe history of Qenos Olefins, can be traced backto 1958, the year Standard Vacuum Oil Companyexecutives met in Melbourne, to discuss thepossibility of establishing a petrochemicalcomplex at Altona.

Their brief also meant finding potentialparticipants for the complex.

The aim was to form an industrial complexwhereby a group of companies would supply andpurchase products between them.

Such a venture was, for the time, unique inAustralia. (1)

The Standard Vacuum Oil Company or the USA,Stanvac as it was then known, was owned equallyby Mobil and Standard Oil New Jersey— whichbecame Exxon. (This entity was reunited in 2000

Qenos, Australia’s petrochemical leader, suppliesessential raw materials to the Australian plastics,synthetic rubber and general chemical industriesfrom its olefins manufacturing plant.

The olefins produced are ethylene, propylene andbutadiene. These are used to manufacture a widerange of plastics, synthetic rubber and generalchemicals in Australia. Also produced, as by-products, are gasoline and carbon blackfeedstock.

Qenos Olefins in Altona obtains feedstocks fromtwo locations. Ethane is piped from the Esso-BHPfractionation plant at Long Island on WesternportBay and gas oil comes by pipeline from the MobilAltona Refinery.

Qenos Olefins is the base material suppliercompany in that it employs approximately 300people at its Altona plant. The production ofethylene, butadiene and propylene continues 24hours a day, seven days a week. All stages of theoperation are continuous and automaticallycontrolled, with extensive use being made ofcomputer based technology to assist theoperators to run the plant.

A Brief Look at the ProductionProcessAs stated, Qenos Olefins uses two feedstocks,ethane and gas oil. Petrochemicals are madefrom these. The process of separating themolecular chain of these feedstocks is called‘cracking’.

The section ‘Production of Ethylene’ outlines thisprocess in detail.

The steam cracking processes at Qenos Olefinsare very similar; the difference being that SCAL 1takes a gas oil feed, whereas SCAL 2’s feed isethane. (SCAL refers to Steam Cracking ALtona.)

The main hydrocarbon streams which becomeQenos Olefins’ products are:

n C2 Stream – Ethylene

n C3 Stream – Propylene

n C4 Stream – Butadiene

The heavier streams C10+ (gas, oil and tar)become Qenos Olefins by-products.

s Qenos Resource Kit s Introduction to Qenos Olefins

Figure 1One of the many safety precautions at QenosOlefins

with the formation of ExxonMobil.)

The location of the complex was determined by itsproximity to the Stanvac oil refinery. The companywanted to build an olefin manufacturing plant andto sell its products to other chemical companies,which would in turn make the final productsneeded by the Australian community. Thiscompany was called the Altona PetrochemicalCompany or APC. (2) Consequently a number ofinternational companies agreed to be involved inthe complex e.g. Goodyear, Union Carbide, Dowetc.

In August 1961, two years after work started onthe site, Qenos Olefins (then APC) beganproduction.

Since 1961 Qenos Olefins has continued to growand respond to customer and community needs.

Some of the significant developments have been:

1970Ethane Cracker (SCAL 2) construction andstartup following the discovery of Bass Strait gasfields and the availability of ethane feedstock.

1973Major environmental control program.

1978Environmental officer position developed.

1982North Wing added to main administrationbuilding.

1989New gas oil furnaces commissioned.

1990Five year emission reduction programcommenced.

Major environmental control program

Effluent treatment plant odour reduction program

Aug 199130th anniversary of operations

Dec 1992On December 1, 1992, three affiliated Exxon andMobil joint ventures (Australian Petrochemical,Australian Synthetic Rubber and Compol) joinedforces to form Kemcor.

1994Spent Caustic Waste Treatment PlantCommissioned.

1999On July 1, 1999, Kemcor was merged with theolefins and polythene businesses of Orica(formerly ICI). This united the businesses inAltona and Botany into Australia's onlypolyethylene producer. In October 1999, themerged business was named Qenos.

References1. ‘Technology in Australia 1788–1988: A

Condensed History of AustralianTechnological Innovation and Adaption Duringthe First Two Hundred Years.’, AustralianAcademy of Technological Sciences andEngineering, Melbourne 1988 p 710

2. (Ibid)

Production of ethylene s Qenos Resource Kit s Page 1

EthyleneEthylene is one of the most versatile and widelyused petrochemicals in the world today. Its mainuse is for the manufacture of polyethylene.

Some facts

n Ethylene is a colourless gas

n Ethylene is a hydrocarbon molecule (made upof carbon and hydrogen)

n It burns readily in the presence of oxygen

n Ethylene is written chemically as C2H4 i.e.an ethylene molecule consists of 2 C atomsand 4 H atoms. (Refer to figure 2.)

Figure 2The chemical structure of ethylene

The Process in DetailThe production of ethylene from ethane can bedescribed as a sequence of different processingsteps. These are shown in detail in figure 3overleaf.

Step 1 — Steam Cracker

Figure 4Cracking step

Production of Ethylene

The Qenos Olefins manufacturing plant at Altonaproduces three petrochemicals:

ethylene or ethene (C2)propylene (C3)butadiene (C4)

This section focuses on the production of ethyleneusing ethane feedstock. Qenos Olefins can alsoproduce petrochemicals using liquid gas oil feedfrom the Mobil refinery. The entire plant has thecapacity to produce over 180,000 tonnes per yearof ethylene (about 28 tonnes per hour). This isabout 50% of total Australian capacity. The ethanecracking section of Qenos Olefins produces onaverage 100,000 tonnes of ethylene per year.Qenos Resins and Qenos Plastics are thecustomers for the ethylene from Qenos Olefins.

Qenos also makes ethylene from ethane at ourOlefines plant in Botany. It provides ethylene toour AlkatuffR LLDPE and AlkatheneR LDPE units.

Figure 1Ethane cracker at the Qenos Olefins manufacturing plant

s Qenos Resource Kit s Production of ethylene

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The ethane, piped from Bass Strait via Long IslandPoint, is fed into five gas-fired furnaces.

Steam is injected into the ethane feedimmediately prior to entering each furnace.Steam is added at controlled rates in order toincrease the petrochemical yield and to minimisecarbon deposits (coke) forming in the furnacetubes. Coke deposits prevent the feedstock fromheating to the right temperature thereby reducingthe effectiveness of the cracking reaction.

The ethane is subjected to a one second surge ofextreme heat, between 750°C–900°C, causingthe splitting of the molecule into otherhydrocarbons. Steam cracking refers therefore tothe process whereby a hydrocarbon feedstock—in this case ethane—in the presence of steamand heat, changes to other hydrocarbons. Thereaction is:

C2H6(g)→C2H4(g)+ H2(g)

Over 60% of the ethane is reacted in thefurnaces. The composition of the furnace effluent(the gases coming from the furnace) isapproximately 50% of ethylene, 35% of ethane(by weight) with the remainder being hydrogen,methane, acetylene, propane, propylene andsome other hydrocarbons. The uncracked ethaneis fed back into the furnaces later in the process.

Steam crackers are designed to operate atconditions that make full use of the basicchemical and physical conditions favouring theformation of ethylene.

The important conditions for successful operationof steam crackers include:

n High temperatures

n Short residence time

The ethane is pumped through at a rapid rateas there is an optimum time for the crackingreaction to transpire. There has to be enoughtime for a high yield of ethylene to beproduced but not too long so that the ethyleneitself is cracked to form lower value by-products. Typical residence times for themolecules in the furnace tubes are less thanone second.

n Low hydrocarbon concentration

n Rapid quenching or cooling to minimisesecondary reactions.

This brings us to our next main processing step:Quenching.

Step 2 — Quench Tower

The effluent (the gases coming from the furnace)are immediately quenched or cooled by water.This drops the temperature of the effluent from840°C to 700°C. This is necessary to stop thecracking reaction from continuing and formingcoke. The furnace effluents are combined andsent to the quench tower. Here cooling of thecracked gas to 30°C is accomplished by directcontact with water. This quench water is thenrecovered and re-used.

Figure 6Quench tower

Figure 5Quenching step


Figure 7Gas compressors

Ethylene has been produced by the crackingreaction. However it is mixed in with manydifferent hydrocarbons. It needs to be separatedout so that it can be sold as a product that is over99% wt pure.

The remainder of the process steps are to get theethylene separated out so that it can be sold toour customers.

Step 3 — Gas Compressor

The conventional method of separatinghydrocarbons is in distillation columns. Thisrequires the furnace effluent to be liquefied. Theway to liquefy a gas is to increase the pressure ofthe gas and then cool it down until a liquid isformed. Gas compression increases the pressureof the gas.

The cracked gas stream from the quench tower iscompressed using a centrifugal compressor. Thegas compression in this section of the plantoccurs in four stages. Heat exchangers are usedto cool the gas between each stage ofcompression.

This is necessary because when a gas iscompressed it heats up. You therefore need tobreak up the compression steps to stop the gasbecoming too hot.

The gas is compressed to a pressure of approx.3500 kPa.

Step 4—Treating

The cracked gas stream contains impurities thatneed to be removed before the ethylene can besold. These impurities include carbon dioxide,hydrogen sulphide and acetylene. Treatment ofthe cracked gas to remove impurities occursbetween the third and fourth stages of thecompressor.

The hydrogen sulphide and carbon dioxide areremoved in the caustic tower.

Figure 8Treatment to remove impurities

The caustic’s tower’s purpose is to remove theseunwanted chemicals from the ethylene. In thistower, the gas stream is contacted with dilutesodium hydroxide. the following reactions occur inthe caustic tower:

2NaOH(aq)+ H2S(g) → Na2S(aq)+ 2H2O(aq)

2NaOH(aq) +CO2(g) → Na2CO3(aq) + H2O(aq)

The waste sodium hydroxide stream is removedfrom the caustic tower. It is treated on site in theSpent Caustic Carbonation Unit which uses wasteflue gas from a boiler to convert the stream into abenign baking soda solution prior to disposal. Thecarbonation unit is unique ‘world first’ technologythat does not require any acids or oxidisers totreat the sodium hydroxide waste stream.

The acetylene is removed in a vessel called theacetylene converted. This is a large oval-shapedvessel filled with a nickel-iron catalyst. As the gasstream passes the catalyst the following reactionoccurs:

C2H2(g)+ H2(g) → C2H4(g)

(There are other different catalysts that can alsobe used). This catalyst is used to selectivelypromote only the hydrogenation of acetylene.Some of the other undesirable reactions include:

C2H4(g)+ H2 (g) → C2H6(g)

This reaction is undesirable because it is a loss ofvaluable ethylene.

The gas stream now needs to be ‘dried’. As thegas stream is going to be cooled to temperaturesas low as –100°C, any remaining water wouldform ice compounds thereby blocking pipes etc.

The drying is achieved by passing the gas streamthrough an apparatus (the molecular sievedesiccant) that is designed to absorb water, It isnow necessary to cool the gas stream.


Figure 9Chilling train process

This is called the de-ethyleniser. This columnseparates ethylene from the heavier componentsof the de-methaniser bottom.

It operates at a pressure of 1950 kPa, (nine timesthe pressure in your car tyre) and producesethylene product at a purity greater than99.85 %w.

The ethylene product is heated to 20°C and sent,via a pipeline, to Qenos Resins and the QenosPlastics manufacturing plant.

The third column, the de-ethaniser, separatesethane from the propylene and heaviercomponents in the de-ethaniser bottoms.

The overhead ethane stream is recycled back tothe furnaces for cracking. The bottoms stream issent to the gas oil cracker plant for furtherseparation.

Step 5 — The Chilling Train

The chilling train is a series of three heatexchangers. On one side of the heat exchanger isthe gas that needs to be cooled.

On the other side of the heat exchanger is therefrigerant, liquid ethylene or propylene, whichcools the gas. Neither stream comes into directcontact with the other.

The gas is cooled and then it condenses orliquefies.

The liquid stream can now go to the distillationcolumns to separate out the different chemicalcompounds.

Step 6 — Fractionation

Figure 10Fractionation process

There are three distillation columns. The way inwhich one of these columns works is shown infigure 11.

The first column is the de-methaniser. Thisseparates out hydrogen and methane from theremaining components. The hydrogen andmethane are used as fuel gas.

The remaining heavy gas exits from the bottom ofthe de-methaniser (e.g. ethylene and ethane),and is then fed into the second distillation column.

Ethylene Manufacture fromLiquid Gas OilQenos Olefins produces ethylene using a liquidgas oil feed in a completely separate plant to theethane cracking plant. The process of ethylenemanufacture from liquid gas oil is very similar tothe ethane cracking process.

Figure 11The workings of the de-ethyleniser column


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Introduction to Qenos Elastomers s Qenos Resource Kit s Page 1

Introduction to Qenos Elastomers

Qenos Elastomers’ success is closely related tothe fortunes of the Australian tyre industry.

Figure 1 illustrates the range of products whichcontain synthetic rubber. It also shows that themajority of Qenos Elastomers’ production is usedin tyres, i.e. 85%.

In 1960, polybutadiene rubber (BR) was introducedin the USA. BR has played an important part inmeeting the increasing performance demands ofthe tyre industry.

Initially, polybutadiene was used as a superiorreplacement for natural rubber in heavy-duty truckand bus tyres. Today BR is used in blends withSBR and natural rubber for passenger and lighttruck tyres.

SBR and BR offer a wide spectrum of properties.These properties can be tailored to meet a rangeof applications. For example, a passenger cartyre contains various blends of SBR, BR, naturalrubber and special elastomers. This helps the tyremanufacturers to produce a range of tyres suitedto many different applications.

Qenos Elastomers was the first company inAustralia to produce synthetic rubber. Today itremains as the sole producer of BR in theAustralia. The production of BR rubber isexamined in detail in the section ‘Production ofBR’.

History of RubberThe history of natural rubber and the efforts thatled to the successful development of its partner,synthetic rubber, are worth noting. The historiesof each are linked. It is a story rich in scientificdiscovery and technological innovation.

History of Natural Rubber1492Christopher Columbus found natives on the eastcoast of South America playing with a blackheavy ball made of vegetable gum whichbounced. Several pieces were taken back toQueen Isabella of Spain where they createdmuch interest. Natural rubber had beendiscovered by Europeans but remained only acuriosity for three centuries.

1739La Condamine, a French explorer, reported to theFrench Academy of Science about a materialused by the natives of the Amazon to make shoes

History of Synthetic RubberDevelopment in AustraliaCommercial production of synthetic rubber beganin 1915 in Germany. The first commercialsynthetic rubber was methyl rubber producedfrom dimethylbutadiene during World War I whentwo and a half thousand tons of methyl rubberwas produced.

Between the world wars the low price of naturalrubber stifled interest in synthetic rubbers. Theadvent of World War II restricted natural rubbersupplies once again. This led to the furtherdevelopment of synthetic rubbers in Germany andAmerica.

Styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR) productionbegan in the USA in the 1940s. Today, styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR) is the most important andwidely-used synthetic rubber in the world.

By the 1950s, synthetic rubber was one ofmodern society’s key raw materials and Australianeeded its own inexpensive and reliable supply,preferably from local manufacture.

On 26 March, 1958, Australian Synthetic RubberCompany Limited (now Qenos Elastomers) wasborn.

Work began on the company’s 12 hectare(30 acre) site in March 1960, and, in October1961, the first production run of SBR came off theline.

A second plant was commissioned in May 1967to produce solution polymerised high cispolybutadiene rubber (BR).

In 1971, facilities were further upgraded when thefinishing lines were expanded, greatly increasingplant capacity, and sales peaked in 1973 at nearly34,000 tonnes.

Since it began, Qenos Elastomers has met thediverse needs of hundreds of Australianindustries. Today, over half the rubber used inAustralia is synthetic, and of this total, 80% isSBR/BR.

In 2001, Qenos shutdown its SBR manufacturingoperations. Qenos now manufactures BR rubberand distributes SBR rubber.

Qenos Elastomers relies on Qenos Olefins for thebasic raw material butadiene. Qenos Elastomerscan manufacture up to 12,000 tonnes of BR rubberper year—enough for millions of car tyres.

The tyre industry consumes 80% of all rubber.

s Qenos Resource Kit s Introduction to Qenos Elastomers

Figu

re 1

Dem

and

for S

BR

and

BR


and bottles. This material was obtained by a treeknown as ‘Caoutchouc’ or ‘Weeping Wood’.

1770Joseph Priestly reported that he had examined asubstance ‘excellently adapted to the purpose ofwiping from paper the marks of a black leadpencil’ he suggested that this substance whichoriginated from Brazil should be called ‘rubber’.

Early 19th CenturyCharles MacIntosh made use of rubber’swaterproof qualities by spreading rubber overfabrics and making raincoats.

1820Thomas Hancock invented the ‘pickle’ or‘masticator’ which enabled rubber to be softenedso as to be easier to dissolve in turpentine orNaphtha for making solutions.

1839Charles Goodyear, a young American inventor,discovered that when sulphur was mixed intorubber and the mixture subjected to heat it wouldvulcanize. About the same time Thomas Hancockmade the same discovery in England.

1846The Englishman Robert Thomson demonstratedthat a leather thread fitted to a pneumatic rubbertube reduced skidding and noise on horse drawnvehicles and also greatly increased traction.

Originally the crude rubber was obtained fromwild rubber trees in South America and Africa.Brazilian rubber had to be transported 4800kilometres by porterage, and canoe before itreached a port for shipment. This meant that itcould take up to a year for rubber to reach themanufacturer.

As demand for rubber increased, its costincreased. It was clear that wild rubber treeswould not be able to supply the growing demandfor rubber.

1869James Collins published the papers, 'IndiaRubber—Its History, Commerce and Supply'. Healso published a report on the Caoutchoucs ofAmerica with illustrations of various forms oftapping, including the herring bone method. Theherring bone method, see figure 2, is still usedtoday.

1873James Collins wrote to a Mr. Farris in Brazil whosent 2000 seeds to Kew Gardens from which only12 germinated. Of these seedlings some weresent to Calcutta and Burma.

Figure 2Tapping a rubber tree

1873Henry Wickham, a grower of sugar and tobaccowho was living in Brazil was requested by theBritish India Office to obtain rubbers seeds. Afterconsiderable negotiation regarding the price,Wickham agreed to collect seeds at the price of10 pounds per 1000.

1876 JulyWickham delivered 70,000 seeds to KewGardens where only 2,397 germinated.

1876 AugustThe germinated rubber plants were dispatchedfrom Kew, 2000 being sent to Ceylon, also someto Singapore but those latter plants were dead onarrival.

1877 JulySome 22 rubber plants were received atSingapore Botanical Gardens. From these 22trees over 75% of all the cultivated rubber treeshave grown.

1888Over 1000 trees were ready to tap in theEconomic Gardens, Singapore, but no one wasinterested in the potential production of naturalrubber. At this time Henry Ridley became directorof the Singapore Botanical Gardens and attemptedto interest people in the cultivation of rubber.

1889John Boyd Dunlop produced a rubber tube with aone way valve, covered it with canvas andcemented it to the wheel of his bicycle. He formedthe Dunlop Rubber Co. to manufacture thispneumatic tyre.

First plantation rubber trees were tapped.


History of Synthetic RubberDevelopment

1826Faraday established that the empirical formula fornatural rubber was (C5H8)n.

1879Bouchardt obtained isoprene from natural rubberby distillation, treated it with hydrochloric acid andobtained a tough elastic rubber like solid.

1910Mathew and Strange in England and Harries inGermany discovered that isoprene could bepolymerized with sodium to produce syntheticrubber.

1911Kyriakides in U.S.A. found that dimethylbutadiene or pure isoprene could be more easilypolymerized with sodium than the previously usedrather impure isoprene.

1912The German Company Bayer obtained a patentfor the emulsion polymerization process withisoprene.

1914World War I

Germany commercially manufactured syntheticrubber by placing dimethylbutadiene and sodiumin a drum which was stored at 30°C for 6-10weeks. This rubber was known as Methyl rubberH and was used in hard rubber articles. For softrubber goods Methyl rubber W was used, thismaterial was obtained from dimethyl butadieneheated in pressure vessels for 3 to 6 months at70°C. During this wartime period Germanyproduced 2,350 tons of Methyl Rubber.

1923U.S. Rubber Co produced synthetic rubber frombutadiene using an emulsion polymerisationprocess.

1926–28In Germany extensive work was undertaken todetermine the best process for polymerisationand the emulsion polymerisation process wasperfected.

1933German chemists developed the copolymerisationof butadiene with styrene (Buna S Rubber) or withacrylonitrile (Buna N Rubber).

Concurrently with these developments in Germany,many other countries were showing an interest insynthetic rubbers.

1896First plantation rubber was sent to England andsold for 2/8d per pound.

1914World War I

Demand for natural rubber increases.

Germany begins experimenting with theproduction of synthetic rubber.

1941—45World War II

During World War II ninety per cent of theworld’s natural rubber was controlled by theJapanese. To overcome this rubber shortage theUSA spent a billion dollars on developingsynthetic rubber production. This program wassecond only to the development of the atomicbomb.

By 1943, synthetic rubber was being producedin 100 plants across the USA.

1950s to todayRubber is now one of the major worldcommodities. Natural rubber remains a keyexport crop for countries in Asia, Malaysia,Indonesia and Thailand.

Natural Rubber Statistics

Year Production Rest (in tons)

S.E Asia

1900 500 44,500

1910 11,000 84,000

1920 305,000 37,500

1921 277,500 25,000

1930 804,000 21,000

1932 700,500 9,500

1940 1,372,500 45,000

1949 1,416,000 74,000

1950 1,777,500 82,500

1951 1,780,000 105,000

1960 1,832,500 165,000

1969 2,637,000 217,000


Types of RubberThere is essentially only one chemical type ofnatural rubber. The variety of physical propertiesfound in different natural rubber products is theproduct of plantation processing. The basicpolymer—a cis-1,4-polyisoprene—is the samewhether it comes from Hevea brasiliensis or fromany other type of rubber tree.

In contrast to this, different synthetic rubbers arechemically different.

A variety of chemicals are used to make syntheticrubbers. They include butadiene, styrene,chloroprene, ethylene, isobutylene, etc.

These monomers are polymerized to producesynthetic rubbers. They can be polymerized ontheir own to form the polymer, as in the case ofpolybutadiene and polychloroprene. Or they canbe co-polymerized as in the case of styrenebutadiene rubber (SBR), or ethylene propylenediene rubber (EPDM).

Each synthetic rubber has its range of propertieswhich make it ideal for a range of applications.For each type of synthetic rubber there are manydifferent grades. They differ in:

n method of production

n length of the rubber molecules

n types of additives present

These different grades further extend the rangeof applications for that type of rubber.

Natural rubber is still widely used. Natural rubberrepresents one third of the rubber consumedworldwide. Of the synthetics SBR is about onethird of consumption and BR about one sixth. Intotal over eleven million tonnes of rubber wasconsumed in 1991.

Further informationRefer also to the sections:

n Production of BR(Chapter 8)

n Waste Rubber(Chapter 11)

1924–30Patrick in U.S.A. found that sodium tetra-sulphide could be reacted with ethylene dichlorideto form a rubbery solid. This material was firstcommercially marketed in 1930 as Thiokol.

1925–31Dupont announced a new synthetic rubber madefrom chloroprene and called it Duprene. Thisname was later changed to Neoprene whichbecame commercially available in 1931.

1937–43Sparks and Thomas of Esso Research andEngineering copolymerised isobutylene withisoprene and obtained a vulcanisable rubber likematerial which was known as Butyl and becameavailable in 1943.

1939–45

World War II Synthetic RubberProduction*

1940 1944

Germany U S A Germany U S A(tons) (tons) (tons) (tons)

37,137 — 110,568 670,268

* Production of Butadiene-styrene (Buna S GRS or SBR)

By the end of 1945, the US Government had built17 synthetic rubber plants, producing over800,000 tons of synthetic rubber per annum.

1937–44Silicone. Kipping reviewed the developments inorganic silicone polymers and forecasted nouseful future for these materials. Seven yearslater silicone rubbers were marketedcommercially and found ready acceptance in hightemperature application.

1954–59Polyisoprene. Goodrich announced thesuccessful synthesis of natural rubber however inthe following year Firestone revealed that they hadproduced their “Coral rubber” in 1953. Commercialquantities became available in 1960.

1956–60Ethylene-Propylene Copolymers developed byMontecatini. Natta, an Italian chemist extendedthe use of Ziegler catalysts.

Laboratory Tests and Quality Control s Qenos Resource Kit s Page 1

Laboratory Tests and Quality Control

Quality assurance and quality control are twoterms which are often used interchangeably.However, this is incorrect as they describe twodifferent functions.

Quality assurance includes all activitiesundertaken to ensure a product satisfies acustomer's needs. These activities include productdesign, planning, selection of equipment, selectionof the production process, choice of raw materials,distribution of the product and compliance with therelevant regulatory authorities.

Quality control is a measurement process. Itincludes monitoring of production equipment,testing of raw materials, intermediates andfinished products. Quality control is themeasurements which are made to ensure aproduct meets a specification.

Qenos uses both quality assurance and qualitycontrol to assist in the manufacture of itsproducts. For new products, technical staff assessthe customer's needs and translate theserequirements into a technical productspecification. This includes how the product is tobe made, what properties or productcharacteristics are to be tested and how frequentlythese tests are to be performed. For our standardrange of products, production processes, testmethods and frequencies are continually reviewedto ensure our products continue to satisfy theneeds of our customers.

Quality control at Qenos occurs both in thelaboratory and in the production plant. In thelaboratory, technical staff perform various tests toensure a product complies with its specification.Tests can be visual comparisons or may need theuse of sophisticated, analytical equipment. In theproduction plants, equipment is carefullymonitored for correct operation. These qualitycontrol procedures form part of the overall qualityassurance program.

Qenos Laboratory ElastomersQenos supports its customers and itsmanufacturing activities with a range of laboratoryactivities. The functions of the laboratory inrelation to rubber products from Qenos Elastomersis described here as a detailed example.

The Qenos Technical Centre is considerably largerand has the equipment and capability to performan extensive range of processes and physicaltests on plastics and rubber.

In the case of Elastomers, the testing is generallyperformed to confirm the suitability of a rubbercompound for a particular application.

The range of tests include:

Chemical Analysis which is the skeletalbreakdown of a rubber compound into percentagepolymer, extractables, combustible fillers and ash.

Polymer Identification which is the identificationof polymer/polymers present in a rubbercompound. This is performed by Pyrolysis GasChromatograph and Infra Red Spectrophotometer.Immersion Testing which is the testing of rubbercompounds by immersing them in various liquidsat varying temperatures to establish theirsuitability in service.

Air Aging which is the placing of rubber samplesin an oven at elevated temperatures and thentesting the properties after the exposure. This testhelps in the prediction of service life for a rubberarticle.

Ozone Testing which involves putting the rubberspecimen under strain and then exposing it toelevated ozone levels. A failure is in the form ofnumerous surface cracks.

Fadeometer Testing which involves exposingcoloured rubber specimens to a carbon arc lightwhich causes fading of the colour.

Physical Testing involves a range of tests whichdetermine the properties of a rubber compound.The tests include:n Tensile–the maximum stress applied in

stretching a specimen to rupture.n Elongation Ultimate–the elongation at which

rupture occurs in the application ofcontinued stress.

n Hardness–resistance to surface penetrationwith a "Hardness" tester.

n Flex Testing–simulates a continuous flexingaction e.g. a walking foot action.

n Abrasion–a rubber sample is run across anabrasive surface with its weight checkedbefore and after.

n Rheometer–this monitors the cureproperties of a rubber compound.

Laboratory Scale Mixing which allows for thepreparation of small batches of rubber compoundswhich allows the customers to do trials beforecommitting to full scale production.

s Qenos Resource Kit s Laboratory Tests and Quality Control

Plant—List of tests

Mooney Viscosity Measurements

Mooney Viscosity is used as a routine qualitycontrol test. Two discs of rubbers are placedaround a rotor and a constant force applied. Theforce required to rotate the rotor is measured.

Volatile Matter

A preweighed rubber sample is passed throughtwo heated rollers (95–105°C). All the matter thatcan be easily vaporised, (mostly water) is expelledand then the rest is reweighed. Volatile matter isrecorded as a percentage.

Rheometers

Two pieces of rubber are placed around a rotor anda force applied. Rheometers measure the changein force with time.

Instrumentation used in thelaboratory

Gas ChromatographA Gas Chromatograph has a mobile phase calledthe carrier gas (e.g. hydrogen), and a stationaryphase which is in the column. A sample isinjected, the components interact with thestationary phase while the mobile phase does notinteract at all. Different components interactdifferently with the stationary phase and thusseparation is achieved by the time thecomponents reach the end of the column. Adetector is used to identify the components asthey leave the column.

Infrared Spectrophotometer

Different parts of molecules absorb differentwavelengths of light. The patterns they producecan be recorded and are very specific. Thewavelengths used in these instruments are in theinfrared region of light.

Ultra Violet Spectrophotometer

The wavelength used in this instrument is in theultraviolet region of light. The UVspectrophotometer is used to determine oilcontents in oil extended rubber.

Automatic titratorsThis is an automated version of the standardburette. It can also replace the use of pipettes fordelivering precise volumes.

Qenos Technical Centre

The Qenos Technical Centre is the largestplastics laboratory in Australia. It has thecapability and equipment to provide technicalsupport to Qenos' customers, productdevelopment activities and manufacturingoperations.

Processing trials and physical testing is generallyperformed to confirm the suitability of a polymerproduct compound for a particular application.

The Qenos Technical Centre has processingcapability including pipe extrusion, film extrusion,injection moulding, rotational moulding and blowmoulding.

Production of BR s Qenos Resource Kit s Page 1

Production of BR—Polybutadiene Rubber

Polybutadiene rubber is a homopolymer (apolymer made from one monomer) producedfrom butadiene. Approximately 20% of allsynthetic rubber manufactured worldwide is BR.This is equivalent to 10% of the total world rubberconsumption.

Properties of BRAll forms of polybutadiene rubber share certainimportant characteristics. They have very highresilience—in fact they are the only type ofsynthetic rubber with a higher resilience thannatural rubber. The rubber also has outstandingresistance to abrasion and good flexibility at lowtemperatures.

BR can tolerate a large proportion of oil extensionwithout a serious loss in properties. Adding oil tothe rubber makes it easier to process intodownstream products. BR can also take heavierloadings of carbon black. This enablesmanufacturers to obtain increased abrasionresistance in tyre-tread compounds withoutreducing flexibility or adding to the heat buildup.

The disadvantage of BR is that it tends to havelow tear strength and has relatively poorresistance to cut growth. Therefore it is rarelyused alone.

Uses for BRAlmost 90% of the BR produced by QenosElastomers is sold to tyre manufacturers. Theyblend it with various proportions of SBR, naturalrubber and synthetic polyisoprene. The use of BRmade it possible to increase the proportion ofsynthetic rubber used for bus and truck tyres. Itsgreatest usage is for small truck and passengervehicle tyres—in this application it has improvedthe wearing properties of these tyres and haseliminated groove cracking.

Special grades of BR can also be used in themanufacture of high impact polystyrene. Thisproduct is used for margarine and yoghurtcontainers. The rubber is added to increase theflexibility of the containers—otherwise they wouldbe too brittle and could crack easily.

Production of BRButadiene is the monomer used in the BRmanufacturing process. Fresh butadiene of around99% purity is required.

Butadiene

Figure 1Butadiene

Butadiene arrives by pipeline from Qenos Olefins.It is a liquefiable petroleum gas, and can bestored, as a liquid, in spherical pressure vessels.

Figure 2Butadiene storage vessel at Qenos Elastomers

A stabiliser or inhibitor is added to the storedbutadiene to prevent the polymerisation reactionthat would produce polybutadiene in the storagevessel.

Feedstock BlendingAfter the inhibitor has been removed from thebutadiene, it is charged to the feedstock blendingpart of the plant. Here it is mixed with the solventused in the solution polymerisation process.

An on-line process gas chromatograph controlsthe blending operation to ensure that thefeedstock has the desired composition. Theblended feedstock is dried in a distillation columnto remove trace amounts of water before beingcharged to reactors.

s Qenos Resource Kit s Production of BR

ReactorsThe dried feedstock stream is mixed with acatalyst and charged, at a controlled rate, to thepolymerisation reactors. The catalyst produces arubber with a very precise chemical structureknown as ‘high cis’. This structure is depictedbelow. It is an addition type of polymerisationreaction.

Figure 1Polymerisation of butadiene to form high cis-polybutadiene

Ammonia cooling is required to maintain the reactortemperature to around 20°C, since a large amountof heat is produced by the reaction. Typically thefeedstock stays in the reactors for around one hour.This produces a product stream in which 75% of the

butadiene monomer charged to the reactors isconverted to polymer. The solvent is consumed bythe reaction.

As soon as the product leaves the reactors,antioxidant is added which terminates thereaction. The rubber-solvent solution produced bythe reaction is known as ‘cement’.

Solvent PurificationTo recover the solvent and the unreactedbutadiene, the cement is charged to a coagulator-stripper section. The polymer is turned into softrubber crumb by injecting it into a vessel of veryhot water (the coagulator) which is kept hot byblowing high pressure steam through it. Thetemperature in the vessel is high enough to boil offthe solvent. This leaves a hot slurry of rubbercrumb in water.

The recovered solvent is condensed back to aliquid, and is passed through a series ofpurification towers. This separates the solvent intoits heavy and light components. Both solventstreams are then returned to the beginning of theprocess for feedstock blending. Some of the heavyC6 stream is also used for catalyst dilution.

Figure 2Distillation columns

Drying and Packaging BR

The slurry of cement in water is then dried using asimilar process to that which is described earlierfor SBR manufacture. An expeller and anexpander are used to remove the bulk of the water.The crumb is then put through a single passthermal drier. This dries the crumb to about 0.25%moisture.

Once dry, the crumb is ‘bounced’ up a verticalvibrating conveyor to the baler. It is compressedinto rectangular 36 kg bales. Each bale isindividually labelled and wrapped in plastic byautomatic machinery. An autopacker then putsthe bales into crates which each hold 1500 kg ofrubber. The polybutadiene rubber is then ready fordistribution to Qenos customers.

Production of BR s Qenos Resource Kit s Page 3

s Qenos Resource Kit s Production of BR

Applications

Major applications for SBR, BR and natural rubber

Product Important features Polymer choice

Passenger car tyres Abrasion resistance tread SBR in treads with highabrasion resistance furnaceblacks. Sometimes in blendswith BR.

Crack resistant sidewalls SBR and use of suitable anti-oxidants

Flexible carcass Mainly natural rubberwith resistance to ply separation

Truck tyres Abrasion resistant treads but SBR in smaller sizes (up to8.25-20) Natural either with orwithout SBR blend in largersizes. Sometimes in blendswith BR.

Low heat build-up in carcass Mainly natural rubber

Cycle tyres Low cost, fair quality Oil extended SBR or naturalrubber depending uponmanufacturing techniquesadopted.

Tubes Low air permeability Butyl or natural rubberand ease of splicing

Retreat Materials Abrasion resistance SBR

Soling Materials Transparent or translucent SBR with silica fillers

Microcellular soling SBR

High styrene resin reinforced SBRsoiling

Sponge soling Low Mooney SBR or natural

Direct vulcanised soling Low Mooney SBR or natural

Cheap work soles SBR or natural

Heels SBR or natural

Sports shoes SBR or natural

with low heat build up

Introduction to the Qenos Plastics manufacturing site at Altona s Qenos Resource Kit s Page 1

Qenos is the only Australian manufacturer of thefull range of polyethylene resin products—HighDensity Polyethylene Resin (HDPE), Low DensityPolyethylene (LDPE) and Linear Low DensityPolyethylene (LLDPE).

These different forms of polyethylene are made bydifferent industrial polymerisation processes whichall transform ethylene into polyethylene.

Qenos Plastics site uses Low pressurepolymerisation to make High Density PolyethyleneResin (HDPE). The ethylene is obtained from theQenos Olefins manufacturing plant.

Qenos Plastics manufacturing plant is located atAltona, Victoria. The first polyethylene made onthis site was Low density polyethylene which wasfirst manufactured in the high pressure plant in1961, when it was owned by Union Carbide. Thisplant stopped production in 2000.

The low pressure process plant was built in 1972to make High density polyethylene. The UnionCarbide polyethylene plants were purchased byCommercial Polymers late in 1983. The companybecame Kemcor Australia in 1992. In 1999Kemcor Australia merged with Orica's polythenebusinesses to form Qenos.

The production of polyethylene continues 24 hoursa day, 365 days a year. Most stages of theprocess are continuous and automaticallycontrolled by up-to-date computer-basedtechnology.

Polyethylene ProductsQenos Plastics produces a wide variety ofpolyethylene resins that have an enormous rangeof uses.

Many items that are used in the home, such as‘Glad’ bags and film, milk bottles, micro irrigationpipes, moulded plastics and Telecom cableconduit are made from resin produced at Kemcorplastics.

With its high emphasis on research, quality andproductivity, Qenos plastics has been able toachieve such results as polyethylene bagsreplacing paper at supermarkets and plastic milkbottles replacing both glass and cardboard.

Introduction to the Qenos PlasticsManufacturing Site at Altona

A Brief Look at PolyethyleneProductionPolyethylene is produced from the polymerisationof the feedstock ethylene. The process is initiatedby a catalyst. Different processes can be used tomake different forms of polyethylene. QenosPlastics is a Low pressure polyethylene plantwhich makes High Density polyethylene.

Low pressure polymerisationThe low pressure polymerisation process canmake either high density or linear low densitypolyethylene. The use of sophisticated catalystshas meant that this process can be carried out atthe relatively low pressure of 20 atmospheres(2000 kPa) and at a temperature of approximately100°C.

The reactor is simply a bed of polyethylenepowder suspended above a perforated plate. Therecycled gas enters at the bottom, passesthrough the plate and bubbles up through the bed.The catalyst converts the ethylene topolyethylene, which is then drawn off and storedas ‘fluff’. Unreacted ethylene returns via acompressor and cooler to the bottom of thereactor and the process starts again.

Depending on the desired end-use, the ‘fluff’ isthen mixed with a range of additives to form amolten material which is then extruded into smallpellets.

Environment and SafetyA strong feature of Qenos is the care and attentionthe company gives to both environmental andsafety concerns.

The Qenos Plastics Altona plant’s waterconservation and waste water reuse programbegan in the early eighties. One result of this isthat Qenos Plastics no longer discharges wastewater into the Kororoit Creek.

Water consumption has decreased by more than30% which not only helps in the conservation of avital resource, but also leads to a reduction in theamount of waste water pumped from the site.

All waste water is treated in the plant. 80% of thistreated water is recycled for the cooling watersystem, the remainder is spray irrigated onto theland around the Altona plant which is used for

s Qenos Resource Kit s Introduction to the Qenos Plastics manufacturing site at Altona

The most significant impact of polyethyleneperhaps comes from developments in itsmanufacture as a film which has enabled theproduction of a huge variety of materials andrange of uses that has transformed our everydaylife. Early plastic film was produced from resinmanufactured by high pressure polymerisation.Now it can also be produced by low pressurepolymerisation.

Australian Plastic ProductionFacilities1. Qenos - Altona

a) PE-HD using a slurry process with acapacity of 90,000 tonnes per annum atQenos Resins

b) PP both homopolymer and copolymerusing a slurry process with a capacity of50,000 tonnes per annum at Qenos Resins

c) PE-HD using a Unipol gas phase processwith a capacity of 90,000 tonnes per annumat Qenos Plastics

2. Qenos - Botany

a) PE-LD using a high pressure process witha capacity of 100,000 per annum at QenosAlkathene

b) PE-LLD using a Unipol gas phaseprocess with capacity of 100,000 tonnes atQenos Alkatuff

3. Basell - Location, Geelong and Clyde

a) PP homopolymer using a mass phaseplant capacity

b) PP copolymer using a slurry process,capacity 40,000 tonnes

c) PP block and random copolymer usinggas phase technology, capacity 80,000tonnes.

pasture for grazing sheep. The construction of adam for this recycled water has led to thedevelopment of an ecosystem which is now hometo many species of birds.

Qenos is also actively involved in the recycling ofmany by-products of the manufacturing processesof both its own plants and other industries.

Hydrocarbon discharge is burnt by an elevatedflare system at an efficiency of greater than99.1%; there is virtually no air pollution. Foremergency use, a ground flare is used which hasan efficiency of 99.9%.

Qenos has a comprehensive safety and healthprogram designed to reduce and eliminate hazardsin the workplace. Safety committees andrepresentatives from all levels of the organisationdesign and implement accident preventionprograms and risk reduction measures. Thesecover a wide range of actions, from planting atree barrier to aid vapour dispersal in the unlikelyevent of an accidental release, to designing andbuilding safer, better workplaces.

There is a fully equipped Medical Centre staffedby an occupational health nurse and physicianwho monitor the health of employees and providefirst aid if a work place injury occurs.

A Brief History of Polyethylene

1931–1935Polyethylene was first made as a result ofresearch into the effects of very high pressureson chemical reactions. Initially, only a very smallamount could be made in the laboratory.

1935–1939By 1935, eight grams of polyethylene could beproduced in a small-scale apparatus. From thisbasis, ICI developed a manufacturing process aswell as designing and inventing uses which wereuniquely suited to the product.

1939–1945The Second World War provided the opportunityfor the intense development of a range ofpolyethylene products. In particular, materialswere specifically produced for the high frequencyapplication in radar cables. Its use in radarinsulation played a major role for the allies in theirvictory.

1945 to presentPolyethylene gains acceptance as a material in itsown right. It has found large tonnage applicationin mouldings, films, cable coverings and a widevariety of domestic and industrial uses.

Production of polyethylene at Qenos Plastics s Qenos Resource Kit s Page 1

Production of Polyethylene at Qenos Plastics

Condition: Low Pressure

Low Temperature

Catalyst

Ethylene

Comonomer eg. Butene

PE Type: Short regular branchesalong Backbone

Qenos is the only Australian manufacturer ofpolyethylene and makes the full range ofpolyethylene resin products. These are:

n High Density Polyethylene (HDPE)

Condition: Low Pressure

Low Temperature

Catalyst

Ethylene

PE Type: Long Backbone

Short Branches

n Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE)

Condition: High Pressure

High Temperature

Catalyst

Ethylene

PE Type: Long Branches relative tothe BackboneShort chain branchesalso produced

n Linear Low Density Polyethylene (LLDPE)

This section focuses on low pressure polymerisa-tion an industrial process used to transformethylene into high density polyethylene at QenosPlastics. The ethylene for this is obtained fromQenos Olefins manufacturing plant in Altona.

Qenos Alkatuff and Qenos Alkathene plants inBotany make linear low density and low densitypolyethylene from Qenos Olefins Botany ethylene.

Qenos plants operate 24 hours a day, 365 days ayear.

Low Pressure PolymerisationThe first industrial uses of low pressurepolymerisation were in the 1950s. In 1968, UnionCarbide developed the ‘Low Pressure FluidisedBed’ process. The Qenos Plastics plant in Altonawas the third in the world to adopt this process,which is an important benefit for Australianindustry, considering there are now about 20U.C.C. Licensees worldwide.

The low pressure polymerisation process, whichcan make either High Density Polyethylene(HDPE) or Linear Low Density Polyethylene(LLDPE, was developed as a means to reduce thelarge energy requirements of the high pressuretechnology. It became possible through the use ofsophisticated transition metal catalysts.

Figure 1Low pressure polymerisation reactors

These highly reactive catalysts are central to theinitiation of the polymerisation process and enablethe reaction to occur at the relatively low pressureof 20 atmospheres (2000 kPa), which is only 5-10times more than the pressure of normal tap water.

s Qenos Resource Kit s Production of polyethylene at Qenos Plastics

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atio

n m

anuf

actu

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proc

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Production of polyethylene at Qenos Plastics s Qenos Resource Kit s Page 3

The temperature inside the reactor is about 100°C.

The purity of the ethylene feedstock is crucial inlow pressure polymerisation as the catalyst isattracted to reactions with polar compounds, suchas water or oxygen. If contaminated feedstreams( C2H4, C4H8, C6H12, H2, N2 ) enter the process,then the catalyst is rendered inactive forpolymerisation.

The reactor is a very simply designed vessel. Thepolyethylene bed is supported on a perforatedplate and the recycled gas enters the bottom ofthe reactor, passes through the perforateddistributor plate, lifts the bed and holds it in a fluidstate similar to boiling water or quicksand.

From the top of the reactor, the gas returnsthrough the compressor and cooler back to thebottom of the reactor. As the catalyst converts theethylene to polyethylene, the bed level increases,so the product is discharged to keep the levelconstant.

The fluid polyethylene is cooled and forms a finepowder called ‘fluff’. Batches of 250 to 500 kg of‘fluff’ are conveyed to the fluff storage bins everyfew minutes. The manufacturing process ispresented schematically in figure 2.

Compounding is the next processing stage andconsists of a mixing stage and an extrusionstage.

During the mixing stage, additives are mixed withthe base resin to form a molten material.Additives are used to colour the plastic, protect itagainst degradation and to make it easier forQenos’ customers to process at their plants.

After the mixing stage, the molten material ispassed through an extruder that cuts, cools, andforms the material into small pellets. Thepolyethylene product is then packaged into bulkcontainers. Offsite packaging facilities then re-pack into bags or semi-bulk containers asrequested by customers.

This raw material is able to be transformed into awide variety of end products, such as milk bottles,supermarket check-out bags, pipes and children’stoys.

s Qenos Resource Kit s Production of polyethylene at Qenos Plastics


Production of polypropylene and polyethylene at Qenos Resins s Qenos Resource Kit s Page 1

Production of Polyproplyene and Polyethyleneat Qenos Resins

This section focuses on slurry polymerisation, anindustrial process that is used to transformpropylene into polypropylene and ethylene intoHigh density polyethylene at Qenos Resins.

The ethylene for this process is obtained fromQenos Olefins manufacturing plant in Altona.

Qenos plants operate 24 hours a day, 365 days ayear.

PolypropylenePolymerisation of propylene, while being similar tothat of ethylene can produce three types ofstructure, depending on the location of the CH3unit.

Figure 1Isotatic Polypropylene. All of the branches are on one sideof the chain.

Figure 2Syndyotatic

The final structure is a random arrangement of theCH3 branches. This material is called atatic andthe product is a low molecular weight wax.

Figure 3Atatic

Isotatic polypropylene, or polyproplyenehomopolymer is the commercial product whereasthe other two forms are less desirable and morewaxy.

Two other forms of polypropylene appear, both ofwhich are copolymers with ethylene.

(a) Block Copolymer: involves the polymerisation ofdiscrete blocks of ethylene (as rubber) usuallyfrom 5-20%, into an isotatic polypropylenematix. The material produced has a milkyappearance and offers good impact resistance.

(b) Random Copolymer: here ethylene andpropylene are copolymerised together (using upto 7%) ethylene producing a random structure.The material has very good clarity, even moreso than homopolymer, and offers some impactimprovements over homopolymer but not astough as the block copolymer.

The general properties of a polyolefin can besubstantially modified by the incorporation of fillersand other additives.

Of particular importance is the use of talc orcalcium carbonate to improve the stiffness ofpolypropylene. This is used for automotiveapplications, electrical appliances, etc, where highstrength or resistance to the elements isnecessary. Other modifiers include the use ofethylene propylene rubber, which substantiallyimproves the impact strength of polypropylene.

Production of Polypropylene andPolyethylene at Qenos ResinsQenos Resins makes polymers in a slurryprocess, meaning that the polymerisation reactiontakes place in a solvent filled reactor.

Following the polymerisation the solvent isremoved and recovered for reuse in a number ofdrying stages.

The polymer powder is stored in silos before beingprocessed through compounding, where rawpolyolefin powder is processed together withprocessing stabilisers and if necessary lightstabilisers through an extruder and pelletized.

The product from this process (polyolefin granules)is sold to end users in 25 kg bags, one tonnebulker bags or road tankers. See Figure 4.

s Qenos Resource Kit s Production of polypropylene and polyethylene at QenosResins

Figure 4Resin Site

Manufacture of polyethylene products s Qenos Resource Kit s Page 1

Manufacture of Polyethylene Products

Qenos customers use the polymer raw materialsmade by Qenos to manufacture a wide variety ofgoods. Different grades of polyethylene andpolypropylene and different processes are useddepending on their end use requirements.

Easy flowing grades of short chain length find usein injection moulded articles, such as cups, etc.Blow moulding, on the other hand, requires thepolymer to have a high melt strength, and isobtained using material of high molecular weightas in the case for bottles.

A simple machine which is used to measure theflow of a polymer, is the melt flow indexer. Theamount of polymer which flows out of a die in a tenminute period at certain temperatures is known asthe polymer melt flow index.

Polyolefins can be processed on all commonplastics forming machines; this includes, injectionmoulding, blow moulding and extrusion.

Manufacture of PolyethyleneProductsThere are five different methods which arecommonly used to manufacture plastic end-products :

n extrusion—film

n blow moulding

n injection moulding

n rotational moulding

n extrusion—pipe, wire and cable coating

The polyethylene resin produced by Qenos is usedin all of these processes.

Polyethylene Manufacturing

Extrusion—film

Extruded film applications use up the largestportion of Qenos polyethylene resin. Familiar itemssuch as cling wrap, supermarket check-out bags,garbage bags and dry cleaning bags are the majormarket areas for the finished product.

Figure 1Blown film extrusion

The most common film process is known as ‘blowfilm extrusion’. The extruder is equipped with a thincircular opening through which molten plastic isextruded to form a tube with very soft walls. Thetube is blown up by compressed air to increasethe bubble diameter, and make the film thinner.This tube is then cooled by air, flattened andwound onto rolls.

Blow moulding

Milk bottles, and plastic bottles for detergent,shampoo and some motor oils are made by blowmoulding.

Figure 2Blow moulding

s Qenos Resource Kit s Manufacture of polyethylene products

Figure 4Rotational moulding

Rotational moulding is a discontinuous process forthe production of moulded parts which does notrequire an extruder to melt the plastic.

A measured quantity of plastic is placed inside aclosed hollow mould which is then rotated abouttwo axes which are perpendicular to each other.

These rotational motions force the plastic to coverthe inner walls of the mould. Heat from an outsidesource converts it to a continuous solid phase. Bycooling the mould, the hollow part is solidified,whereby it can be removed.

Extrusion—pipe, wire and cable coating

Pipes ranging in diameter from 12 mm to 1.5 mare produced by the extrusion method. QenosPlastics' polyethylene resin provides a significantmarket segment. The major end products includedomestic and commercial irrigation pipes,sewerage pipes, Telecom wire insulation andcable sheathing.

Figure 5Extrusion of pipe, wire and cable

Blow moulding can use either continuous ordiscontinuous extrusion techniques to melt andfeed the plastic to the die. To blow mould, themolten plastic is extruded downwards through acircular die in the shape of a tube. The tube isclamped in a mould and blown by air against theinner walls of the circular die. The mould is thenopened and the hollow product is removed.

Temperature of the plastic, thickness of the tube,air injection pressures and cycle times all affectthe quality of the finished product.

Qenos Plastics lead the field in Australia withresin used in the plastic milk bottle—a mostsignificant market for Qenos.

Injection moulding

Lids, caps, laundry baskets, toys, mixing bowls,thin walled containers and large garbage bins areall examples of injection moulded articles that usepolyethylene resin products. Injection mouldingprovides the best method for producingcomplicated shapes and narrow tolerances.

Figure 3Injection moulding

Injection moulding machines discontinuouslyproduce formed articles. Molten plastic is injectedat high pressure through a die in the mould. Thematerial is then cooled and solidified in the mould,which is then opened and the ready made part isejected.

The temperature of the plastic, the injectionspeeds and pressures, the rate of cooling and thecooling time all affect the quality of the finishedproduct.

Rotational mouldingQenos polyethylene resin is commonly used inthe manufacture of rotationally moulded productssuch as boats, canoes, spheres, buoys,playground equipment and large tanks of up to9000 litres capacity.

Manufacture of polyethylene products s Qenos Resource Kit s Page 3

Polyethylene: Typical Applications

Process HDPE LDPE LLDPE

Film Food packaging Cling Wrap Stretch filmFreezer bags Bread bags Construction filmShopping bags Milk carton lining Diaper Liners

Injection Garbage bins Housewares Food containersPaint pails Toys, Pails LidsCrates Ice cream lids Closures

Blow Moulding Detergent bottles Cosmetic bottlesMauser drums Squeezable bottlesDangerous goods drums

Extrusion Irrigation pipe Flexible irrigation pipe Cable sheathingShade cloth Cable jacketing Pipe, Profiles

Pipe extrusion is a continuous process for themanufacture of uniform hollow products of variouswall thicknesses and diameters. To extrude pipe,the molten plastic is passed through a sizing unitto ensure the correct dimensions, and a coolingmedium that solidifies the product.

Wire and cable extrusion coating is a continuousprocess involving two independently movingcomponents. When insulating or sheathing acable, the conductor is passed through the die ofthe extruder, simultaneously gaining a coating ofplastic. It is then passed through a coolingmedium, checked for proper coating and woundonto a cable drum.

s Qenos Resource Kit s Manufacture of polyethylene products


Waste management at Qenos s Qenos Resource Kit s Page 1

Waste from industrial processes has causedincreasing concern because of its impact onhealth and the environment. Environmentprotection is recognised as a key responsibility forthe industry.

This section examines key waste managementpolicies and initiatives.

Qenos Policy on WasteIn 1989 Exxon Chemical Company, a shareholderin Qenos, adopted a worldwide program toreduce wastes generated by its facilities and tocurtail releases to air, water and land from itsplants. The program called for the development ofsteps to achieve a 50% reduction in wastedisposal and environmental releases over the fiveyear period (1990 to 1994). Figure 1 below,outlines Qenos Olefins manufacturing plantemission reduction program.

Figure 1Qenos Olefins manufacturing plant emission reductionprogram. Emissions considered are VOC*, solid/liquid wastesand water borne.* Volatile Organic Compounds

Since the announcement, the Qenos Olefins andelastomers manufacturing facilities haveparticipated in producing annual inventories ofwastes to air, water and land, and in developingassociated plans for reductions of these wastesin line with the policy. The data has been collatedtogether with costs on a worldwide basis.Progress has been tracked against a 1989 baseyear.

Waste Management at Qenos

The work involved in this program is theresponsibility of each specific site at Altona.However the reporting has been standardized toassist overall consolidation; regional coordinatorshave been appointed, manuals of informationprovided and specialist training, especially inrelation to air emissions, has been arranged.

Qenos Plastics was incorporated into theprogram in 1992 and so from that time on, totalQenos Altona, as well as individual manufacturingplant data, has been produced.

At the end of 1994 the Olefins and Elastomersplants had achieved reductions in total wastesand emissions of 56% and 55% respectively andQenos manufacturing in total achieved a 55%reduction.

In 1992, the Qenos manufacturing operations,together with the other Altona chemical complexcompanies, each voluntarily committed toreducing emissions of volatile organic compounds(VOC) by 50% over a five year period. The Qenossites each achieved this target in 1994 comparedto a 1989 base.

In 1994 Qenos set further 3 year targets for wasteemission reductions to the atmosphere. Thesewere for VOC reduction of 20% and both benzeneand butadiene reductions of 33% by 1997compared to 1994. Benzene and butadiene arespecific volatile organic compounds in Qenosprocesses which justify special attention due totheir potential health effects.

The following sections provide information on thethree main classes of wastes at Qenos:

n Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)

n Solids and Liquid Wastes Transported Offsite

n Waterborne Wastes to Sewer

Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)

VOCs are chemicals which evaporate into theatmosphere and are made up of at least carbonand hydrogen. VOCs can react with oxides ofnitrogen in the presence of sunlight to formphotochemical smog. VOC emissions areapproximately 0.2% of the total hydrocarbonsprocessed at Qenos.

s Qenos Resource Kit s Waste management at Qenos

‘Water borne’ wastes to sewer

These are largely dissolved salts that are sent tothe sewer. They are predominantly comprised ofdissolved solids or ‘salts’. Note that 10% of ‘salts’discharged are present in the incoming water.

The concentration of ‘salts’ in Qenos Olefins finaleffluent is approximately 3% of that in the ocean.

Australian ChemicalIndustry ‘Responsible Care’ProgramIn September 1989 the major chemicalcompanies in Australia, through their membershipof PACIA (Plastics and Chemicals IndustriesAssociation) announced their commitment to anew program ‘Responsible Care: A PublicCommitment’.

The program structure of coregulation andcommunity involvement is unique in Australia.

Each member company of the chemicals sectorof PACIA, including Qenos, signed a certificate ofAbiding Principles committing them to adhere toResponsible Care both in letter and spirit.

This commitment includes achieving compliancewith specially developed ‘Codes of Practice’.

These codes of Practice cover eight areas anddetail future standards to be achieved by theindustry. Codes of practice cover;

n Transportion

n Warehousing and Storage

n Emergency Response and CommunityAwareness

n Waste Management

n Community Right to Know

n Manufacturing

n Product Stewardship

n Research and Development

The Waste Management Code of Practice (andImplementation Guide) was published in March1992. The following is an extract from this Code.

Management Practices–General

Each member company shall develop andmaintain written policies, procedures andimplementation plans for waste management.These shall apply to all member companyfacilities and cover all life cycle stages of wastesgenerated by member companies.Responsibilities shall be clearly defined forpreparing, communicating, implementing,reviewing and updating these documents and forauditing and taking any corrective action.

Comparative VOC data for MelbourneTonne of VOC emissions per day

Summer Winter

Qenos Olefins 2.5 2.5Domestic paint 20 62Car exhausts 216 216Lawn mowing 19 6Total industrial 131 85Werribee sewage plant 5 5

By 1996, Qenos's Leak Detection and RepairProgram (see case study) has reduced VOCs by635 tonnes since 1990. Additional reductionshave resulted from an oxidizer installed at theelastomer plant, new pump and compressorsealing system and by recycling streams backinto the process.

Solid and liquid wastesThese are wastes that are trucked off site. Somego to special waste treatment plants wherematerial is typically treated chemically orincinerated. These processes often result inmaterial being sent to landfill or (for treatedliquids) to the sewer system. Other wastes aresent direct to landfill.

The following table details the major ‘prescribedwastes’ (solid and liquid) disposed of by QenosOlefins in 1995.

Qenos Olefins prescribed wastes*

Waste type 1994 1995 1995quantity quantity cost(tonne) (tonne) ($k)

Asbestos 9 2 1Spent caustic 176 11 2Blue water 1005 539 60Phosphoric acid 30 195 25Oil/water 610 183 27Desiccants 0 9 1Catalysts-spent 258 117 10Polymers 19 33 3DEA liquid 27 8 1Copper sludge 8 169 25API pond sludge 620 1103 154Spent charcoal 38 79 8Coke/tar drums 23Coke/tar 935 1297 195Contam. soil 88 76 6

Total prescribed 3846 3821 518

* As defined by the EPA, all these wastes are removed byroad transport in drums, skips or tankers. Analysis is done oneach load and each load is weighed.All disposal and treatment processes are in accordance withregulatory requirements—including regulations on transportof wastes.

Waste management at Qenos s Qenos Resource Kit s Page 3

Key inventories are to measure wastes in each ofthe following categories:

n Emission to air

n Liquid discharges to sewer

n Liquid discharges to waterways

n Solid waste disposal

n Liquid waste disposal

These terms and definitions are also from theWaste Management Code of Practice. Many ofthem occur throughout the case studiesexamined in the next section.

Glossary of DefinitionsCleaner ProductionCleaner Production is the continuous applicationof an integrated preventative environmentalstrategy to processes and products so as toreduce the risks to humans and the environment(United Nations Environment Program definition).

For production, cleaner production includes theconservation of raw materials and energy, thereduction of toxic or dangerous materials and thereduction of discharges and wastes at the source.

For products, the strategy focuses on reducingimpacts along the entire life cycle of the products,from conception to use through to ultimatedisposal.

DisposalA discharge or deposit of waste into theenvironment.

Fugitive disposalA continuous or periodic unintended dischargewhich escapes from a containment or sealingdevice.

Hazardous wasteHazardous waste which, due to its nature andquantity, is potentially harmful to human healthand/or the environment and which requiresspecial handling, treatment and disposaltechniques to eliminate or reduce the potential forharm. Hazardous properties include toxicity,flammability, reactivity, corrosivity, infectiousnessand radioactivity.

Protection of human health and theenvironment)Ensuring that harm does not occur (fromexposure to a hazard).

RecoveryA practice which removes specific componentsfrom a material, typically valuable componentswhich reduce the hazards associated with thematerial. Synonymous with reclamation.

RecycleA general term including recovery, reclamation,reuse and regeneration, avoiding the direct needfor treatment and/or disposal of waste. Includesreuse of containers.

ReuseA practice of re-employing a material either, as aneffective raw material for a process to make auseable product, or as an effective substitute fora commercial product in a particular application.Includes regeneration.

Treatment (of waste)A change in the composition and/or concentrationof a waste to make it acceptable for disposal.

WasteAny material, solid, liquid gas or vapour which isnot further used in the production of a commercialproduct or provision of a service, or which is notitself an intended commercial product, or which isunwanted, unusable or surplus. Material includesused drums, containers and packaging.

Includes material discharged to air, both pointsource and diffuse, liquid effluent to waterways orto a sewerage system, deposits to landfill, spillsinto soil and groundwater, fugitive discharges andmaterial sent offsite for recycling, wasteprocessing or treatment. Does not includeuncontaminated stormwater.

Waste management hierarchyThe preferred order for dealing with wastes,usually expressed as:

1. prevention

2. elimination

3. reduction

4. recycling

5. treatment

6. disposal

s Qenos Resource Kit s Waste management at Qenos

Waste management

Control and administration of activities involvingwaste. These activities include waste prevention,elimination, reduction, recycling, treatment anddisposal, in order of preference, and alsogeneration, handling, storage and transport ofwaste.

SummaryQenos is committed to creating better wastemanagement programs.

The aims are:

n to reduce the amount of waste generated;n to recycle potential waste materials and

transform them into useful products;

n to improve methods for testing and disposingof wastes.

Qenos has produced their own EnvironmentImprovement Plan (EIP) which sets out a detailedand ongoing program of environmentalenhancements at our Altona manufacturing sites.The EIP was developed in consultation with thelocal community and representatives from theEPA and the City of Hobsons Bay.

Glossary s Qenos Resource Kit s Page 1

Anti-oxidantA chemical, such as ascorbic acid, which isadded to hinder the chemical reaction knownas oxidation (oxygen attack).

Butadiene

A colourless gas (boiling point -4.41 degreesCelsius) and a major product of thepetrochemical industry; used in themanufacture of synthetic rubber, latex paintsand nylon. Formula: C4H6

Catalyst

Substance that alters the speed of a chemicalreaction and may be recovered essentiallyunaltered (in form and amount) at the end ofthe reaction.

CoagulationChange from fluid to more or less solid stage;may result from prolonged heating, addition ofan electrolyte, or from a condensationreaction between solute and solvent; anexample is the setting of a gel.

Cracking

A process that is used to create a number ofsmaller molecules from large molecules bybreaking the molecular bonds using variousthermal, catalytic, or hydrocracking methods.

Distillation

A process of purification which involvesproducing a gas or vapour from a liquid byheating the liquid in a vessel and collectingand condensing the vapours into liquids.

Elastomer

A material (such as a synthetic rubber orplastic) which at room temperature can bestretched under low stress to at least twice itsoriginal length and, upon immediate releaseof the stress, will return with force to itsapproximate original length.

Emulsion

A stable dispersion of one liquid in another(such as oil dispersed in water) that will notmix with each other.

EthaneA colorless, odourless gas belonging to thealkane series of hydrocarbon (freezing pointof -183.3 degrees Celsius and a boiling pointof -88.6 degrees Celsius); used as fuel andrefrigerant and for organic synthesis.Formula: C2H6

EthyleneA colorless, flammable gas (boiling at -102.7degrees Celsius); used for the manufacture oforganic chemicals and polyethylene and asan agricultural chemical and in medicine. Alsoknown as ethene; olefiant gas. Formula: C2H4

ExothermicA reaction that produces heat.

FeedstockThe starting material for a machine orprocess. For example, ethane is a feedstockmaterial for the production of ethylene andpropylene.

FractionationSeparation of a mixture in successive stages,each stage removing from the mixture someproportion of one of the substances. Forexample, by differential boiling points inhydrocarbon mixtures.

HydrocarbonOne of a very large group of chemicalcompounds composed only of carbon andhydrogen; the largest source of hydrocarbonsis from petroleum crude oil.

HysteresisLoss of energy occurring when syntheticrubber is deformed, causing output of heat.For example, heating of tyres provides skidresistance and road handling properties.

InitiatorThe substance or molecule (other thanreactant) that starts a chain reaction, as inpolymerisation.

KetoneOne of a class of chemical compounds of thegeneral formula RR’CO; can be importantintermediates in the synthesis of organiccompounds.

Glossary of terms

s Qenos Resource Kit s Glossary

MonomerSimple molecules such as ethylene andpropylene.

Olefin

A family of chemically active hydrocarbonswith one carbon-carbon double bond;includes ethylene and propylene.

Oxidation

A chemical reaction that increases the oxygencontent of a compound.

PetrochemicalChemical made from feedstocks derived frompetroleum or natural gas; examples areethylene, butadiene, most large-scale plasticsand resins.

Plastic

A material (usually organic) that is made ofpolymers and can be shaped by flow. Atsome stage in its manufacture, every plasticis capable of flowing, under heat andpressure, if necessary into the desired finalshape.

Polyethylene

A thermoplastic material composed ofpolymers of ethylene; the resin is synthesisedby polymerisation of ethylene at elevatedtemperatures and pressure in the presence ofcatalysts. Also known as ethylene resin.Formula: CnH2n

Polyethylene, low density, (PE-LD)

Long chains with branches every 2 to 4carbon atoms. Low crystallinity and melts at110°C.

Polyethylene, (linear low density)

Short chain branches every 10 to 20 atomsand melts at 120°C.

Polyethylene, high density, (PE-HD)

Long chains with very few branches. Highcrystallinity and melts at 130°C.

PolymerSubstance made of giant molecules formedby the joining of simple molecules(monomers). For example, polymerisation ofethylene forms a polyethylene chain.

Polymerisation

The bonding of two or more monomers toproduce a polymer. Often involves theproduction of long-chained molecules.

Polypropylene, (PP)A thermoplastic material composed ofpolymers of propylene.

PropyleneColorless unsaturated hydrocarbon gas(boiling point of -47 degrees Celsius); used tomanufacture plastics and as a chemicalintermediate. Also known as methyl ethylene;propene. Formula: C3H6

Resin

Any class of solid or semi-solid organicproducts of natural or synthetic origin with nodefinite melting point, generally of highmolecular weight; most resins are polymers.

Semi-Crystalline

Polyolefins have two phases or type of solid:a crystalline phase (which is highly orderedand has a regular structure) and anamorphous or random phase. The amount ofcrystalline and amorphous phases presentdetermine the properties of the plastic.

Sub-sea completion

Procedure for smaller oil and/or gas recoveryplatforms. A more cost effective option whichinvolves use of a sub-sea well, connected toan adjacent platform or ship via a pipeline.

Synthetic rubber

Synthetic products whose properties aresimilar to those of natural rubber, includingelasticity and ability to be vulcanised; usuallyproduced by the polymerisation orcopolymerisation of petroleum driven olefinicor other unsaturated compounds.

Thermoplastic resin

A material that will repeatedly soften whenheated and harden when cooled; for example,styrene, acrylic, polyethylene, vinyls, nylonsand fluorocarbons.

Visoelastic

A term used referring to recoverable andunrecoverable deformation. If a stress (load)is applied to a plastic for a short period oftime, the plastic recovers. However, if a highload is applied for a long period of time theplastic stretches resulting in unrecoverabledeformation.

Vulcanise

Treat rubber (or ribbon-like material) withsulphur etc. especially at high temperature toincrease elasticity and strength.

Acknowledgements s Qenos Resource Kit s Page 1

QenosVCE Chemistry Information PackageAcknowledgmentsA number of people from both Kemcor and the Education Department madegenerous contributions in terms of technical expertise, curriculum knowledgeand time in order to produce this resource kit. The teachers who gave muchof their own time were: Rosemary Bissett, Rob King, Rob Sanders and GayleSmith.

The production of this kit was coordinated by Jen McKinley (1991), MarkLandy (1992), and Terry Kingston (1993) under the Teacher Release toIndustry Project (T.R.I.P.).

1996 Up-date coordinated by Ruth Geldard (T.R.I.P.). Thanks to Kevin Quinnand Rob Sanders, teachers of years 11 and 12 chemistry, for their assistanceand time. Thanks also to Qenos employees for their input in up-datingsubject matter.

The 1997 update was completed by Rob Sanders and co-ordinated by DavidMoss (T.R.I.P.).

The update in 2001, when the kit changed from being the Kemcor Resource kitto become the Qenos Resource kit, was completed by Fiona Wilkes. Thisupdate principally reflected the changes in the business in becoming Qenos.

This kit is issued by Corporate Affairs department at Qenos.

For further information contact:

Corporate Affairs department, ph. (03) 9258 7333

s Qenos Resource Kit s Acknowledgements


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