Character Development & Adaptive Decision Making in Games · computer interactions (Poznanski and...
Transcript of Character Development & Adaptive Decision Making in Games · computer interactions (Poznanski and...
Jack Armour | 1100891 Character Development & Decision Making in Games
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ABSTRACT
Games today are more visually realistic than ever, but their AI and characters are still
basically unchanged from the earliest games. This project aims to create a simple yet
effective way to bring any non-player character to life, using personality and character
development, thus making games more enjoyable for players. The application built
tested how the Five Factor Model of Personality can be used to create a realistic AI,
and how developing and changing the personality would effect its realism. The
program took 'situation', 'personality', 'mood', and 'emotion' as inputs and output a
decision to deal with the situation. The results of this paper found that using
personality, specifically the Five Factor Model of Personality, seems to be a great way
to represent personality in games, as it produced meaningful and realistic choices. It
was found however that situations that are more abstract like 'explore' must be more
detailed, as sometimes the AI would choose inappropriate actions, and leave the
situation unsolved. Results also shows that people who tested the character
development found them much more realistic than those who just tested the decision
making without personality development. However, more work needs to be done on
how the personality develops in this type of agent, as problems were discovered with
the method used in this project.
In conclusion, the Five Factor Model of Personality is a great way to represent
personality in believable agents, games, and other applications. The development of
these personalities is definitely a step in the right direction for truly realistic personal
human computer interactions with AI.
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FOREWORD
First of all, I would like to thank God for all his amazing grace that has carried me
through to finish this dissertation. I would also like to thank my mentor, David King
for his help and guidance writing this dissertation and throughout the project, my
girlfriend, Yoan for motivating me and helping me with editing and proof reading.
Also my friends and families for their never ending love and support.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract...........................................................................................................................ii
Foreword.......................................................................................................................iii
List of Figure.................................................................................................................vi
List of Tables................................................................................................................vii
1. Introduction.................................................................................................................1
1.1 Setting the Scene...........................................................................................1
1.2 Background...................................................................................................1
1.3 Aims..............................................................................................................3
1.4 Research Questions......................................................................................3
2. Literature Review.......................................................................................................5
2.1. Modern Video Games..................................................................................5
2.1.1. The Interactive Media...................................................................5
2.1.2. The Characters and Possible Techniques to Create Them........... 5
2.2. Real People..................................................................................................7
2.2.1. Personality....................................................................................7
2.2.2. Choice...........................................................................................9
2.3. Creation of Personality..............................................................................11
2.3.1. Uses............................................................................................11
2.3.2. Research......................................................................................11
2.3.3. The Future...................................................................................12
3. Methodology............................................................................................................13
3.1. The Theory.................................................................................................13
3.1.1. Five Factors of Personality Theory.............................................13
3.1.2. Hopeful Effect............................................................................15
3.2. Implementation..........................................................................................16
3.2.1. The model...................................................................................16
3.2.2. Decision Making.........................................................................17
3.2.3. Character Development..............................................................19
3.3. Evaluation..................................................................................................21
3.3.1. Methods of Evaluation................................................................21
3.3.2. The Test Application..................................................................21
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3.3.3. The Questionnaire.......................................................................21
3.3.4. The Personality Test...................................................................22
4. Results.......................................................................................................................23
4.1. Example Situations....................................................................................23
4.1.1. Decision Making........................................................................23
4.1.2. Personality Growth....................................................................24
4.2. User Experiences......................................................................................27
4.2.1. Questionnaire..............................................................................27
5. Discussion.................................................................................................................30
6. Conclusion................................................................................................................32
6.1. Summary....................................................................................................32
6.2. Future Work...............................................................................................32
References.....................................................................................................................34
Bibliography.................................................................................................................38
Appendices...................................................................................................................39
Appendix A: User Questionnaire.................................................................................39
Appendix B: Results.....................................................................................................41
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 | Artificial Neural Network................................................................................
Figure 2 | Overview of SPOT personality model.............................................................
Figure 3 | Variable Connections.......................................................................................
Figure 4 | Example Situation............................................................................................
Figure 5 | Character Variable deprecation rate.................................................................
Figure 6 | Personality Change Graph 1.............................................................................
Figure 7 | Personality Change Graph 2.............................................................................
Figure 8 | Personality Change Graph 3.............................................................................
Figure 9 | User Experience Results 1................................................................................
Figure 10 | User Experience Results 2..............................................................................
Figure 11 | User Experience Results 3..............................................................................
Figure 12 | User Experience Results 4..............................................................................
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 | 30 facets of the Big Five Personality Factors....................................................
Table 2 | Input Variables..................................................................................................
Table 3 | Decisions Made.................................................................................................
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1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Setting the Scene
Imagine yourself playing a free roaming role play game where you have been
wreaking havoc in the local town by stealing goods, assaulting innocents, or even
killing some of the non-player characters (NPCs) who live there. People are running
around, screaming, all are very afraid of you, except for the one woman in the town
who is just standing there, content. You go over to her, and speak to her. She talks
about her missing son, and asks you to find him, not mentioning anything about what
you have just done in the street she is standing in; she is unfazed, she is scripted to
give you this quest, it is in the plot. This game has incredibly realistic looking
graphics, with large open worlds for you to explore, and amazing stories to discover.
However, no matter how good the game looks, there are always going to be those
scripted NPCs whose emotions, moods, or personalities are often times never
influenced by what is happening around them. Sadly, this is the case for many games
today, including Dragon Age: Inquisition (Dragon Age: Inquisition, 2014), Fallout 4
(Fallout 4, 2015), and GTA 5 (Grand Theft Auto V, 2013).
Now imagine the same situation, but that NPC is no longer standing there, she is
running and screaming and crying like the rest of them. Then, as you find her and talk
to her, she is terrified by what you have done, so you would have to prove to her again
that you are capable and trustworthy to do the task she has to give you. Imagine if she
never trusted you again, or maybe she is just as messed up as your character, loves
what you are doing to her fellow townsfolk, and decides to join in. This is how
realistic games should be, which is the main aim of the project; realism in NPC
personalities and choices.
1.2. Background
Recently, there has been a rise in popularity of open world, non-linear, free roaming
games, that have an emphasis on player choice and realistic worlds. Games like The
Legend of Zelda (The Legend of Zelda, 1986) and the Grand Theft Auto Series
(Grand Theft Auto, 1997) were amongst the first, and best non-linear, or open world
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games, where players are not forced along a path, but are encouraged to make their
own choices and stories and adventures. Games that are released in today's market that
are designed to be linear are often criticised for their lack of openness, or for being too
linear, for example Final Fantasy XIII (Final Fantasy XIII, 2009) (Peckham, 2010)
which is said to be "less like a roleplaying game and more like a battle simulator".
However, free roaming games are not all about the vast openness, and the exploration;
they are about the realism, the emersion, and making each persons' game experience
unique. This is where NPCs let the genre down. The non realistic, over scripted, and
just sometimes stupid characters are met in games often ruin the experience. For
example in the Assassins Creed series, where NPCs forget, within minutes, that they
just saw a man murder someone, and hide on a roof. (Reed, 2015)
This is where non-scripted NPC personality Artificial Intelligence (AI) may be able to
help. Firstly, the development time for scripted NPCs can be long, especially if there
are a lot of characters. A personality AI could cut this process out completely, by
implementing a decision making AI where one of the main input factors is personality.
In this way, a game can have hundreds of individual characters, by only changing a
few values. Of course, for story dependant characters more work and scripting will
still be needed, but with something like this implemented, there can be more
interesting characters than just the story centred characters. And with player choice
being such a big part of games, having these NPCs develop depending on the world
and their surroundings would be much easier with an AI system, rather than scripting
all possible situation, which would be impossible.
This kind of AI system could be used in many game genres, not only the above
mentioned free roaming games. RPG games, with their many interesting characters
and story, and obviously role-playing. Imagine role-playing along side a character
who is going to develop and learn from your interactions with it, instead of one who
has been scripted to act in some way. This also brings replayability, as the characters
can be randomised, so each time one plays the game it is not the same scripted
character. Really, any game with some characters, either in the foreground, or
background, could use a system like this to improve its realism, which is what most
genres want in today's market.
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1.3. Aims
This project aims to create an AI with personality and moods, that can live a realistic
life in a video game without the need for their lives to be fully scripted, as many more
story-centric characters are. To take it further, human moods and personalities are not
static; they are developed from birth. According to research over 40% of personality is
based on genetic influence (Bouchard, 1994), while the rest is being influenced by the
surrounding environment. So, knowing that, the second aim of this project is to have
these NPC personalities develop overtime to create the most realistic NPC possible.
The AI developed will be a decision making NPC that will be given different
situations to deal with, where the main inputs will be mood, emotions, and
personality. The personality description that will be used is one of the most recognised
in psychology today, the Big Five Factors of Personality (McCrae and John, 1991).
Many researchers have done similar things, but rarely are they related to video games.
Most are in connection to believable agents, their aims being to improve human-
computer interactions (Poznanski and Thagard, 2005) with things like ATM machines,
or self checkouts, though some research has been done into computer companions,
such as pets with personalities too (Mateas, 1998)
1.4 Research question
"How can learning AI be used in games to create more adaptive decision making,
leading to more realistic characters behaviours?"
Thus the project objectives shall be:
Develop an application that uses the five factor model of personality to
demonstrate how personality traits affect; mood, emotional state, and most
importantly, the decision making process.
Develop a component of the application to mimic the growth/change of
personality as it is effected by external (environmental) and internal (moods,
and relationships) factors.
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Evaluate how realistic/ believable the decision making process is by testing
against human decisions, and assess how viable this method is to use in
interactive video games, in terms of computational power.
At the end of the project it is expected that the system designed will be a realistic, and
useable method to be used in character development for games. The character will
hopefully take appropriate actions to situations, learn from past situations, and
develop to be an interesting and seemingly fleshed out character. Users of the
application are expected to enjoy the characters interactions, and believe in them as
much as, if not more than, current games where NPC decisions and actions have been
scripted.
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2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. Modern Video Games
2.1.1. The Interactive Media
Unlike books or movies that offers a different level of interactivity, “the video game
industry is now seemingly on the verge of securing a position of dominance within the
realm of popular visual culture.” (Garite, 2014) This popularity in games is due to
how interactive games are, as they put an “emphasis on the ‘active’ role of game
players "which makes the gaming world “both procedural and participatory" (Garite,
2014). As a result, “game players are thus seemingly granted a degree of agency and
choice,” something that books or movies can’t serve as a medium of entertainment
(Garite, 2014). A large part of this is due to the interaction with game characters that
are made to be as realistic as possible using a variety of Artificial Intelligence
techniques.
2.1.2 The Characters and Possible Techniques to Create Them
Video games would be nothing without the characters that inhabit the worlds
portrayed, and there are many ways that characters can be made to be interesting and
seem to be intelligent. This section will cover a few of the most common methods
used in games today to make NPCs more than just pretty faces.
Scripting is the most traditional way in which games implement interactions between
players and NPCs (Cutumisu, Et al. 2007), which works the same way as scripting in
filmsA character is told exactly what choice to make, where to go, and what to say.
This style of creating game characters is excellent for linear stories with little choice,
as the characters will always deal with the same situations in the same order.
However, there is very little variability to scripting, which makes it a huge problem
when making larger, open world games where the player is given choice (White, Et al.
2007). Not only that, but it takes hours and hours of work to script characters,
especially if there are a lot of characters.
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Other options include Fuzzy Logic systems, which is a decision logic based on
degrees of truth, rather than the usual true or fault that modern computers are based
on. (Rouse, 2006In games, this means that a character would make a decision based
on a set of rules, and input variables. For example, if health is low move further away
from enemy. (Kose, 2012) Of course more complex rule sets can be made, and a
character can become incredibly smart and tactical. This type of character AI is great
for a lot of game aspects, like movement or tactics, though it is not been used for
character personality or individuality. This does not mean it cannot be used for such
things, but in today's games it has not been seen in this area of AI.
Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) are another form of AI defined by Dr. Robert
Hecht-Nielsen as "...a computing system made up of a number of simple, highly
interconnected processing elements, which process information by their dynamic state
response to external inputs" (Caudill, 1987). ANNs are made of layers; the input layer,
where the network is given its input, the hidden layers where the processing is done
via a system of weighted connections, and the out layer which gives an answer.
Figure 1 | Artificial Neural Network (The University of Wisconsin Madison, 2004)
Most ANNs also contain learning, which modify the weights of the connection
according to the input patterns it is presented with (The University of Wisconsin
Madison, 2004). ANNs are used to create clever learning AI, and therefore may be
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perfect for game characters, but they are far to complex and memory expensive. This
means that it is nearly impossible to justify having any sort of ANN in a game system.
2.2. Real People
2.2.1. Personality
Personality is at the core of every human being, without it humans would be like
robots, with no preferences, and nothing that makes us different. With that in mind
what better way to make an AI seem more human than giving it an artificial
personality. Otto Kernberg defines personality as "the human organism's capacity to
experience subjective states that reflect the internal condition of the body as well as
the perception of the external environment within which the body functions."
(Kernberg, 2016). To put it another way, personality is reflecting ones perception of
experience and external stimulus by the way one thinks, acts and makes choices.
However where this personality comes from has been hotly debated for many years.
The two most argued origins are genetics, that ones individual personality is all
encoded in their genes. “Although Galton discussed genetic influence on personality,
the lack of reliable and valid measures of personality qualities hampered progress. In
addition, until recently, psychologists could not agree on which were the important
traits of personality. (Bouchard, 1994) other position of argument is that of
environment, that your upbringing, surroundings and experiences define your
personality from a young age.
Recently most personality researches have come to the same conclusion, "most likely
that both genetics and experience in early childhood, in early family life, played an
important role, now, in who you are. All of it together comprises the basic seeds that
eventually accounted for the growth and appearance of one’s full personality.”
(Kellerman, 2012) If this is the case then can personality evolve and change over
time?
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"Despite the common perspective that personality traits—relatively enduring patterns
of thoughts, feelings, and behaviour— do not change, numerous longitudinal studies
have now reported mean-level changes in traits at various ages across the life course
how it changes." (Roberts and Viechtbauer, 2006)
Many research pointed towards the fact that personality only changed during
childhood, and the solidified, but recent discoveries argue that this is not the case.
Recent longitudinal and cross-sectional aging research has shown that personality
traits continue to change in adulthood." (Brent and Mroczek, 2009) This is a huge leap
in personality research and opens many doors to the AI community too, as this means
personality based AI models can now hopefully become more realistic with this
addition.
Now a major question to both AI developers and personality researchers is how to
represent this personality that is formed from genes, experiences, and can change as
one ages. Many methods have been used over the years, but now personality
researchers have come to agree on one method as the potential best method. The Five
Factor Model developed by Ernest Tupes and Raymond Christal.
“The Five-Factor Model has been widely accepted as an adequate taxonomy of
personality traits, and literature reviews are now routinely organized by classifiying
measures along the lines of these five factors. These factors - Neuroticism,
Extraversion, Openness, Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness… are basic
dispositions that, as we will see, endure through adulthood and help to shape emerging
lives.” (McCrae and Costa,. 2003)
With this definition of personality the AI community can now use it to create excellent
quality believable agents, and with research starting in this field in recent years it is
likely to emerge in the public eye relatively soon. This will be discussed later in
section 2.3.
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2.2.2. Choice
How people make choices is a very important research topic, not only in psychology,
but also in the research of artificial intelligence. There are many aspects that affect the
decision making process, for example, the "uncertainty about the consequences of
everyday decisions can make it hard to predict which option will prove best" (Caruso,
2006) Furthermore, "research shows that people often construct their preference in
the context of decision, and that nuances in the information that is salient at the time
of decision can dramatically influence choice" (Caruso, 2006).
Decisions are not concrete things and depend on a lot of factors that are present at the
time of the decision, but the main three that this project will look at are personality,
mood, and emotional state. “The idea that people actively choose to be in situations
that best ‘fit’ their personalities is hardly a novel concept. In fact, its relevance to the
matter of behavioural consistency has long been recognized by personality theorists,”
which shows how important the use of personality is in a decision making AI (Ickes,
Snyder, and Garcia 2015)
In fact, it is believed by many personality researchers that "personality-based
variations in behaviour are largely interpretable," which makes a huge importance to
the AI community as being able to interpret and understand these behaviours could
lead to using personality as a basis of decision making system, and ultimately
developed an AI with truly realistic behaviours.
(Paunonen, 2003).
It is widely recognised that mood can affect the decision making process. Shanfir and
Caruso completed four studies on the impact of mood on people’s choices, saying,
"Mood often provides such information, and can play a vital role in preference
construction as people attempt to determine which option will feel most appropriate
given their affective state and motive." They also hint at some distinct differences
being in good, neutral or bad moods can have on decisions, for example, "bad mood
among dieters and anxiety in obese people can cause them to eat more." (Caruso,
2006)
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Other researchers have also found a correlation to mood and decisions made, for
example Yuen and Lee have done extensive research on the effect mood has on
decisions based on risk taking, and discovered that “positive mood was expected to
increase the risk-taking tendency According to the Affect Infusion Model (AIM),
heuristic processing would be adopted by participants in positive mood." (Sung Lai
Yuen, 2003)
Mood also has a direct correlation to emotions, as a person in a bad mood is unlikely
to be happy, and a person in a good mood is unlikely going to be afraid, and research
directly shows how specific emotions correlate to decision making. Norbert Schwarz
who published Emotion, Cognition, and Decision Making, found that
“Extending the feelings-as-information approach to specific emotions,
[Bettman and Payne] propose that judgements and processing
strategies are likely to reflect the appraisal-tendency underlying the
emotion at hand. Consistent with this notion, they demonstrate, for
example, that two negative emotions, fear and anger, may affect
judgements of risk in opposite ways: Whereas fearful individuals made
pessimistic judgements about future events, angry individuals made
optimistic judgements. “ (Schwarz, 2000)
Again, this shows that emotions affect the decisions made and human’s thought
processes during their current situations.
Human decision making is a very complex thing, but it is rational, and understandable.
Being in a specific situation is going to have an effect on a person’s mood and
emotional states, which also have corresponding effects on each other. Personality
also determines how one will react to situation in a practical and emotional way.
Together, these four variables are the basis by which humans make basic situational
decisions; current situation, personality, mood, and emotional state.
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2.3. Creation of Personality
2.3.1. Uses
Current developments in believable agents with personalities and emotions have been
brought to all areas of computing. Imagine self service checkouts with a computer
intelligence to talk to you, or a robotic pet with a realistic personality to keep you
from getting lonely. These are some of the ways believable agents are being used
today, but they also lend themselves to being used to create realistic NPCs in games.
2.3.2. Research
Ever since there have been stories, there has been a quest to create believable
characters, meaning a character who will give the reader, viewer, or listener the
illusion of life (Bates, 1994). The media of computer games is still somewhat young,
still finding its footing in the world of story-telling. The ways of literature and film
have been used to create lovable, weird, and hated characters in games, but with such
a complex medium there are many other ways to create great characters for games.
AI, "the development of computers that are able to do things normally done by people
-- in particular, things associated with people acting intelligently" (Hammond, 2015),
is something games can use that no other entertainment medium can. In fact Alex
Champandard believes "compared to standard scripting techniques, AI technology can
be computationally more efficient and can generate better quality behaviours."
(Champandard, 2004). However, making a 'true' AI is a huge task, and actually is not
needed many gaming applications. AI in games rarely needs to know how to drive,
and how to play chess. This type of AI is sometimes called Artificial Narrow
Intelligence (ANI), named as such because of its narrow specialization (Andros,
2015). It is used in; racing games to navigate the road, military games for enemy
tactics and aiming, and arcade fighting games to make fighters learn tactics. It can be
used to create any type of character in any genre of game.
Believable agents are a type of AI that are developed to be relatable and feel like the
user is interacting with another human, rather than a computer (Loyall, A 1997). So
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this is the perfect kind of AI to be used for NPCs, as that is precisely what the user
wants to believe; the character they are interacting with is real (Umarov and
Mozogovoy 2012). A believable agent for gaming applications has to be
computationally inexpensive, yet as realistic as possible.
2.3.3. The Future
The future of believable agents, not only in games, is a bright one. The book, 'The
Emotion Machine' by Mavin Minky talks extensively about how the future of
machines may be very similar to humans. He talks about love, pain, common sense,
resourcefulness, and even recognition of self in machines!
" I hope this book will be useful to everyone who seeks ideas about how
human minds might work, or who wants suggestions about better ways
to drink, or who aims toward building smarter machines. It should be
useful to readers who want to learn about the field of Artificial
Intelligence. It should also be of interest to psychologists, neurologists,
computer scientists, and philosophers because it develops many new
ideas about the subjects those specialists struggle with." (Minsky, 2006)
Some of this is very science fictionesque, but as research continues and AI is able to
develop further, it is not hard to believe that one day there may be machines that walk
around and interact with humans, just like in films like i-robot or games like Destiny.
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3. METHODOLOGY
3.1. The Theory
3.1.1. Five Factors of Personality Theory
In the study of personality and behavioural science, there have been many ways used
to describe one's personality, but it is widely agreed upon that the Five Factors of
Personality is one of the most accurate and useful manners in which to measure or
describe personality (McCrae, 1991). The Five Factor model, as shown in table 1, is
made up of openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism
(OCEAN). Each one of these factors is used to describe different parts of a
personality, shown in the second column of the table.
The categories of OCEAN can therefore be matched with a series of actions and
responses to external events, meaning with some surprising accuracy one can predict
actions based off of a personality profile like the five factor model (Epstein, S. 1979).
The actions matched with each factor of OCEAN is widely theoretical, but many
researchers come to very similar conclusions, and as such the actions most often found
to be associated with a factor were chosen in this project.
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Table 1 | 30 facets of the Big Five Personality Factors (Jang and Livesley, 1996)
Openness Imagination
Artistic Interests
Depth of Emotion
Willingness to Experiment
Intellectual Curiosity
Tolerance for Diversity
Conscientiousness Sense of Competence
Orderliness
Sense of Responsibility
Achievement Striving
Self-Discipline
Deliberateness
Extraversion Warmth
Gregariousness
Assertiveness
Activity Level
Excitement-Seeking
Positive Emotions
Agreeableness Trust in Others
Sincerity
Altruism
Compliance
Modesty
Sympathy
Neuroticism Anxiety
Angry Hostility
Moodiness/Contentment
Self-Consciousness
Self-Indulgence
Sensitivity to Stress
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3.1.2. Hopeful Effect
The application will involve a decision making believable agent. This will incorporate
personality using the five factor model; emotions and mood. Input will be the event
statistics that the agent faces, and the output will be the decision made, in a similar
approach that Poznanski and Thagard did in their application (Poznanski and Thafard,
2005).
Figure 2 |Overview of SPOT personality model (Poznanski and Thafard 2005, p.228)
Figure 2 shows the influences between components Poznanski and Thagard used,
which is the way the same as this project, excluding the relationship component.
Weighing for each components were tested and refined during the creation of the
application, and starting values for each component are decided by the user on start
up. There will be a set of 7 types of events, and 9 possible choices, with contextual
story layered on top for different events.
After each choice, the values change based on what choice was made, and how much
these values change was refined and tested to achieve something that felt as realistic
as possible.
The end goal and hopeful effect of this decision making process was to discover if
using OCEAN as a basis for a decision making AI in games. Also, whether the
development of such a personality would be realistic, and computationally viable for
games. It is hoped that the simulated development of personality will improve NPC
realism, above other non-developing NPCs, for the future of games AI.
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3.2. Implementation
3.2.1. The model
The model being used in the project is very similar to the above example in figure 1.
Inputs are situations, personalities, emotions, and moods, and the output is the chosen
action. Each parameter has an initial value from zero to one, and is then weighted to
each action. All of these individual weighted values are added together for each
action, and the action with the highest value is chosen. Once an action is chosen, the
parameters that are linked to that action are increased in value to strengthen that
choice, and make it more likely the next time, to represent growth in the character.
These growth stats then depreciate overtime — closer to the base value again to model
the way immediate choices are affected more than future choices after specific events.
For example, if one has a fight with their wife, their anger value will be higher for a
while, which means that anger is going to have a higher influence on their next
decisions for some time. However, as time goes on, their anger will decrease, and
eventually will level out and have less influence on their decisions, which is identical
to personality and mood, although the depreciation speed is different for each. This is
why to achieve a realistic character, it is necessary to refine and test each value's
depreciation speed, then adjust them accordingly.
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3.2.2. Decision Making
Table 2 below, shows all the input variables, and figure 2 shows how they are
connected to one another and with the output decision.
Personality Emotion Mood Event
Openness Neutral Neutral Neutral
Conscientiousness Happy Good Friendly
Extroversion Sad Bad Hostile
Agreeableness Angry Help
Neuroticism Afraid Explore
Curious Persist
Stress
Table 2 | Input Variables
Figure 3 | Variable Connections
Figure 3 shows the basic connections between groups of variables, including how
personality affects both the emotion and the chosen action of the character, how both
event and mood affects emotion, and how emotion only affects the action. Although,
not all moods would connect to all emotions, for example, the only moods that are
connected to emotions are Good to Happy, and Bad to Sad and Angry. The same goes
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for all connections, only specific variables in each heading is connected to other
variables.
To explain this a little more with an actual example, suppose a character has only
openness in their personality, is in a good mood, and is currently in a neutral
emotional state. This character has to deal with an explore event. Figure 4 explains
how this interaction would work out.
Figure 4 | Example Situation
The orange nodes are the initial state nodes, the green nodes are ones that are activated
because of connections, and the red one is the action chosen. Each line represents a
connection, and each connection has a weighting value, for example if openness is set
at 1, and the weighting to the curious node is 0.5, curious becomes 0.5 times 1, which
is 0.5. In addition, any another nodes connected to curious would be added on top of
that, and then the final curious value is transferred to its connections.
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In this simple example there is only one initial node in each section, but the
application can have all nodes in every section active. This excludes the event section
as only one event happens at a time. The end product creates a complex network of
connections, producing what is hoped to be a believable and correct choice.
3.2.3. Character Development
After the initial set up of a character where values are restricted to stay between one
and zero, once the character development module of the application is turned on the
character can change its variables to exceed the upper limit. Once the character makes
a decision, like the one described in the last section, the character changes based off of
the factors that made the decision. Using the example situation in figure 3, all nodes
that are connected to 'explore', which influence that decision, will now change by a
degree. This number is different depending on whether it was a personality node,
mood node, or emotion node (the event nodes do not change as they are unique with
each situation and are not part of the character model).
This means that if a similar situation comes up again, all of these factors are now
stronger, which suggest that these factors will have more influence than others, and
might lead to the same decision made again. However, as it is described before in
section 2.2.1, personality doesn't change in this manner and these factors also would
not grow in a similar fashion. So, to model this more realistically these changes are
not permanent.
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Figure 5 | Character Variable deprecation rate
Figure 5 shows the relative deprecation rate of the character's three characteristics.
Personality changes the least, and deprecates the slowest, while emotion changes the
most and deprecates the fastest. According to the Oxford dictionary, the three are
defined as; personality — the combination of characteristics or qualities that form an
individuals distinctive character, mood — a temporary state of mind or feeling, and
emotion — a strong feeling deriving from one's circumstances, mood, or relationships
with others . Based on these three definitions, it is clear how long each change would
likely last.
In practice, this means that for every decision made, the character is going to change
emotionally a lot, but will settle back close to their natural state very quickly. Where
as their personality will only alter slowly, but the changes will last a lot longer. The
personality factors never go back to their original value, to show the evolution of
personality over time.
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These changes are to represent a realistic state of human characteristics and the way
they are influenced by situations. Though there are many more factors to take into
account in real life situations, these are considered major contributors by
psychologists.
3.3. Evaluation
3.3.1. Methods of Evaluation
Methods of evaluation that have been used for this project include personality tests
and user experience questionnaires. Personality tests were used to measure the
accuracy or realism of the AI responses with quantitative data, and the user experience
questionnaires were used to measure the quality of the responses with qualitative data.
3.3.2. The Test Application
The application is a tablet application which puts an AI character against different
types of situations, with 'flavour' text on top to describe the situations in simple
paragraphs. The user will input a personality, mood, and emotional state into the AI
with sliders. Each variable has a description of what it means to help the user
understand how it might effect the AI's actions.
The user is then shown a board of face down cards, and a board game piece. They
move the piece along the cards one at a time, choosing its path. Each card is a new
situation, and when the piece moves, the card flips over to reveal the situation. The
user reads the situation, then reads what the character did to deal with the situation.
Once completed, they pick a new card until they reach the end of the board.
3.3.3. The Questionnaire
The first evaluation method was user experience questionnaires. The questionnaire
was designed to reveal which if either of the two AIs, with and without character
development, felt more relatable and realistic to the participant. A number of the
question on the survey used the Likert scale (Likert 1932) to measure participant's
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opinions. The questionnaire can be found in Appendix A at the end of this paper.
3.3.4. The Personality Test
Personality tests were used complete by willing participants to acquire realistic
personalities to put through the program. The specific personality test used is called
the "Five Factors of Personality Test" (Psychologist World, 2016). This test gives the
participants personality scores in percentages which can then be inputted into the
application. The participant is then asked to complete another test, which is a list of
situations, the same as which the application can deal with, along with some extra "red
herring" questions for some quality control. (Presser, et al. 2004). These questions are
designed to stop the participant from answering in patterns, and also to "identify those
who fully read and engage in the survey" (Marketing Research Advisor, 2015)
The application is then ran to see how closely the AI's choices are to the participants
choices in the second test. With the results making it clear if the AI is acting
realistically or not.
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4. RESULTS
4.1. Example Situations
4.1.1. Decision Making
In this section, the results of the decision making will be discussed. To test this, each
situation was tested 25 times with the five factors of OCEAN being set randomly
between zero and one. The resulting action was recorded.
Action
Explore Persist Talk None Avoid Help Insult Assault Cry
Sit
uati
on
Neutral 5 20
Friendly 9 7 1 7 1
Hostile 11 8 4 2
Help 4 3 2 16
Explore 23 1 1
Persist 12 3 4 5 1
Stress 4 9 6 2 4
Table 3 | Decisions Made
Table 2 shows the results of the 175 tests ran. Most of the tests concluded in
reasonable results, where the character chose a suitable action to the situation, but
there are a few outlying results, including the 'friendly' event that resulted in a 'cry'
action. This is a very unlikely reaction, and is only going to happen if the 'neuroticism'
factor of personality is extremely high, which it was not in this test scenario.
There are also a few other outliers which are odd decisions that don't make sense, for
example the 'talk' action in an 'explore' situation. The 'explore' situation is one which
the character has been asked to go do something or find something. So, to simply talk
to the quest giver does not solve or finish this interaction, which is quite a large
problem.
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4.1.2. Personality Growth
Following are a series of graphs that show the five factors of OCEAN and how they
changed overtime with different starting positions over a series of 10 situations.
Personality Change
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Choices Made
Pers
on
ali
ty V
alu
e
Openness
Concientiousness
Extraversion
Agreeableness
Neuroticism
Figure 6 | Personality Change Graph 1
In figure 6, the starting positions were random, and the events were chosen randomly.
As shown, the personality grows faster than it depreciates, and never go back to its
initial value. This was how the application was planned to work, so this test was
successful.
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Personality Change
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Choices Made
Pers
on
ali
ty V
alu
e
Openness
Concientiousness
Extraversion
Agreeableness
Neuroticism
Figure 7 | Personality Change Graph 2
In figure 7, initial values were all set to zero, and again events were random. Again,
this example shows how the growth is faster than the deprecation, and as planned, the
values only depreciate when they are not being used in decisions, which is how the
growth of personality is shown to work in personality research. Though it may grow a
little fast.
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Personality Change
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Choices Made
Pers
on
ali
ty V
alu
e
Openness
Concientiousness
Extraversion
Agreeableness
Neuroticism
Figure 8 | Personality Change Graph 3
In figure 8, all starting values were set to their maximum of one, and events were
chosen as hostile and stressful for the first seven tests, then random for the last 3. This
was done as the 'neuroticism' factor is not used that often in other tests, so it was
necessary to check if it would grow and deprecate as the others did.
After running all the tests, adjusting the values, and conducting the tests once again,
the final results show how the application has worked as planned, though it was
logically flawed. From looking at these graphs and the situations that arose, especially
figure 8, one would imagine that when a person is dealing with stressful and hostile
situations, their extraversion — and possibly other factors like agreeableness — would
decrease in value, but this was never a part of the planned application. After testing, it
is evident that the character was just as open to help another character when they are
stressed or after being attacked, as when they were having a great day. This seems to
be quite unrealistic as one would think that the character would not trust anyone after
situations like that.
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4.2. User Experiences
4.2.1. Questionnaire
Following are some graphs showing some of the questions that were filled out by
testers. More results are in Appendix B. The participants were a mixture of people
with a lot of gaming experience and some with basically none.
Enjoyed Overall Experience
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neither Agree Strongly Agree
Figure 9 | User Experience Results 1
Figure 9 is a promising graph as it shows that 14 out of 16 people enjoyed the
experience. From this small amount data, if the technique was implemented into an
actual game, together with more work and polish, it may be good for the user
experience of the game, however a larger test base would be needed to confirm this
assumption.
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AI choices were in line with Personality
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neither Agree Strongly Agree
Figure 10 | User Experience Results 2
Figure 10 shows that the participants agreed with how the AI was acting, as the
choices the AI made met the participants' expectations. Meaning from a users
perspective the AI is fairly realistic.
Character Developped over time
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neither Agree Strongly Agree
Figure 11 | User Experience Results 3
During the testing, eight of the participants had the character development turned on,
and eight did not. The graph in figure 11 shows that the character development was
definitely noticeable to the participants, while those who did not agree or said neither
were those who did not have the character development turned on. Interestingly, one
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of the participants without the character development strongly agreed with this, which
might seem odd, but as they did not have any gaming experience, it is possible that
they did not know what to expect.
Changing starting Personality changed Characters Decisions
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neither Agree Strongly Agree
Figure 12 | User Experience Results 4
For the participants that tried the application more than once, they were asked if the
different starting personalities actually made the character feel different. Figure 12
shows that the majority did agree that it changed the character, which proves the
usefulness of this technique, as it shows that it is possible to make different characters
with only five variables. Along with the other questionnaire data, it seems that these
characters will also be fairly realistic and enjoyed by the users.
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5. DISCUSSION
This project set out to answer the question:
"How can learning AI be used in games to create more adaptive decision making,
leading to more realistic characters behaviours?"
Now that the results have been acquired after the completion of the project, it is time
to discuss whether or not this questions has been answered, and to what extent
learning AI can be used in games characters.
The first discussion is whether learning AI can be used to create more adaptive
decision making.
From the results shown in section 4 and in Appendix B, it can be seen that the Five
Factor Model of personality can indeed be used along with emotion and moods to
create a decision making AI. Users were overall happy with their interactions with the
application, which shows that this method of AI could be used in games and other
applications, as user experience is a major part of any game.
The AI is adaptive in multiple ways. The first of which is that the AI personality,
mood, and emotion can be set to different starting values, effectively making multiple
characters. Since users and the quantitative data agree that the characters acted
differently depending on the data given to the character at the start of the application,
this proofs that the AI is capable of being adaptive for many characters. This is great
for games, as it allows for many characters to be made unique with simplicity, and
without the need for hours of work, which is the case for scripting characters.
The second part of the question that asks whether this may lead to more realistic
characters behaviours is a harder thing to discuss, as it has a lot to do with the
individuals' perception. Though the majority of the participants enjoyed and agreed
with the decisions made by the character, there were a few cases that could be deemed
as wrong.
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It was also discovered that the decision to make the personality factors never
depreciate below their starting value was incorrect, as it is possible to have personality
factors become less relevant to the entire personality as a whole. This was overlooked
during the planning phase, and did not arise until the review of results. It is possible to
add this functionality to the application with relative ease, but the testing and retuning
of the AI would take a large amount of time.
Overall, the AI does change over time, and this can improve their choices which
makes them more realistic, but without the addition of factors being able to depreciate
to below their initial values the model is flawed. However, the basic decision model
still works, but definitely needs improving as there are too many outlying choices that
leave the situation open. To combat this, the model needs to be able to make multiple
decisions during situations. Also, these situations need be more complex and yet still
flow smoothly, as situations are not just one thing but series of smaller things.
Ultimately, the application design was oversimplified to create the standard of realism
that was wanted.
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6. CONCLUSIONS
6.1. Summary
From the results it is evident that the application only answers half of the question at
this time.
"Can learning AI be used in games to create more adaptive decision making?"
Yes.
"Can learning AI be used in games to create more realistic characters behaviours?"
Possibly.
It has been found that the five factors of personality, moods, and emotions creates
believable characters not only for games, but many other applications that may need
such a thing, for example self service checkouts. However, for this to be used in
games, the set up of the situations needs to be changed from singular events to a series
of events and decisions, so the character cannot leave a situation unfinished, or
unsolved. It is important to note however that in a story based game - which is the
kind that this application was designed to improve - the character would need to
constantly face different situations, which may overwhelm the model. However, this
model can serve as a proof of concept that personality is a great way to create
believable characters without scripting.
As for the development of this character, this model has shown the proof of concept
to be a realistic way of achieving character personality growth. The development
process just needs more complexity, mainly in the removal of limiting the traits from
lowering below their initial values. Allowing for the lowered personality traits may
create a much more robust and realistic agent for characters in games.
6.2 Future Work
Believable agents are an important topic in which a lot of research is currently going
into, not only in the games industry, but in many other industries out with pure
entertainment. To achieve a truly realistic computer personality is a long way to go,
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but as this field of study continues to develop, it is likely that soon games will no
longer have massive amounts of prewritten content, in both characters and stories. The
game world could become self contained with no need of any scripting, and creating
believable decision making characters is the key to achieve this monumental goal. In
fact, if characters have a full set of personality, it could be possible to have a game
where the characters can create unique stories themselves without the need for any
story to be written.
As for now, believable agents are becoming more and more realistic, with
personalities, moods, emotions, as it is depicted in this project. Some go even further
by adding goals and even memories to help them become realistic and believable.
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APPENDICIES
Appendix A: User Questionnaire
1. Have you played many story based games or simulators before?
() () () ()
Never Rarely Occasionally Often
2. I enjoyed the overall experience.
() () () () ()
Strongly Disagree Strongly Agree
3. I thought the AI choices were in line with the personality I chose.
() () () () ()
Strongly Disagree Strongly Agree
Please give examples of what you deem to be unrealistic choices:
4. I was overall satisfied with the AIs performance
() () () () ()
Strongly Disagree Strongly Agree
5. I felt that actions characters took made sense to me.
() ()
Yes No
If not, can you describe why, or give an example?
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6. The character felt realistic in comparison to other games experiences
() () () () ()
Strongly Disagree Strongly Agree
7. The character seemed to develop as it made decisions
() () () () ()
Strongly Disagree Strongly Agree
8. If you played more than once, did different personalities and moods feel different in
the decisions made?
() Only played once
() () () () ()
Very Different Very Similar
If you have additional comments please leave them below.
- 41 -
Appendix B: Results
Participant Number
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Ques
tion
1 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 4 4 3 2 2 3 1 2
2 4 4 5 4 5 4 5 5 3 4 5 4 5 4 5 3
3 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 4 4 3 4 4 5 5 4 3
4 5 4 4 4 4 4 5 4 4 3 4 5 5 5 4 3
5 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
6 4 3 4 4 5 3 5 4 3 4 4 5 4 3 5 3
7 3 4 4 5 5 4 4 4 3 2 2 1 4 2 1 3
8 5 4 4 5 0 3 4 5 4 4 0 0 4 4 5 3
Have you played many story based games before?
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Never Rarely Occasionally Often