CHAPTER-V SPATIAL PATTERNS OF LITERACY OF MAJOR RELIGIOUS GROUPS...

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CHAPTER-V

SPATIAL PATTERNS OF LITERACY OF MAJOR RELIGIOUS GROUPS IN INDIA

Literacy is one of the qualitative aspects of human life and it mirrors the

level of development of a country. The Indian Census follows the commonly

applied definition of literacy as an ability to read and write with understanding.

Although literacy is not the same as education, it is nevertheless the first

indispensable step towards it (Saini, 1975). As such, literacy rate itself is a good

indicator of the socio-economic progress of a country as also of a religious group.

India being a welfare state all its citizens enjoy equal economic, cultural

and educational opportunities to grow and progress. But different religious

communities show inequality in the level of literacy consequent upon diverse

socio-cultural and economic status which causes human group disparities

(Hussain and Siddiqui, 2010). Realising non-dominant status and as a mark of

acceptance of the distinct identities of different religious groups, some special

provisions such as articles 25, 29, 30 and 350 have been made in the

Constitution of India to safeguard their educational interests (Masih, 2007). In

2001, the literacy rate for the population aged 7 years and above for the country

as a whole stood at 64.8 per cent. Among major religious groups, the literacy rate

of the Jain population was the highest at 94.1 per cent, followed by the Christians

at 80.3 per cent and the Buddhists at 72.7 per cent. The literacy rate among the

Hindus (65.1 per cent) was slightly higher than the national average (64.8 per

cent) but lower than that of the Jains, the Christians, the Buddhists and the Sikhs

(Figure 5.1).

A high proportion of the Hindu population (30.6 per cent) was

concentrated in the states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Rajasthan and these

states were poor on the socio-economic front. Moreover, Hinduism like Islam

tends to be more gender restrictive than either Christianity or Buddhism

regarding social norms. For instance, the traditional laws of Manu make women

non-eligible for all scholastic activities (Stromquist, 1992).

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Figure 5.1

Literacy Rate among Major Religious Groups in India: 2001

65.1

59.1

80.3

69.472.7

94.1

64.8

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100P

erc

enta

ge

Hindus Muslims Christians Sikhs Buddhists Jains All

Religious

Groups

Religious Groups

Source: Computed from Census of India, 2001, Religion Data on CD- ROM.

Literacy among the Jains had deeper roots as they were exposed to the

preaching of their wandering monks who would deliver lectures on religious

scriptures wherever they stayed. Hence, as a community the Jains had enough

incentive to read and write (Gopal, 2010). Moreover, the Jains were wealthy and

were one of the first religious groups to take advantage of western education.

Furthermore, a high proportion of Jains (76.1 per cent) resided in the urban area

and a high percentage of their total population (12.4 per cent) was concentrated

in Gujarat, which was the first state in the country to have introduced compulsory

education more than a century ago (Ojha, 1966). The high literacy rate of the

Christians was largely due to the role played by the Christian missionaries for the

145

spread of literacy. Besides this, the Christians spent higher amount of their

household income on education than did the Muslims and the Hindus, thus,

signifying that Christians were well aware of the benefits of education (Singh,

2003).

The high literacy rate among the Buddhists was largely due to the social

reform movement (Neo-Buddhist Movement) that increased the functional value

of education. The high literacy rate among the Sikhs could be traced back to the

historical factors such as an early exposure to education, large scale recruitment

of the Sikhs in the British army, social reform movements (like the Arya Samaj

Movement and the Singh Sabha Movement) and the formation of the Chief

Khalsa Diwan. Moreover, a high proportion of Sikhs (75.9 per cent) were

concentrated in the state of Punjab that not only allowed but also encouraged the

Christian missionaries to undertake educational projects in the state

(Government of Punjab, 2004) and was characterised by a widespread network

of educational institutions, high rural connectivity, large scale emigration that

enhanced the value of education and high per capita income (an outcome of

Green Revolution).

Interestingly, the Muslims were the only religious group which had a

literacy rate lower than the Hindus (Figure 5.1). The reasons usually suggested

for the educational backwardness of Indian Muslims could be broadly grouped

under three main heads: (i) religious traditionalism and backwardness of those

professing Islam, (ii) partition of India and the psychological crisis of identity it

created for Indian Muslims, and (iii) the deliberate neglect and discrimination

against the Muslims by the majority (Hindu) society which professed to be

secular but was, in fact, discriminatory whether in education or employment

(Kamat, 1981). Moreover, the traditional Islamic injunction restricting girls to go in

for education in public places or institutions-especially higher coeducational

institutions-still seem to guide the minds of most of the Muslim parents (Ruhela,

1998). The Hindu, the Christian and the Sikh communities had set up a network

of good educational institutions which provided general and professional

education. The Muslim community had failed to set up such institutions in large

146

numbers to provide its youth with modern education (Halan, 2007). Over 70 per

cent of the Muslims in India are living in rural areas and are marginal and small

farmers or self-employed artisans and of the remaining 30 per cent who are living

in the towns roughly 80 to 85 per cent are skilled workers, tailors, retailers and in

such other professions which do not require a person to be literate (Saxena,

1983).

However, educational backwardness of Indian Muslims should be

attributed not to any 'religious fanaticism' or 'minority complex' but to the small

size of the middle class whose members can be expected to seek educational

opportunities (Ahmed, 1981). Lack of an adequate number of schools and

infrastructural facilities in the Muslim dominated areas was a major cause of

educational backwardness of this community (GOI, 2006).

There were wide inter-state variations in the literacy rates of the six

major religious groups (Table 5.1). Among the states, the Hindus recorded their

highest literacy rate (90.2 per cent) in Kerala and the lowest (47.9 per cent) in

Bihar. In Bihar, more than half of the Hindu population aged 7 and above was

illiterate. The highest literacy rate among the Muslims (89.4 per cent) was in

Kerala and the lowest in Haryana (40.0 per cent). More than half of the Muslims

were illiterate in the Muslim majority state of Jammu & Kashmir. Similarly, in the

states of Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Nagaland, Meghalaya and Assam also,

the Muslim literacy rates were below 50 per cent. Contrastingly, their literacy rate

was above 70 per cent in the southern states. Majority of the Muslims residing in

the southern states were engaged in tertiary activities that enhanced the need for

acquiring education.

The literacy scenario of the Christian population was quite bright as in 16

of the 35 states and union territories, their literacy rates were above 80 per cent.

147

Table 5.1

Literacy Rate by Major Religious Groups in India: 2001

India/States/Union Territories

Hindus Muslims Christians Sikhs Buddhists Jains All Religious

Groups

India 65.1 59.1 80.3 69.4 72.7 94.1 64.8

States

Andhra Pradesh 59.4 68.0 75.3 78.7 54.8 93.2 60.5

Arunachal Pradesh 64.6 57.7 47.0 92.4 44.9 85.2 54.3

Assam 70.0 48.4 56.4 90.4 69.9 95.3 63.3

Bihar 47.9 42.0 71.1 79.4 59.0 93.3 47.0

Chhattisgarh 63.9 82.5 75.3 89.0 84.9 96.8 64.7

Goa 81.9 75.4 83.8 95.5 82.8 95.7 82.0

Gujarat 68.3 73.5 77.7 85.1 66.9 96.0 69.1

Haryana 69.4 40.0 85.3 68.9 67.4 94.2 67.9

Himachal Pradesh 76.8 57.5 82.8 83.0 73.7 96.3 76.5

Jammu & Kashmir 71.2 47.3 74.8 85.4 59.7 86.5 55.5

Jharkhand 54.6 55.6 69.7 87.2 74.7 92.8 53.6

Karnataka 65.6 70.1 87.4 83.7 54.8 84.3 66.6

Kerala 90.2 89.4 94.8 92.4 92.1 95.5 90.9

Madhya Pradesh 62.8 70.3 85.8 82.9 74.4 96.2 63.7

Maharashtra 76.2 78.1 91.0 88.9 76.2 95.4 76.9

Manipur 75.3 58.6 65.6 88.5 53.3 94.5 70.5

Meghalaya 69.3 42.7 65.3 74.7 70.8 69.9 62.6

Mizoram 79.3 74.7 93.1 91.8 45.8 61.7 88.8

Nagaland 74.9 48.2 66.2 82.8 74.6 94.5 66.6

Orissa 63.3 71.3 54.9 90.5 71.0 93.3 63.1

Punjab 74.6 51.2 54.6 67.3 72.7 95.9 69.7

Rajasthan 60.2 56.6 83.0 64.7 71.4 94.0 60.4

Sikkim 69.4 57.8 72.4 97.2 67.3 90.7 68.8

Tamil Nadu 72.0 82.9 85.8 83.7 86.3 92.2 73.5

Tripura 75.3 60.9 67.9 98.4 49.2 82.9 73.2

Uttar Pradesh 58.0 47.8 72.8 71.9 56.2 93.2 56.3

Uttaranchal 74.1 51.1 87.9 73.1 76.3 96.3 71.6

West Bengal 72.4 57.5 69.7 87.2 74.7 92.8 68.6

Union Territories

Andaman & Nicobar Islands

81.7 89.8 77.0 94.1 91.4 100.0 81.3

Chandigarh 80.5 64.1 88.5 92.0 91.7 97.3 81.9

Dadra & Nagar Haveli

56.5 80.4 64.6 91.7 63.4 94.4 57.6

Daman & Diu 77.7 80.3 88.2 93.0 84.4 94.6 78.2

Delhi 82.8 66.6 94.0 92.1 83.8 96.8 81.7

Lakshadweep 96.4 86.1 97.4 100.0 100.0 0.0 86.7

Pondicherry 80.3 87.8 87.3 90.9 92.8 96.3 81.2

Source: Computed from Census of India, 2001, Religion Data on CD- ROM.

Note: Population figures for India and Manipur exclude those of Mao Maram, Paomata

and Purul sub-divisions of Senapati district of Manipur.

148

In fact, the literacy rates among the Christians were above 90 per cent in

the states of Kerala, Mizoram and Maharashtra and in the union territories of

Delhi and Lakshadweep. Education had always been a priority for the Christians

in India. Arunachal Pradesh was the only state which displayed a literacy rate of

below 50 per cent among the Christians.

The Sikhs recorded the highest literacy rate in Tripura (98.4 per cent) and

lowest in Rajasthan (64.7 per cent) among the states. The literacy rates among

the Sikhs were above their national average (69.4 per cent) in a whooping 32 of

the 35 states and union territories. Surprisingly, in Punjab the literacy rate among

the Sikhs (67.3 per cent) was well below their national average. In Haryana and

Rajasthan too (the states with sizeable Sikh population), the literacy rates of the

Sikhs were below their national average.

The literacy rate among the Buddhists was the highest in Kerala (92.1 per

cent) and the lowest in Arunachal Pradesh (44.9 per cent). Arunachal Pradesh is

a tribal infested and highly inaccessible area with the traditional Buddhist

population. The literacy rates among the Buddhists were above 90 per cent in

the union territories of Chandigarh, Lakshadweep, Pondicherry and Andaman &

Nicobar Islands; and the state of Kerala. The Jains recorded a remarkably high

literacy rate of 94.1 per cent at the national level. Interestingly, in 19 of the 35

states and union territories, their literacy rate was even above their national

average (94.1 per cent). Most of the Jain population lived in urban areas and its

main economic activities were in the field of business, industry, commerce and

professionals (Gupta and Gupta, 2006). The Jains recorded the highest literacy

rate among the states in Chhattisgarh (96.8 per cent) and the lowest in Mizoram

(61.7 per cent). About two-third of Jains living in Mizoram were cultivators and

literary skills were not much required in this profession.

Further analysis of Table 5.1 reveals that all the six major religious groups

recorded very high literacy rates of above 95 per cent in Kerala. This could be

seen in the light of infrastructural facilities for schooling and other supporting

facilities which were more adequately and better distributed among regions and

social groups in Kerala than in many other states in India (Gasper, 2003). Thus,

149

the state-wise analysis of literacy rate of the religious groups suggested that

there was a close relationship between literacy and the economic activity of the

religious group. Higher the proportion of a religious group in tertiary activity,

higher is its literacy rate. Conversely, higher the proportion of a religious group in

primary activity, lower is its literacy rate. The foregoing analysis indicated that

certain socio-economic characteristics of the population belonging to different

religious groups were closely related to their level of literacy.

Urban-Rural Differential in Literacy

All the major religious groups showed wide gap in their urban-rural literacy

rates (Table 5.2). The urban-rural difference in literacy was found by using the

urban-rural differential index as used by Krishan and Shyam (1978). The literacy

rate was higher in the urban areas than in the rural among all the religious

groups. Literacy, like other innovations, originates in urban places and diffuses

subsequently into the countryside; the process of literacy begins in the town and

trickles down to the village (Krishan and Shyam, 1978). However, the Hindus

recorded the widest gap between their urban and rural literacy rates and the

narrowest was among the Jains.

Table 5.2

Urban-Rural Differential in Literacy Rate by Major Religious Groups in

India: 2001

Religious Groups Total Urban Rural Urban-Rural Differential

Index*

Hindus 65.09 81.32 59.06 0.34 Muslims 59.13 70.07 52.73 0.29 Christians 80.25 90.90 74.55 0.20 Sikhs 69.45 83.56 64.21 0.28 Buddhists 72.66 81.60 66.93 0.20 Jains 94.08 96.13 87.47 0.09 All Religious Groups 64.84 79.92 58.74 0.33

Source: Computed from Census of India 2001, Religion Data on CD- ROM. * Urban-Rural Differential was calculated by using the formula:

LiteracyTotal

LiteracyRuralLiteracyUrban

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This could partly be explained in context to the need for education in rural

areas being the greatest among the Jains and the least among the Hindus.

Moreover, it seemed that the Jains residing in rural areas were economically

more capable as compared to their Hindu counterparts in imparting education to

their children. The Christians and the Buddhists both had an urban-rural

differential index of 0.20. Similarly, the Muslims and the Sikhs too had almost the

same urban-rural differential in literacy. A very high literacy rate in urban areas

and not corresponding literacy rate in rural areas explained the wide urban-rural

gap in the literacy of the Christians, the Buddhists and the Sikhs. The Muslims

were the worst performers in terms of urban and rural literacy rates, while the

Jains were the best performers.

Table 5.3 points out that all the religious groups recorded small urban-

rural differential in their literacy rates in the union territories. Union territory being

chiefly an urban area is far better equipped with educational facilities and has a

high demand for education. Likewise, all the religious groups recorded low urban-

rural difference in their literacy rates in Kerala. The state has an extensive

availability of schools in rural areas accounting for more than three-fourths of the

total schools of the state (Planning Commission, 2008). Contrary to this, a high

urban-rural differential index was noticed for all the religious groups in ‘Bimaru’

and the north-eastern states. Subsistence agriculture and low level of economic

development in these states hindered the spread of education to rural areas.

GENDER GAP IN LITERACY

Gender display in literacy is present in almost every country and it can be

explained in terms of: (a) the sexual division of labour that assigns women many

domestic tasks, especially among poor and rural families, time-consuming

chores, and (b) men's control of women's sexuality, which creates both physical

and psychological constraints in women's lives (Stromquist, 1992).

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Table 5.3

Urban-Rural Differential in Literacy among Major Religious Groups in India: 2001

India/States/Union Territories


Groups

India 0.34 0.29 0.20 0.28 0.20 0.09 0.33

States

Andhra Pradesh 0.38 0.19 0.23 0.28 0.15 0.12 0.36


Assam 0.30 0.53 0.61 0.08 0.33 0.09 0.41

Bihar 0.60 0.61 0.55 0.41 0.29 0.16 0.60

Chhattisgarh 0.30 0.12 0.28 0.16 0.07 0.03 0.31

Goa 0.07 0.05 0.07 0.02 0.19 0.02 0.06

Gujarat 0.31 0.09 0.42 0.14 -0.03 0.09 0.30

Haryana 0.21 0.38 0.20 0.27 0.21 0.10 0.24


Jammu & Kashmir 0.28 0.43 0.11 0.09 0.36 0.31 0.40

Jharkhand 0.61 0.55 0.40 0.30 0.69 0.23 0.62

Karnataka 0.34 0.20 0.13 0.19 0.38 0.19 0.32

Kerala 0.05 0.02 0.01 0.07 0.02 0.04 0.03

Madhya Pradesh 0.35 0.14 0.29 0.30 0.03 0.03 0.34

Maharashtra 0.21 0.09 0.14 0.19 0.14 0.06 0.20

Manipur 0.12 0.20 0.25 0.07 0.56 0.21 0.17

Meghalaya 0.41 0.87 0.42 -0.11 0.42 0.93 0.48

Mizoram 0.32 0.50 0.09 0.05 0.92 0.79 0.17

Nagaland 0.09 0.41 0.40 0.12 0.21 0.26 0.33

Orissa 0.33 0.06 0.61 0.10 0.27 0.09 0.33

Punjab 0.15 0.15 0.37 0.23 0.04 0.06 0.21

Rajasthan 0.37 0.24 0.32 0.31 0.32 0.06 0.35

Sikkim 0.26 -0.02 0.22 0.03 0.29 0.18 0.25

Tamil Nadu 0.23 0.06 0.11 0.27 0.18 0.04 0.22

Tripura 0.24 0.15 0.43 0.02 0.80 0.37 0.27

Uttar Pradesh 0.38 0.23 0.41 0.37 0.28 0.11 0.31

Uttaranchal 0.21 0.27 0.12 0.30 0.18 0.07 0.19

West Bengal 0.23 0.19 0.37 0.14 0.23 0.19 0.26

Union Territories


0.07 0.00 0.21 0.03 0.14 0.00 0.10

Chandigarh 0.07 0.09 0.06 0.14 0.09 0.03 0.09

Dadra & Nagar Haveli

0.63 0.07 0.66 0.08 -0.06 0.10 0.61

Daman & Diu 0.08 0.03 -0.02 -0.06 0.04 -0.05 0.08

Delhi 0.05 0.09 0.02 0.13 0.02 0.00 0.05

Lakshadweep 0.04 0.04 -0.01 1.00 1.00 - 0.04

Pondicherry 0.13 0.04 0.10 0.13 -0.09 0.01 0.13

Source: Computed from Census of India, 2001, Religion Data on CD-ROM. Note: Urban-Rural differential was calculated by using Urban-Rural differential index:

LiteracyTotal

LiteracyRuralLiterayUrban

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Education of females enhances their capabilities, such as the freedom to

participate in political and economic processes, protect oneself against

exploitation, exercise personal mobility, attain high social status and increase

child and maternal well-being and at the heart of the gender gap is the fact that

many of the benefits of female education are societal such as a more productive

workforce, lower fertility and lower infant mortality, whereas the costs are private

which include tuition fees, uniforms, transport and most importantly, opportunity

costs in the shape of foregone child labour (King and Hill, 1993).

Even after more than sixty years of Indian independence, gender disparity

in literacy continues and the situation varied from state to state and even within a

state from district to district and from one religious group to another. As per the

Census 2001, the gender gap in literacy in India was 21.6. In all the religious

groups, female literacy rate was lower than male literacy rate. Cultural

prejudices, government apathy, lack of political and community will, illiteracy and

the negative attitude of parents towards the education of the girl child, cost of

education, etc. were some of the factors which had deprived girls and women of

their right to education (Planning Commission, 2005). India being largely a

patriarchal society, the ideology underlying patriarchy defined women as inferior

and subordinate to men and this ultimately got manifested in a wide gender gap

in literacy.

At the national level the gender gap in literacy was less than 10

percentage point only among the Jains and the Christians. Contrary to this, the

gender gap in literacy was the largest (23.0 per cent) among the Hindus (Table

5.4).

This spells out economic and social inequality for many women belonging

to this religious group. The Hindus were followed by the Muslims which too

depicted a large gender gap of 17.5 per cent, thus, bringing out that gender

disparity in literacy was more pronounced among the Hindus and the Muslims.

The large gender gap in literacy among the Hindus and the Muslims was an

outcome of their low female literacy rates. The Muslims recorded the lowest

female literacy rate (50.1 per cent), preceded by the Hindus at 53.2 per cent. The

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low female literacy among the Muslims has been due to the socio-economic

reasons rather than the religious one. Poverty and illiteracy went together and it

was a fact that Muslims in India were relatively poor (Engineer, 1994).

Table 5.4

Gender Gap in Literacy among Major Religious Groups in India: 2001

Religious Groups Male Literacy Female Literacy Gender Gap*

Hindus 76.2 53.2 23.0

Muslims 67.6 50.1 17.5

Christians 84.4 76.2 8.2

Sikhs 75.2 63.1 12.1

Buddhists 83.1 61.7 21.4

Jains 97.4 90.6 6.8

All Religious Groups 75.3 53.7 21.6 Source: Computed from Census of India 2001, Religion Data on CD-ROM. Note: *Gender Gap=Male literacy-Female literacy.

Apart from wide variations in gender gap across the religious groups,

there were large inter-state differences in male-female literacy rates of the

religious groups. The gender gap in literacy among the Hindus was higher than

their national average in the ‘Bimaru States’, the hill state of Uttaranchal and the

rural union territory (Dadra & Nagar Haveli). Surprisingly, the Hindus recorded a

relatively small gender gap in their literacy rate in the states where they were in

minority. The Muslims recorded above their national average gender gap in

literacy in the Muslim majority state of Jammu & Kashmir; in north-western parts

of Himachal Pradesh and Uttaranchal states and in the north-eastern states of

Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur and Mizoram ; in ‘Bimaru States’ and in

relatively developed states of Haryana and Gujarat. Strangely, the gender gap in

literacy among the Christians was larger than their national average in 24 states

and union territories of the country. But interestingly, gender gap in literacy was

smaller than their national average in the Christian dominated states of the north-

eastern region, in the hill states of Uttaranchal and Himachal Pradesh and in the

southern states of Maharashtra, Karnataka and Kerala.

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Table 5.5

Gender Gap in Literacy Rate by Major Religious Groups in India: 2001 India/States/Union Territories


Groups

India 23.0 17.5 8.2 12.1 21.4 6.8 21.6

States

Andhra Pradesh 20.3 17.4 11.2 10.7 27.1 6.9 19.9


Assam 17.0 15.8 16.6 10.9 18.4 4.3 16.7

Bihar 27.8 20.4 9.2 12.3 30.5 4.9 26.6

Chhattisgarh 26.1 16.5 14.5 8.3 16.2 3.9 25.5

Goa 14.7 9.8 10.5 1.1 13.1 1.1 13.0

Gujarat 22.4 19.4 13.0 9.9 25.1 4.9 21.9

Haryana 22.8 34.3 6.8 13.0 22.1 6.8 22.8


Jammu & Kashmir 22.1 23.7 21.8 14.1 20.8 5.8 23.6

Jharkhand 29.5 24.9 16.4 10.1 26.3 9.6 28.4

Karnataka 20.3 13.9 6.9 11.0 24.4 13.7 19.2

Kerala 7.1 8.2 2.6 5.5 6.9 4.2 6.5

Madhya Pradesh 26.5 19.7 8.6 11.7 22.9 4.9 25.8

Maharashtra 19.9 13.7 7.2 8.0 21.5 6.0 19.0

Manipur 21.0 33.4 14.8 13.0 28.4 1.8 19.8

Meghalaya 16.3 14.0 3.9 18.0 12.1 8.8 5.8

Mizoram 2.5 21.1 3.5 3.8 21.8 10.2 4.0

Nagaland 14.3 23.2 8.9 14.6 8.1 4.4 9.7

Orissa 25.0 17.4 21.9 8.2 23.2 7.0 24.8

Punjab 11.8 13.9 14.4 11.7 15.6 3.1 11.8

Rajasthan 32.5 30.6 10.6 20.7 29.2 9.3 31.8

Sikkim 16.4 8.0 14.3 11.1 14.5 7.7 15.6

Tamil Nadu 19.0 13.5 8.6 11.3 10.5 7.4 18.0

Tripura 15.5 18.3 20.4 9.6 23.0 8.5 16.1

Uttar Pradesh 28.2 19.9 10.8 15.4 30.1 5.6 26.6

Uttaranchal 24.8 20.1 5.3 17.0 14.8 3.8 23.7

West Bengal 18.0 14.9 14.9 9.4 16.9 7.6 17.4

Union Territories


12.0 5.6 10.2 6.2 11.3 0.0 11.1

Daman & Diu 22.3 14.0 10.9 5.8 28.5 5.9 21.2

Dadra & Nagar Haveli 31.7 12.5 25.8 -13.5 32.3 7.0 31.0

Pondicherry 15.5 11.2 9.4 18.3 -1.0 5.3 14.7

Lakshadweep 0.7 12.0 1.2 100.0 -100 0.0 12.0

Delhi 13.4 13.2 4.6 5.9 14.8 3.5 12.6

Chandigarh 11.0 12.5 6.6 6.6 4.8 2.9 9.6

Source: Computed from Census of India, 2001, Religion Data on CD-ROM. Note: Population figures for India and Manipur exclude those of Mao Maram, Paomata and Purul sub-

divisions of Senapati district of Manipur.

155

It is evident from Table 5.5 that the gender gap in literacy among the

Sikhs, mainly in the only Sikh majority state of Punjab stood at 11.7 which was

smaller than their national average. Similarly, the Buddhists recorded smaller

gender gap in literacy than their average gender gap in literacy in the states

which had sizeable Buddhist population (Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh). The

gender gap in literacy among the Jains was also smaller in the states which had

a relatively high proportion of their population (Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh

and Gujarat). Thus, one of the important findings that had come out from this

table was that there was a negative correlation between gender gap in literacy

and majority status of a religious group in the state. Largely, the gender gap in

literacy among the minority religious groups was smaller than their national

average in the states where they formed the majority or were in high proportion.

Conversely, the Hindus depicted larger gender gap in literacy than their national

average in the states where they formed a minority religious group. Does it instil

a sense of insecurity and lead to a wider gender gap?

Spatial Patterns in Literacy

There were wide variations in the literacy rates of the major religious

groups across the districts of the country. While the Hindu literacy ranged

between 97.3 per cent in Kupwara (Jammu & Kashmir) and 29.01 per cent in

Dantewada (Chhattisgarh), the Muslim literacy ranged between 94.8 per cent in

Mahe (Pondicherry) and 26.0 per cent in Purnia (Bihar). It is pertinent to note that

the literacy rate of the Christians, the Sikhs, the Buddhists and the Jains ranged

between 100 per cent in Bilaspur (Himachal Pradesh), Tawang (Arunachal

Pradesh), Bishnupur (Manipur) and Leh (Jammu & Kashmir) respectively on the

one hand; and 29.4 per cent in Rayagada (Orissa), 15.4 per cent in West

(Sikkim), 17.0 per cent in Pakaur (Jharkhand) and 13.3 per cent in Mamit

(Mizoram) respectively on the other (Tables 5.6 and 5.7).

156

Table 5.6

Top Ten Districts by Literacy among Major Religious Groups in India: 2001

Hindus Muslims Christians Sikhs Buddhists Jains

Kupwara (Jammu & Kashmir)

(97.3)

Mahe (Pondicherry)

(94.8)

Bilaspur (Himachal Pradesh) (100.0)

Tawang (Arunachal Pradesh)

(100.0)

Bishnupur (Manipur) (100.0)

Leh (Jammu & Kashmir) (100.0)

Lakshadweep (Lakshadweep

) (96.4)

Kottayam (Kerala) (93.8)

Kargil (Jammu & Kashmir) (100.0)

Champhai (Mizoram)

(100.0)

Bhadrak (Orissa) (100.0)

Kargil (Jammu & Kashmir) (100.0)

Srinagar (Jammu & Kashmir)

(96.0)

Pathanamthitta (Kerala)

(92.4)

Kupwara (Jammu & Kashmir) (100.0)

Serchhip (Mizoram)

(100.0)

Kendrapara (Orissa) (100.0)

Rajauri (Jammu & Kashmir) (100.0)

Mahe (Pondicherry)

(96.0)

Kozhikode (Kerala) (91.3)

Srinagar (Jammu & Kashmir) (100.0)

Saiha (Mizoram)

(100.0)

Baudh (Orissa) (100.0)

Lahul & Spiti (Himachal Pradesh) (100.0)

Kottayam (Kerala) (95.0)

Kanniyakumari (Tamil Nadu)

(91.1)

Gandhinagar (Gujarat) (100.0)

Goalpara (Assam) (100.0)

Sonapur (Orissa) (100.0)

Una (Himachal Pradesh) (100.0)

Baramula (Jammu & Kashmir)

(94.4)

Bhandara (Maharashtra)

(91.0)

Kozhikode (Kerala) (100.0)

Nayagarh (Orissa) (100.0)

Sabar Kantha (Gujarat) (100.0)

Bilaspur (Himachal Pradesh) (100.0)

Pathanamthitta (Kerala) (93.6)

Kannur (Kerala) (90.8)


) (100.0)

Gajapati (Orissa) (100.0)

Diu (Daman & Diu)

(100.0)

Kinnaur (Himachal Pradesh) (100.0)

Alappuzha (Kerala) (93.4)

Andamans (Andaman &

Nicobar Islands) (90.2)

Sirohi (Madhya Pradesh) (100.0)

Baudh (Orissa) (100.0)


) (100.0)

Champawat (Uttaranchal

) (100.0)

Badgam (Jammu & Kashmir)

(93.0)

Thoothukkudi (Tamil Nadu)

(90.1)

Mahe (Pondicherry)

(100.0)

Sonapur (Orissa) (100.0)

Perambalur (Tamil Nadu)

(100.0)

Pashchim Champaran

(Bihar) (100.0)

Kannur (Kerala) (92.7)

Thrissur (Kerala) (90.1)

Malappuram (Kerala) (100.0)

Diu (Daman &

Diu) (100.0)

Karaikal (Pondicherry)

(100.0)

Saran (Bihar) (100.0)

Source: Computed from Census of India 2001, Religion Data on CD-ROM.

157

Table 5.7

Bottom Ten Districts by Literacy among Major Religious Groups in India: 2001

Hindus Muslims Christians Sikhs Buddhists Jains

Dantewada (Chhattisgarh)

(29.01)

Purnia (Bihar) (26.0)

Rayagada (Orissa) (29.4)

West (Sikkim) (15.4)

Pakaur (Jharkhand)

(17.0)

Mamit (Mizoram)

(13.3)

Malkangiri (Orissa) (30.1)

Shrawasti (Uttar

Pradesh) (26.1)

Tirap (Arunachal Pradesh)

(29.8)

Sheohar (Bihar) (24.4)

Samastipur (Bihar) (22.8)


Nabarangapur (Orissa) (32.9)

Madhepura (Bihar) (26.8)

Shrawasti (Uttar Pradesh)

(31.7)

Kaushambi (Uttar

Pradesh) (38.2)

Khagaria (Bihar) (23.2)

Lakhisarai (Bihar) (14.3)

Pakaur (Jharkhand)

(33.5)

Katihar (Bihar) (26.8)


Banka (Bihar) (38.7)

Mamit (Mizoram)

(26.8)

West Khasi Hills

(Meghalaya) (18.3)

Balrampur (Uttar

Pradesh) (34.4)

Kishanganj (Bihar) (27.0)

East Kameng (Arunachal Pradesh)

(37.7)

Ariyalur (Tamil Nadu) (41.4)

Kurukshetra (Haryana)

(26.8)

Zunheboto (Nagaland)

(20.0)

Koraput (Orissa) (34.6)

Araria (Bihar) (27.6)

Araria (Bihar) (38.0)

Raichur (Karnataka)

(41.8)

Tamenglong (Manipur)

(28.6)

Debagarh (Orissa) (28.6)

Jhabua (Madhya Pradesh)

(34.8)

Pakaur (Jharkhand)

(29.7)

Balrampur (Uttar Pradesh)

(39.2)

Garhwa (Jharkhand)

(42.5)

Balrampur (Uttar

Pradesh) (29.8)

Godda (Jharkhand)

(29.2)



Kishanganj (Bihar) (39.4)

Sheikhpura (Bihar) (43.3)

Baramula (Jammu & Kashmir)

(33.1)

Shrawasti (Uttar

Pradesh) (30.4)

Bahraich (Uttar

Pradesh) (36.3)

Supaul (Bihar) (32.2)

Mon (Nagaland)

(40.6)

Godda (Jharkhand)

(45.1)

Thiruvarur (Tamil Nadu) (33.3)

Garhwa (Jharkhand)

(37.3)

Shrawasti (Uttar

Pradesh) (36.4)

Jaisalmer (Rajasthan)

(32.4)

Sahibganj (Jharkhand)

(41.3)

Bagalkot (Karnataka)

(47.0)

Malkangiri (Orissa) (33.3)


Source: Computed from Census of India 2001, Religion Data on CD-ROM.

158

The discussion on spatial pattern in literacy was mainly based on maps

(5.1 to 5.6) prepared by using district-wise data from the Census 2001. On the

maps literacy rates were depicted through five categories (85 per cent and

above, 70-85 per cent, 55-70 per cent, 40-55 per cent, and below 40 per cent).

However, as the districts in the first two categories and the last two categories

were found in close proximity, the spatial pattern of literacy was discussed under

three categories:

(A) Areas of relatively high literacy (above 70 per cent)

(B) Areas of relatively low literacy (below 55 per cent)

(C) Areas of moderate literacy (55-70 per cent).

(A) Areas of Relatively High Literacy (Above 70 per cent)

Higher literacy rate brings social change, cultural advancement and

economic development (Hussain and Siddiqui, 2010). The areas of relatively high

literacy rate were marked by reduced gender disparity in literacy as a result of

expansion of education, implementation of externally funded promotion

programmes and policies in favour of female education.

The Hindus

The literacy rate among the Hindus was above 70 per cent in 235 districts

out of the 593 districts; and further in 28 districts out of 235 districts the Hindu

literacy rate was above 85 per cent. The areas of relatively high literacy among

the Hindus included: (i) North-western and North-eastern Hilly Region, (ii)

Northern and Central Punjab, (iii) Coastal Plains and Adjoining Interior Areas, (iv)

Vidarbha Region of Maharashtra, (v) Southern Parts of West Bengal, and (vi)

Highly Urban-Industrial Districts (Map 5.1).

(i) North-western and North-eastern Hilly Region: In the north-western hilly

region high literacy rate among the Hindus were found in the states of Jammu &

Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttaranchal. In fact, the Hindus recorded an

exceptionally high literacy rate of above 90 per cent in some of the districts of

Kashmir region; and these districts, viz. Kupwara, Badgam, Baramula and

Srinagar figured among the top ten districts of the country in terms of the Hindu

159

D.N .A.

Delhi

Percentage

85 and Above

70 - 85

55 - 70

40 - 55

Below 40

INDIA

Literacy Among Hindus: 2001

MAP 5 .1

D. N . A. = D ata Not Av ailab le

National Avera ge 6 5.1

0 500

Kms

160

literacy. These districts had small Hindu population and among them a high

proportion was those deployed in the paramilitary forces. In contrast to the

Kashmir region, Himachal Pradesh and Uttaranchal were the Hindu dominated

states marked by the Schooling Revolution that had raised the literacy status in

general and that of women in particular. Early expansion of the educational

institutions, increased state supply of social services, greater socio-economic

aspirations and female independence as a result of male out-migration were the

main reasons that increased literacy in general and female literacy in particular

(Mc Dougall, 2000).

Likewise, the Hindus registered high literacy in a number of districts of the

northeast hills region. The region too supported small proportion of Hindu

population and a large segment of those were deployed in the paramilitary

forces.

(ii) Northern and Central Punjab: High economic status of the Hindus and high

literacy rate of the Hindu females as a result of social reform movements like

Arya Samaj movement, with focus on education of women could be reasons for

high literacy of above 75 per cent among the Hindus in this region.

(iii) Coastal Plains and Adjoining Interior Areas: The literacy among the

Hindus was high in the coastal plains and adjoining interior areas of the west

coast, the Coromandel and the Orissa coast. The coastal areas of India had

historically been experiencing high rate of literacy due to the long and continuous

exposure of the Hindus of this region to outside world. Nonetheless, the factors

that contributed to high literacy in this compact area varied from state to state.

For instance, the population in the Konkan saw education as a means to social

mobility and migration away from their impoverished regions to Greater Bombay

(Saldanha, 1999a). In Malabar region, the Hindu literacy rate was above 90 per

cent. Various agencies contributed to the spread of literacy and development of

school education in this region during the pre-independence and independence

periods. Moreover, the west coastal plains and the adjoining interior area

consisted of a number of major urban industrial regions (Ahmadabad-Vadodara

161

and Mumbai-Pune) as also minor industrial clusters (Sholapur, Kolhapur,

Gandhinagar, Belgaum and Kochi) that had well developed infrastructure for

education.

In the Coromandel plains and adjoining interior area of Tamil Nadu, the

high literacy was chiefly the result of high functional value of literacy as a result of

long history of exposure to the outside world, urban-industrial development, role

of the Christian missionaries and successive state governments in the spread of

education. In coastal areas of Orissa, comparatively better economic conditions

of rural population, high degree of rural-urban interaction (Calcutta-Puri rail-road

link), high percentage of urban population and early exposure to external

influences (Krishan and Shyam, 1978) were the factors responsible for high

literacy rates.

(iv) Vidarbha Region of Maharashtra: The Hindus had a high literacy in

Jalgaon, Buldana, Akola, Amravati, Wardha, Nagpur and Bhandara districts of

the Vidarbha region of Maharashtra. These districts were fairly urbanised;

agriculturally and industrially developed; and were located on the corridor of

development, such as, Calcutta-Bombay rail route (Gosal, 1979).

(v) Southern Parts of West Bengal: This region included the districts of

Kolkata, Haora, Nadia, North and South Twenty-Four Parganas, Hugli and

Barddhaman of West Bengal. Kolkata, being the administrative seat of British

India and present state capital, had maintained the tradition of literacy and

education. Rapid urban-industrial development in the region had not only created

job opportunities for males and females but also had led to the expansion of

educational facilities in general (Sagar, 1990).

(vi) Highly Urban-Industrial Districts: These districts included Delhi and the

adjoining area; a cluster consisting of Jaipur, Sikar and Jhunjhunun; Bhopal-

Jabalpur belt and the highly urbanised districts of Hyderabad, Bangalore, Yanam,

Pondicherry, Kanpur, Lucknow, Bhopal, Indore and Jabalpur. Besides the above

mentioned districts the literacy rate among the Hindus was also high in Kota,

162

Raigarh, Jharsuguda, Datia, Bhind, Etawah, Shajapur, West Godavari and

Darjeeling. Many of these districts being the seat of governance had a long

association with the spread of education. The functional value of literacy was

high in these districts owing to high degree of urbanisation, diversified agriculture

and industrial economy.

The Muslims

The Muslims recorded a relatively high literacy (70 per cent and above) in

247 districts of the country. In 53 districts of these high literacy districts, the

Muslims displayed literacy rates of 85 per cent and above. The areas of high

literacy among the Muslims consisted of: (i) Coastal Plains and Adjoining Interior

Parts, (ii) Central Region, (iii) Pockets Located in the North-eastern Region, and

(iv) Kumaun Himalayas (Map 5.2).

(i) Coastal Plains and Adjoining Interior Parts: The Muslims of the Gujarat

and Konkan coastal plains as well as in the adjoining interior parts were mostly

tradesmen and had greater access to educational facilities. The adjoining interior

parts formed industrial sub centres and were the first to promote literacy

(Omvedt, 1994). Moreover, the Konkani Muslims and Momins (a Muslim

subclass) dominating the region, were economically well off, and thus, enjoyed

high literacy rates (Momin, 2004).

It is pertinent to note that the Muslim literacy rate in Kottayam,

Pattanamthitta, Kozhikode, Kannur and Thrissur districts of Malabar, and interior

parts of Kerala was above 90 per cent. High economic status, social reform

movements, such as Izhavas movement that led to removal of disparity in

educational opportunities and large number of Muslim schools partly accounted

for high literacy among the Muslims of this region (Rao, 1979).

Similarly, the literacy among the Muslims was relatively high in the east

coastal plains (Coromandel region, northern Andhra coastal plains and Orissa

coastal plains) and in the adjoining interior areas (Tamil Nadu upland, north-

central Andhra Pradesh and eastern Orissa). The Muslims of this region were

consistently exposed to external influences. In fact, the Muslims in Tamil Nadu

163

Literacy Among Muslims: 2001

INDIA

D.N .A.

Delhi

Percentage

85 and Above

70 - 85

55 - 70

40 - 55

Below 40


MAP 5 .2


0 500

Kms

164

were much more prosperous through their association with trade and many other

diverse activities. In district Thoothukkudi, the Muslim literacy rate was above 90

per cent. Likewise, the Muslim literacy rate was high in the coastal districts of

East and West Godavari and Visakhapatnam of Andhra Pradesh. The East and

the West Godavari districts are the regions of commercial agriculture, while

Visakhapatnam is an important urban- industrial centre.

(ii) Central Region: The Muslims recorded high literacy in large parts of Madhya

Pradesh and Chhattisgarh, adjoining areas of Orissa and some parts of

Rajasthan, Maharashtra and Gujarat states. The region had significant number of

Dawoodi Bohras, a sub sect of Muslims from Gujarat, who were mostly

businessmen by profession and were socially and economically well placed

(http://en.wikipedia.org /wiki/malwa-madhya-pradesh).

(iii) Pockets Located in the North-eastern Region: High literacy among the

Muslims was also recorded in most of the districts of Mizoram and Nagaland, and

in some of the districts of Arunachal Pradesh and in the upper Brahmaputra

valley of Assam. The Muslims of these areas were mainly engaged in tertiary

activities that partly explained their high literacy. It goes to the credit of Christian

missionaries, who propagated education even among the poorest in the

countryside of this tribal belt. Besides, the state governments had also

contributed a lot by providing funds liberally for the propagation of education

(Tilak, 1986).

(iv) Kumaun Himalayas: The literacy rates of Muslims ranged between 73.9 per

cent in Chamoli district (Uttaranchal) and 79.0 per cent in Pithoragarh district

(Uttaranchal). Both male and female literacy was high. It was well above 75 per

cent among males. In the case of females, it ranged between 64 per cent in

Chamoli district and 77.2 per cent in Pithoragarh district. Even in the rural areas

the literacy rate of the Muslim females was above 50 per cent. An early

expansion of education, diffusion of education in the rural areas, high state

165

expenditure on education and greater functional value of literacy were some of

the reasons that explained the high literacy among the Muslims of the region.

The Christians

The literacy rate among the Christians was above 70 per cent in 412

districts out of the 593 districts of the country. In fact, in 233 districts the Christian

literacy rate was 85 and above per cent. The areas in which the literacy among

the Christians was high included: (i) North-western Hilly Region, (ii) Mizoram and

Large Parts of Nagaland and Manipur States, (iii) Peninsular Region, (iv)

Western and Central Region, (v) Bihar Plains and Adjoining Parts of Uttar

Pradesh, (vi) Southern Parts of West Bengal and Adjoining Interior Areas and

Coastal Orissa, and (vii) Scattered Districts (Map 5.3).

(i) North-western Hilly Region: The base of the Christian population in the

three north-western hill states was small (Jammu & Kashmir-20299, Himachal

Pradesh-7687 and Uttaranchal-27116) with a high proportion of the Christians

residing in urban areas (Jammu & Kashmir-66.1, Himachal Pradesh-43.2 and

Uttaranchal-58.0). Hence, their literacy rate was exceptionally high (above 97 per

cent) in Kargil, Kupwara and Srinagar districts. A large segment of the Christians

were literate in-migrants chiefly engaged in tertiary activities. In Uttaranchal and

Himachal Pradesh, the tradition of army service and resultant presence of ex-

servicemen in the region had contributed to the spread of education (Sagar,

1990).

(ii) Mizoram and Large Parts of Nagaland and Manipur States: These states

had a sizeable Christian population. With India’s independence, both the central

and state governments introduced considerable schemes to provide more

opportunities for primary education. Apart from this, a number of Christian

missionaries, Non-Government organisations and some private organisations

continued to render their services for the cause of education in the region

(Shimray and Usha Devi, 2009). For instance, the high literacy rate in the states

of Mizoram was attributed to the influence of the Church, as Mizos were

166

INDIA

Literacy Among Christians: 2001

D.N .A.

Delhi

Percentage

85 and Above

70 - 85

55 - 70

40 - 55

Below 40


MAP 5 .3


0 500

Kms

167

encouraged to read the Bible from a young age (Chugh, 2009). The state was a

classical example of the spread of literacy due to the missionary zeal of the

Christian missions and the Christians accounted for 87 per cent of the total

population.

(iii) Peninsular Region: An early spread of education by the Christian

missionaries in this part of the country accounted for high literacy rate among the

Christians. Moreover, the Christians of South India were economically better than

their northern counterparts. For instance, the Nadars (a Christian caste) of Tamil

Nadu were known for their industry and zeal for education (Mandelbaum, 1972).

(iv) Western and Central Region: The Christians recorded high literacy in most

parts of Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan. High degree of urban-

industrial development along with a well developed schooling infrastructure, were

some of the reasons for high literacy among the Christians of Gujarat. However,

the literacy rate of above 85 per cent in most of the districts of the

demographically sick states of Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan could be

explained in terms of the fact that more than half of the Christian population

resided in urban areas and two-third of the total Christian population was

engaged in tertiary activities. Spread of education by Christian missionaries and

urban concentration of the Christian population in many of the districts of this

region accounted for high literacy rates among the Christians.

(v) Bihar Plains and Adjoining Parts of Uttar Pradesh: The region supported

very small base of the Christian population. Among them the literacy rates were

above 90 per cent in the districts of Begusarai, Munger, Patna, Bhojpur and

Gaya. This high literacy rate seemed to be the outcome of in-migration of the

literate Christians.

(vi) Southern Parts of West Bengal and Adjoining Interior Areas and

Coastal Orissa: Relatively high Christian literacy could be seen in context to an

early start of modern education, the Christian missionary activities, a well

168

developed system of rail-road routes (Calcutta-Delhi, Calcutta-Puri, Calcutta-

Bombay, etc.), high degree of urban-industrial development and rich agriculture

of deltaic areas of Hooghly, Damodar, Subernarekha and Mahanadi (Sagar,

1990).

(vii) Scattered Districts: High literacy rates among the Christians were also

observed in certain scattered districts all over the country particularly located in

Punjab plains (Jalandhar, Ludhiana, Patiala and Bathinda), western and central

Uttar Pradesh plains (Bareilly, Kanpur Nagar, Lucknow and Faizabad) and north-

eastern region (Tawang, Dibang Valley, West Tripura, East Khasi Hills,

Goalpara, Kamrup and North Cachar Hills districts). Diversified economy, long

history of urbanisation, urban infrastructure, an early start of education,

contributions of the Christian missionaries in the spread of education and strong

rural-urban linkage were some of the factors that led to high literacy rate among

the Christians.

The Sikhs

The Sikhs displayed literacy rate of 70 per cent and above in 465 districts

out of the 593 districts of the country. The areas that recorded relatively high

literacy among the Sikhs included: (i) North-western and North-eastern Hilly

Region, (ii) Central and Eastern Region, (iii) Doaba Region of Punjab, (iv)

Ahmadabad-Vadodara and Mumbai-Pune Industrial Belts, (v) Tamil Nadu and

Adjoining Area of Andhra Pradesh, and (vi) Industrial Clusters (Map 5.4).

(i) North-western and North-eastern Hilly Region: The literacy rate of the

Sikhs was higher than 85 per cent in most of the districts of the north-western

and the north-eastern hill states. In Jammu & Kashmir, high literacy among the

Sikhs was largely the result of the involvement of about three-fourths of the Sikh

population in tertiary activities which enhanced the need for education. However,

in Uttaranchal and Himachal Pradesh the reason lied in a well developed

education infrastructure and diversification of education to the rural areas. A high

169

Literacy Among Sikhs: 2001

INDIA

D.N .A.

Delhi

Percentage

85 and Above

70 - 85

55 - 70

40 - 55

Below 40

D. N . A. = D ata Not Av a ilab le

MAP 5 .4


0 500

Kms

170

proportion of the Sikh population (71 per cent in Himachal Pradesh and 74.6 per

cent in Uttaranchal) resided in the rural areas of these states.

In the north-eastern hilly region except the state of Assam, the number of

Sikhs was very small and varied from a few hundreds to three thousand

(Mizoram-326, Nagaland-1152, Sikkim-1176, Tripura-1182, Manipur-1653,

Arunachal Pradesh-1865 and Meghalaya-3110) and a large number were

migrants either deployed in the paramilitary forces or in tertiary sector. Moreover,

the state government and the Christian missionaries had significantly contributed

in the spread of education and creation of educational infrastructure.

(ii) Central and Eastern Region: A relatively high literacy was registered among

the Sikhs in the eastern part of the central tribal belt. The Sikhs recorded

universal literacy (100 per cent) in Nayagarh, Gajapati, Baudh and Sonapur

districts of Orissa. In-migration of a small stream of literate Sikhs for economic

opportunities well explained this scenario.

(iii) Doaba Region of Punjab: The Sikhs recorded relatively high literacy rate in

the districts of Hoshiarpur (84 per cent), Jalandhar (80.2 per cent) and

Nawanshahr (79.7 per cent). High incidence of emigration of Sikhs to foreign

lands helped in improving literacy rates by enhancing the value of education and

by improving the schooling infrastructure through the remittances.

(iv) Ahmadabad-Vadodara and Mumbai-Pune Industrial Belts: These were

traditional areas of high literacy. The region encompassed the major industrial

clusters (Ahmadabad-Vadodara and Mumbai-Pune) as also a number of

industrial centres such as Sholapur, Kolhapur and Belgaum. Urban-industrial

development, well developed educational infrastructure, high functional value of

literacy and employment opportunities that had attracted the literate Sikh

migrants were some of the reasons responsible for high literacy rates among the

Sikhs of this region. More than three-fourths of the Sikhs lived in urban areas and

were engaged into tertiary activities.

171

(v) Tamil Nadu and Adjoining Area of Andhra Pradesh: The Sikhs have high

literacy in all the coastal as well as in most of the interior districts of Tamil Nadu.

It is a traditional area of high literacy resulting from eternal influence and spread

of education by the pre-independence rulers and post-independence state

government. Likewise, the Sikhs recorded high literacy in Chittoor, Cuddapah

and Nellore districts of the otherwise less developed Rayalseema region of

Andhra Pradesh. Most of the Sikhs lived in urban areas and were engaged in

tertiary activities.

(vi) Industrial Clusters: The high literacy rate among the Sikhs was also found

in the industrial clusters of the country such as in Ambala-Delhi-Agra-Gwalior

belt, Kolkata-Asansol, Chhotanagpur, Bangalore-Coimbatore-Madurai as also in

a number of scattered industrial districts. Employment opportunities had attracted

many literate Sikhs to these areas. These regions had well developed

educational infrastructure and high functional value of literacy.

The Buddhists

The literacy rate of the Buddhists was 70 per cent and above in 332

districts out of the 593 districts of the country. The areas of relatively high literacy

among the Buddhists included: (i) North-western Hilly Region, (ii) Rajasthan and

Gujarat, (iii) Tribal Belt of Central India and Adjoining Vidarbha Region of

Maharashtra, (iv) Coastal Plains and Adjoining Interior Districts, and (v)

Scattered Districts of the Country (Map 5.5).

(i) North-western Hilly Region: The literacy rate among the Buddhists was high

in most of the districts of Himachal Pradesh, Uttaranchal and also in some of the

districts of Jammu & Kashmir states. These regions were well endowed with

educational facilities.

(ii) Rajasthan and Gujarat: The literacy among the Buddhists was high in most

of the districts of Rajasthan and Gujarat states; and 83.9 per cent of the

Buddhists in the state of Gujarat lived in urban areas, the corresponding figure in

172

Literacy Among Buddhists: 2001

INDIA

D.N .A.

Delhi

Percentage

85 and Above

70 - 85

55 - 70

40 - 55

Below 40


MAP 5 .5


0 500

Kms

173

Rajasthan was low, that is, about 33 per cent. But in both the states, high

proportion of the Buddhist population was engaged in tertiary activities that might

have enhanced the percentage of literate persons in these areas.

(iii) Tribal Belt of Central India and Adjoining Vidarbha Region of

Maharashtra: It was a region of high literacy irrespective of the religious

affiliations. Being part of the central tribal belt the region witnessed spread of

education by the Christian missionaries. The Buddhists had a literacy rate of

more than 75 per cent in Amravati, Yavatmal, Wardha, Nagpur, Chandrapur,

Bhandara and Gondiya districts of Vidarbha region of Maharashtra. These

districts had a greater degree of colonial and church influence with their

extension of basic schooling systems (Saldanha, 1999b). Moreover, the region

witnessed the conversion of Mahars (low caste group) under the leadership of

Ambedkar into Buddhism. As such the social reforms too were partly responsible

for high literacy among the Buddhists in this region.

(iv) Coastal Plains and Adjoining Interior Districts: Barring slight variations,

all major religious groups recorded high literacy in this region. Early exposure to

education, well developed educational infrastructure, high functional value of

literacy, presence of industrial clusters were some of the reasons for high literacy

among the Buddhists in these areas.

(v) Scattered Districts of the Country: These included three types of areas: (a)

district headquarters of the northeast states, (b) urban centres (such as Kanpur,

Rae Bareli, Lucknow, Varanasi, Aurangabad and Nalanda), and (c) the National

capital region and districts adjoining Gwalior and Agra. The high literacy was

largely due to well developed educational infrastructure and high functional value

of literacy in these areas.

The Jains

The Jains had a literacy rate of 70 per cent and above in 528 districts out

of 593 districts of the country as per the Census 2001. Astonishingly, out of 528

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districts in 452 districts the literacy rate of the Jains was 85 per cent and above.

There was no distinct region of high Jain literacy. In fact, the high literacy districts

were well distributed throughout the length and breadth of the country (Map 5.6).

One of the reasons for high literacy among the Jains in these districts was their

profession, which was chiefly trade and commerce. Consequently, the functional

value of literacy was great among the Jains as they were engaged in business.

Moreover, a high proportion of Jains lived in urban areas of these districts and

had better access to the educational facilities.

(B) Areas of Relatively Low Literacy (Below 55 per cent)

These were the areas in which either the population was unaware of the

benefits of education, especially for the girls or the areas reeled under poverty

and as such engagement of all family members in some kind of productive

activity forced them to push aside education of children. Areas where less than

55 per cent of the population (aged 7 and above) belonging to the major religious

groups was literate represented below their national average condition in literacy.

Hence, these areas lagged behind rest of the country on socio-economic front

and had to go a long way to achieve universal literacy.

The Hindus

The literacy rate among the Hindus was below 55 per cent in 117 districts

of the country and these were mostly concentrated in: (i) Gangetic Plains, (ii)

Mewar Region of Rajasthan, (iii) Baghelkhand and Adjoining Northern Parts of

Chhattisgarh and Western Part of Jharkhand, and (iv) Dandakaranya and

Telengana Plateau Region (Map 5.1).

(i) Gangetic Plains: These plains were marked by subsistence nature of

agriculture, poor schooling facilities, high poverty and low level of economic

development. Furthermore, the prevalent culture was against female education.

For instance, the Mithila culture restricted female mobility and detested female

literacy. Moreover, a predominantly agricultural character of the rural economy

based on backward base and technology made formal education of little practical

175

Literacy Among Jains: 2001

INDIA

D.N .A.

Delhi

Percentage

85 and Above

70 - 85

55 - 70

40 - 55

Below 40

D. N . A. = D ata Not Av a ilab le

MAP 5 .6


0 500

Kms

176

value (Das, 2005). As such, nearly half of the Hindu population aged 7 years and

above was illiterate.

(ii) Mewar Region of Rajasthan: Majority of the Hindus were cultivators and

lived in rural areas. Poor educational infrastructure in the rural areas had given

way to low literacy level among the Hindus. Furthermore, subsistence nature of

agricultural economy, strong prejudices against female education and their

mobility and the high ratio of the socially and economically backward sections

and non-Christian tribes (Sagar, 1990) were equally responsible for low literacy

among the Hindus.

(iii) Baghelkhand and Adjoining Northern Parts of Chhattisgarh and

Western Part of Jharkhand: Very large non-Christian tribal population, poor

schooling infrastructure, subsistence agriculture, high poverty, restriction on

female education and low functional value of education were some of the factors

responsible for low literacy among the Hindus. The female literacy rates were

below 40 per cent and the situation was still worse in rural areas. The literacy

rate among the Hindu females in the rural areas of the districts of Garhwa (20.8

per cent), Sonbhadra (23.8 per cent), Chatra (25.5 per cent) and Palamu (25.7

per cent) was dismal.

(iv) Dandakaranya and Telengana Plateau Region: Illiteracy was pronounced

among the Hindus of this region. It comprised south western Orissa, southern

Chhattisgarh, western Andhra Pradesh and north-eastern Karnataka. High

poverty and physical isolation that led to insufficient number of schools and low

road connectivity were some of the factors that caused low literacy among the

Hindus. Furthermore, western Andhra Pradesh and north-eastern Karnataka

were part of the erstwhile princely state of Hyderabad whose rulers did little for

the spread of education.

The Muslims

The Muslims recorded a relatively low literacy rate of below 55 per cent in

169 districts of the country. In 41 of these districts, less than 40 per cent of the

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Muslim population aged 7 and above was literate. The literacy rate among the

Muslims was relatively low in: (i) Jammu & Kashmir Region, (ii) Northern Plains

and Mewat Region, and (iii) Western Rajasthan and Kachchh Region (Map 5.2).

(i) Jammu & Kashmir Region: Barring the districts of Srinagar, Jammu, Kargil

and Leh, the Muslims displayed low literacy rates that ranged between 36.4 per

cent in Udhampur district and 48.8 per cent in Pulwama district. The region

presented dismal picture in terms of female literacy. The literacy rates of Muslim

females were abysmally low in Udhampur (22.5 per cent), Doda (26.5 per cent)

and Kupwara (28.6 per cent) districts. The low female literacy rates in Jammu &

Kashmir region were mainly due to continued terrorism activities, which excluded

women from educational achievement (Dutta, 2006). Furthermore, the traditional

prejudice of the Muslims against female education and the highly dispersed

nature of population distribution in this mountainous state too were the reasons

for low level of literacy (Krishan and Shyam, 1978). The very low literacy was a

legacy of the past and the cumulative effect of several factors, i.e., the dearth of

educational institutions, the economic backwardness of the people to finance the

cost of educating their children and, above all, the preaching of religious leaders

(GOI, 2008).

(ii) Northern Plains and Mewat Region: The Muslims recorded literacy rates of

below 55 per cent in the Indo-Gangetic plains and the plains of Brahmaputra.

The Muslim population of this region was mostly backward, agrarian and

extremely poor. In Mewat region (north-east Rajasthan), most of the Muslims

were Meo Muslims and they were quite backward (The Hindu, 2005). Moreover,

the region lacked schooling infrastructure. The schools were located at such a

distance that parents chose not to send their daughters to school (Alam and

Raju, 2007). Furthermore, the plains of Uttar Pradesh were the citadel of Muslim

orthodoxy.

(iii) Western Rajasthan and Kachchh Region: The Muslim literacy rates

ranged between 32.4 per cent in the district of Jaisalmer and 50.8 per cent in

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Hanumangarh. The literacy rates of Muslim males were low (less than 65 per

cent) and among the Muslim females it was much lower than males. In the

districts of Jaisalmer, Barmer, Bikaner and Jalor the female literacy rates among

the Muslims were less than 30 per cent in 2001. The feudal structure and social

taboos against female education were the main reasons for low female literacy.

The region lacked in schooling infrastructure and most of the Muslims were

nomadic pastoralists.

The Christians

The Christians had a low literacy rate of below 55 per cent in only 51

districts of the country and which were mainly located in: (i) South-eastern

Orissa, and (ii) Scattered Districts of the Country (Map 5.3).

(i) South-eastern Orissa: The Christians had low literacy rate in Koraput,

Rayagada, Kandhamal, Ganjam and Gajapati districts of Orissa. The literacy rate

among the Christians ranged between 29.4 per cent in Rayagada and 54.2 per

cent in Koraput districts. While the male literacy rates in these districts varied

from 40.6 per cent in Rayagada to 66.6 per cent in Koraput but the female

literacy rate was very low. These varied from 19.1 per cent in Rayagada to 21.5

per cent in Gajapati. It is a tribal dominated non-industrial region marked by very

low level of economic development.

(ii) Scattered Districts of the Country: These districts were mostly: (a) districts

of Punjab along international border with Pakistan, (b) districts lying in Terai

region, and (c) districts of north-eastern states with large tribal population. The

Christian population of the former two categories shared the socio-economic

level of the Dalits. Contrastingly, the Christian population of the latter category

shared the tribal background. Backwardness especially in the rural areas and

poverty among the Christians of these districts were some of the reasons

responsible for their low literacy.

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The Sikhs

Interestingly, the Sikhs recorded a literacy rate of below 55 per cent only in

21 districts (barring Mahe district which did not hold any Sikh population) out of

the 593 districts of India and most of these districts support a small population of

Sikhs. Sikhism encourages every individual to be literate and many Gurduwaras

offer formal educational facilities through schools and colleges (Singh, 2004a).

These districts did not form a contiguous belt but were found scattered

throughout the length and breadth of the country (Map 5.4). The literacy rates

among the Sikhs in these districts ranged between 15.4 per cent in West Sikkim

district of Sikkim and 54.6 per cent in Nawada district of Bihar. This category

included mostly the backward districts of the northern plains and the districts of

peninsular region marked by expansion of agriculture such as Raichur, Bagalkot,

Koppal, Mahbubnagar and Dharmapuri.

The Buddhists

The Buddhists had a literacy rate of less than 55 per cent in 96 districts of

the country. The areas marked by low literacy rate among the Buddhists

included: (i) Kashmir Himalayas, (ii) Uttar Pradesh and Northern Bihar, (iii)

Arunachal Pradesh, (iv) Erstwhile State of Hyderabad, and (v) Scattered Districts

of the Country (Map 5.5).

(i) Kashmir Himalayas: More than half of the Buddhist population aged 7 years

and above were illiterate in the districts of Kupwara, Doda, Baramula, Kargil and

Punch. Low female literacy as well as rural concentration of the Buddhist

population in this region partly explained their low literacy rate.

(ii) Uttar Pradesh and Northern Bihar: It was a traditional area of low literacy.

The Buddhist population chiefly comprised of the Neo-Buddhists who shared the

economic backwardness of the Dalits.

(iii) Arunachal Pradesh: Being an area of traditional Buddhism, the state

supported sizeable Buddhist population. Majority of the Buddhists were illiterate

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so much so that in the district of Tawang (noted for the world famous Buddhist

monasteries) only one-third of the Buddhists were literate. Low literacy could

partly be accounted for by the fact that majority of the Buddhists (92.5 per cent)

resided in rural areas and about three-fourths were cultivators. Prolonged

physical inaccessibility and the long spell of social isolation also resulted into low

rates of literacy (Krishan, 1984).

(iv) Erstwhile State of Hyderabad: More than half of the Buddhist population

was illiterate in Adilabad and Nizamabad districts of Andhra Pradesh as well as

in Medak, Gulbarga, Raichur, Bagalkot and Bellary districts of Karnataka. These

districts were part of the erstwhile state of Hyderabad and not much was done in

the field of education as such the region lacked educational facilities.

(v) Scattered Districts of the Country: These included two types of areas: (a)

tribal districts of north-eastern states and central region, and (b) districts of Tamil

Nadu with sizeable scheduled caste population. The low literacy was largely the

result of backwardness of the economy.

The Jains

The Jains had a literacy rate of less than 55 per cent only in 27 districts

out of the 593 districts of India (barring 8 districts that had no Jain population).

Most of these districts with the exception of some districts (Baramula, Badgam,

Punch and Kupwara) which formed a distinct belt were found scattered in the

Gangetic plains and the north-eastern region (Map 5.6). All these districts

supported a very low Jain population. Poor infrastructure for education was partly

responsible for low literacy among the Jains of these districts.

(C) Areas of Moderate Literacy (55-70 per cent)

These areas represented diverse conditions in terms of socio-economic

and cultural context and were the transitional areas between areas of high and

low literacy rates.

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The Hindus

The literacy rate of the Hindus ranged between 55 and 70 per cent in 241

districts of the country which were part of: (i) Western Rajasthan and Adjoining

Area, (ii) Ganga-Yamuna Doab Region, (iii) Madhya Pradesh and Adjoining Area

of Eastern Uttar Pradesh, (iv) Kachchh and Kathiawar, (v) Northern Orissa and

Adjoining Area of Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh, (vi) Interior Peninsular Plateau

and Coastal Andhra Pradesh, and (vii) Scattered Districts of the Country (Map

5.1).

(i) Western Rajasthan and Adjoining Area: The Hindus displayed moderate

literacy in a large compact area that consisted of western Rajasthan, western

and northern parts of Haryana and large parts of Malwa plain of Punjab. The

Hindu literacy in this area ranged between 56.4 per cent in Jaisalmer and 69.9

per cent in Mahendragarh districts. The gender gap in literacy among the Hindus

was very wide. In Jaisalmer, the gender gap was 35.6 per cent. The adjoining

region was an area of commercial agriculture marked with feudalism. However,

the Hindus were mostly engaged in tertiary activities and had an urban base

more so in the Malwa region of Punjab. But the low level of economic

development, poor infrastructure, traditional prejudices against female education

and their outside employment were some of the reasons for moderate literacy

among the Hindus in this region.

(ii) Ganga-Yamuna Doab Region: Although the Ganga-Yamuna Doab region is

a prosperous region of Uttar Pradesh with relatively better educational

infrastructure, a high degree of rural-urban interaction as well as affinity to the

national capital and a number of existing and upcoming urban centres yet the

literacy rates among the Hindus in this region were moderate. The moderate

literacy rate could be the result of low female literacy and influx of illiterate

migrants.

(iii) Madhya Pradesh and Adjoining Area of Eastern Uttar Pradesh: The

moderate literacy rate of the Hindus in Madhya Pradesh was largely the outcome

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of an early start of education, positive role played by the princely states and

successive state governments, dense road network and commercial agriculture.

Contrastingly, eastern Uttar Pradesh presented a classic case of a backward

economic region with low income level, predominance of the agricultural sector,

extremely low level of urbanisation and inadequately developed infrastructure

(Singh, 2004b). The resultant male selective out-migration to relatively more

progressive states had enhanced the level of education and the money sent back

homes had facilitated education.

(iv) Kachchh and Kathiawar: Half of the Hindu population in Gujarat was in

primary occupation with two-thirds concentrated in rural areas. The factors that

might have arrested the progress of literacy in this area included general

backwardness of rural areas, limited educational facilities, especially for females

and in rural areas (Sagar, 1990).

(v) Northern Orissa and Adjoining Area of Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh: It

was an inaccessible area with large tribal population and marked by abject

poverty, lack of educational infrastructure in rural areas, primitive cultural values

that did not endorse modern education and long history of administrative neglect.

The literacy would have been much lower but for the region being a mineral

based industrial area that attracted literate migrants and spread of education by

Christian missionaries.

(vi) Interior Peninsular Plateau and Coastal Andhra Pradesh: Barring coastal

districts of Andhra Pradesh, the region was a drought prone area marked by

backward economy and acute poverty in rural areas. However, moderate literacy

among the Hindus could be seen in the light of recent developmental activities,

presence of a number of industrial clusters (Belgaum, Mysore, Bangalore,

Salem, Madurai, etc.) and the literacy schemes launched by the government for

drought prone areas.

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In coastal districts of Andhra Pradesh, the high per capita income as a

result of commercialisation of agriculture explained moderate literacy rates

among the Hindus. .

(vii) Scattered Districts of the Country: Two-thirds of the Hindu population was

literate in Tehri Garhwal and Rudraprayag districts of Uttaranchal. In spite of

harsh terrain, poor infrastructure and high poverty levels, moderate literacy rate

of Hindus could be seen in context to male selective out-migration in search of

employment, which had enhanced the level of education in these regions.

The Muslims

The literacy rate of the Muslims ranged between 55 and 70 per cent in 177

districts of the country found in: (i) Ladakh region, Himachal Himalayas and

Adjoining Garhwal Region, (ii) Eastern Rajasthan, North-central Madhya

Pradesh, Southern and Eastern Parts of Uttar Pradesh and Central Bihar, (iii)

Southern Parts of West Bengal, (iv) Tripura and Adjoining Cachar Region, (v)

Erstwhile State of Hyderabad, and (vi) Scattered Districts of the Country (Map

5.2).

(i) Ladakh Region, Himachal Himalayas and Adjoining Garhwal Region:

More than two-thirds of the Muslim population was literate in Leh district. The

Muslim literacy rates in the urban and rural areas were 79.6 per cent and 64.1

per cent respectively. The gender gap in literacy (29.1 per cent) among the

Muslims was wider than their national average of 17.5 per cent in this region. The

region is part of the Muslim majority state of Jammu & Kashmir but is dominated

by the Buddhist population.

Although, in Himachal Pradesh and Uttaranchal, the State had been

committed towards education for all, yet the moderate literacy among the

Muslims could be explained in the light of the fact that a large segment of the

Muslim population consisted of the Van Gujjars (tribal) for whom literacy held no

functional value.

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(ii) Eastern Rajasthan, North-central Madhya Pradesh, Southern and

Eastern Parts of Uttar Pradesh and Central Bihar: This compact area formed

a transition zone between the low literacy region on the one hand and high

literacy region on the other. Moderate literacy could be seen in the light of the

fact that the region housed a number of industrial centres such as Jaipur,

Gwalior, Patna and Gorakhpur which spearheaded the diffusion of literacy. But

the feudal structure and resultant social taboos hindered female literacy. Thus,

while the male literacy rates of Muslims were above 65 per cent (barring Kanpur

Dehat, Sikar and Etawah districts), the literacy rates of the Muslim females

ranged between 35.9 per cent in Sawai Madhopur and 58.6 per cent in Datia

districts.

(iii) Southern Parts of West Bengal: The region was marked by the Muslim

concentrated districts. Owing to an early start of education, urban-industrial base,

a well developed rail-road network and rich agricultural tract it is one of the high

literacy regions of the country. Unfortunately, the literacy among the Muslim

population was relatively lower than the general population and ranged between

59.8 per cent in South Twenty Four Parganas and 68.8 per cent in Barddhaman

district. The literacy rate among the Muslims would have been still higher but for

Government lacunae in addressing the educational needs of the Muslims,

deficiencies in infrastructural facilities in Muslim-concentrated districts (Husain

and Chatterjee, 2009) as also high poverty and deprivation among the Muslims

of the region.

(iv) Tripura and Adjoining Cachar Region: The Muslims in the Cachar region

(consisting of the southern districts of Assam) and the adjoining districts of

Manipur and Tripura had moderate rate of literacy. Although, majority of the

Muslims were living in rural area but they were engaged into tertiary activities.

(v) Erstwhile State of Hyderabad: Being part of the princely Muslim state of

Hyderabad, the region had experienced low female and overall literacy. These

were mostly the districts of Andhra Pradesh and eastern part of Karnataka. Lack

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of impetus given to education by the Nizams of Hyderabad and also by the state

government had made this region as an area of low to moderate literacy rates.

(vi) Scattered Districts of the Country: Most of these included four types of

areas: (a) state capitals (Srinagar and Jammu) of Muslim majority state, (b) seats

of princely states (Kapurthala, Patiala, Faridkot and Junagadh), (c) plantation

areas (Jalpaiguri and Koch Bihar), and (d) backward districts (Kandhamal,

Rayagada and Malkangiri). Thus, while the moderate literacy in the first three

categories was the result of better educational infrastructure that in the last

category was largely due to in-migration of literate male Muslim population.

The Christians

The Christians had moderate literacy rate of 55 to 75 per cent in 130

districts concentrated in: (i) Northern Orissa and Adjoining Parts of Chhattisgarh

and Jharkhand, (ii) Avadh Plains, and (iii) Scattered Districts of the Country (Map

5.3).

(i) Northern Orissa and Adjoining Parts of Chhattisgarh and Jharkhand: The

region was marked by large tribal population, extreme poverty and low level of

economic development. However, moderate literacy among the Christians of this

area could be seen in the light of the role played by the Christian missionaries in

the spread of education.

(ii) Avadh Plains: More than 90 per cent of the Christians of this region shared

the background of either scheduled castes or scheduled tribes. As such, they

shared most of the disabilities of their counterparts in other religion and were

backward like them in literacy (Vempeny, 2003). Although the region was known

for illiteracy, the Christians of this region had moderate rate of literacy. Nearly

half of the Christian population lives in urban areas with two-thirds engaged in

tertiary activities.

(iii) Scattered Districts of the Country: A large number of these districts

especially those found in central region of the country were backward. The

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Christian literacy rates could have been much lower but for the spread of

education by the Christian missionaries literacy rates became higher in these

areas.

The Sikhs

The Sikhs had moderate literacy rate ranging between 55 and 70 per cent

in 106 districts in India located in: (i) Western Rajasthan and Malwa Plains of

Punjab, (ii) Large Parts of Uttar Pradesh and Northern Madhya Pradesh, (iii)

Erstwhile State of Hyderabad, and (iv) Scattered Districts of the Country (Map

5.4).

(i) Western Rajasthan and Malwa Plains of Punjab: The Sikhs had a moderate

literacy rate in Ganganagar, Bikaner, Hanumangarh and Jaisalmer districts of the

western Rajasthan and also in the Malwa plains of Punjab. The Sikhs were

mainly cultivators and agriculture labourers residing in the rural areas of this

region. Larger landholdings in the Malwa region with agriculture being the

primary occupation lessened the need for education. Moreover, the Sikhs of

these two regions tended to be more patriarchal and feudal resulting in neglect of

female education.

(ii) Large Parts of Uttar Pradesh and Northern Madhya Pradesh: The Sikhs

displayed moderate literacy rate in most of the districts of Uttar Pradesh and in

the northern districts of Madhya Pradesh. The Sikhs of this region were

economically better placed and had an access to educational facilities.

(iii) Erstwhile State of Hyderabad: The Sikhs like other religious groups

displayed moderate literacy rates in the western districts of Andhra Pradesh and

the adjoining parts of the states of Maharashtra and Karnataka. The region was

part of the former state of Hyderabad and suffered neglect at the hands of

Nizams and successive state governments. The literacy rates of the Sikhs varied

from 55.8 per cent in Nalgonda to 69.9 per cent in Osmanabad.

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(iv) Scattered Districts of the Country: These mainly included the districts

which either registered considerable tribal population such as Tuensang, Mon,

Hailakandi, Palamu, Dungarpur, Sahibganj, Pakaur, Gumla, Dumka and Jhabua

districts or those which were nodal part of a princely state such as Junagadh and

Patan districts.

The Buddhists

The Buddhists had a moderate literacy rate of 55 to 70 per cent in 162

districts of the country that included: (i) Ladakh Region, (ii) Ganga-Yamuna

Doab, Bundelkhand, Baghelkhand and Central Bihar, (iii) Marathwada Region of

Maharashtra, (iv) Southern Karnataka and Adjoining Part of Rayalseema Region

of Andhra Pradesh, and (v) Other Areas (Map 5.5).

(i) Ladakh Region: Ladakh is a region of traditional Buddhism and supported

sizeable Buddhist population. Nearly 62 per cent of the Buddhists aged 7 and

above were literate in Leh district. In the rural areas, 58 per cent of the Buddhist

population was literate and the corresponding figure in urban areas was 77.1 per

cent. The gender gap in literacy (18.9 per cent) among the Buddhists was

narrower than their national average of 21.4 per cent. Thus, in this inhospitable

region, the moderate literacy owed much to the relatively higher female literacy of

the Buddhist females. Moreover, Ladakh is not only an area of difficult terrain but

is also a tribal and a border district. However, moderate literacy was also the

result of enormous funding for education by various sources.

(ii) Ganga-Yamuna Doab, Bundelkhand, Baghelkhand and Central Bihar:

The Buddhists recorded moderate literacy in this compact area that consisted of

the north-western, southern and eastern parts of Uttar Pradesh as also the

adjoining northern parts of Madhya Pradesh and central parts of Bihar state. With

the exception of Ganga-Yamuna Doab, the region was marked by subsistence

rainfed agriculture, poverty, low level of urban-industrial development and feudal

culture. The literacy rates of the Buddhist population ranged between 55.1 per

cent in Chandauli and Jamui district and 69.9 per cent in Rewa district. Barring a

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few districts the male literacy rates among the Buddhists were above 70 per cent.

Contrary to this, the female literacy rates were less than 50 per cent in a large

number of districts. The literacy would have been much lower but for the various

schemes launched by the state governments for the weaker sections especially

the Neo-Buddhists raised the proportion of literacy in the region.

(iii) Marathwada Region of Maharashtra: It is a semi-arid, underdeveloped

area deprived of industrialisation and characterised by feudal structure and low

status of women. While the male literacy rates (except for Jalna district) were

above 77 per cent, the literacy rates of the Buddhist females were below 56 per

cent. In the rural areas, the female literacy was still lower and ranged between

40.5 per cent (Jalna district) and 52.9 per cent (Buldana district). The relatively

lower literacy among the Buddhist females was largely an outcome of social

taboos against female mobility and their education that could be seen in the light

of feudal backwardness of Hyderabad State of which Marathwada was a part.

Besides, social movements spearheaded by the Dalits did not take off in the rural

areas of this region as a result, the Buddhists of this region by virtue of their

socially, economically and deprived status could not possibly attain much

literacy, particularly that of their women (Biswas and Raju, 2002).

(iv) Southern Karnataka and Adjoining Part of Rayalseema Region of

Andhra Pradesh: The region was engulfed by high literacy areas and marked by

plantation agriculture (Chikmagalur), mining (Kolar), agro industries (Mandya)

and well developed road-rail network due to the presence of urban-industrial

clusters such as Bangalore and Mysore. In fact, literacy could have been higher

but for acute poverty in the rural areas.

(v) Other Areas: These included: (a) prosperous agricultural areas (such as

districts of Malwa plains of Punjab and eastern parts of Haryana), (b) areas with

high tribal population (such as districts of Dohad, Jhabua, Dungarpur, Barwani,

Gajapati and Srikakulam), (c) areas associated with mining and industrial activity

(such as district of Koraput, Vishakhapatnam, Surat, Navsari, Rangareddi,

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Namakkal and Madurai), and (d) areas of the north-east region associated with

trading (such as the districts of Lohit, Papum Pare and Imphal East). Being

marked by diverse economic activities, a complex set of factors seem to have

caused moderate literacy among the Buddhist population.

The Jains

The Jains had a moderate literacy rate ranging between 55 and 70 per

cent only in 30 districts of India. A large number of these districts were extremely

backward marked by high incidence of poverty and a very high gender gap.

These districts were largely the part of eastern Uttar Pradesh, Jharkhand and

Orissa (Map 5.6).

Thus, it can be concluded that regionally, the Indo-Gangetic plains and the

interior peninsular plateau emerged out as areas where all the religious groups

with some slight variations recorded relatively lower rates of literacy. Conversely,

the literacy rates among all the religious groups during the study period were

relatively higher in the coastal plains; Himachal, Garhwal and Kumaun Himalayas

and in the central upland region. Besides that, all the major religious groups

displayed very high literacy rates in the urban-industrial clusters of the country. In

fact, it is interesting to note that there were regions which had high or a low

literacy, across all the religious groups.

CHAPTER-V SPATIAL PATTERNS OF LITERACY OF MAJOR RELIGIOUS GROUPS...

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