CHAPTER TWO: BASICS IN IRRIGATION ENGINEERING · IRRIGATION ENGINEERING 2.1. IRRIGATION...
Transcript of CHAPTER TWO: BASICS IN IRRIGATION ENGINEERING · IRRIGATION ENGINEERING 2.1. IRRIGATION...
CHAPTER TWO: BASICS IN
IRRIGATION ENGINEERING 2.1. IRRIGATION ENGINEERING: This involves
Conception,
Planning,
Design,
Construction,
Operation and
Management of an irrigation system.
An irrigation engineer is one who has a long theoretical and
practical training in planning, design, construction, operation and
management of irrigation systems.
Considerations in Planning
Irrigation Systems
i) Location: The main point to consider in locating an
irrigation project is the need to investigate available resources in
the area e.g.
Climate,
Adequate water in quality and quantity,
Land with good agricultural potential and
Good topography,
Availability of labour (sophisticated or not),
Land tenure,
Marketing,
Transport facilities etc.
Considerations in Planning
Irrigation Systems Contd. ii) Crops to be grown: Should be determined by available
resources as well as marketability of the crops especially interms of what people like to eat.
iii) Water Supply: Consider
(a)Sources of water
(b) Quantity and quality of water
c) Engineering works necessary to obtain water e.g. ifunderground, pumping is needed
d) Conveyance System: can be by gravity e.g. open channelsor canals or by closed conduits e.g. pipes.
(e) Water measuring devices e.g. weirs, orifice, flumes, currentmeters
Other Considerations
iv) Systems of Applying Water:
e.g. Surface (90% worldwide),
Sprinkler(5%),
Trickle and Sub-irrigation(5%).
v) Water Demand: The water requirement for thegiven crop has to be determined. This is bycalculating the evapotranspiration (to be treated later)
vi) Project Management: Consider how to managethe irrigation system
2.2 CROP WATER AND NET
IRRIGATION REQUIREMENTS
In irrigation, it is essential to know the amount of water neededby crops.
This determines the quantity of water to be added by irrigationand rainfall and helps in day to day management of irrigationsystems.
Total water demand of crops is made up of:
i) Crop water use: includes evaporation and transpiration(evapotranspiration described in section 2.3 below)
ii) Leaching requirement:
iii) Losses of water due to deep seepage in canals and lossesdue to the inefficiency of application.
EVAPOTRANSPIRATION 2.3.1 DEFINITIONS
a) Evaporation: The process by which water is changed fromthe liquid or solid state into the gaseous state through thetransfer of heat energy.
b) Transpiration: The evaporation of water absorbed by thecrop which is used directly in the building of plant tissue in aspecified time. It does not include soil evaporation.
c) Evapotranspiration, ET: It is the sum of the amount ofwater transpired by plants during the growth process and thatamount that is evaporated from soil and vegetation in thedomain occupied by the growing crop. ET is normallyexpressed in mm/day.
FACTORS THAT AFFECT
EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
Weather parameters, Crop Characteristics,Management and Environmental aspects arefactors affecting ET
(a) Weather Parameters:
The principal weather conditions affecting evapotranspiration are:
Radiation,
Air temperature,
Humidity and
Wind speed.
CROP FACTORS THAT
AFFECT ET Crop Type
Variety of Crop
Development Stage
Crop Height
Crop Roughness
Ground Cover
Crop Rooting Depth
Management and Environmental
Factors (a) Factors such as soil salinity,
Poor land fertility,
Limited application of fertilizers,
Absence of control of diseases and
Pests and poor soil management
May limit the crop development and reduce soilevapotranspiration.
Other factors that affect ET are ground cover, plant density andsoil water content. The effect of soil water content on ET isconditioned primarily by the magnitude of the water deficit andthe type of soil. Too much water will result in waterloggingwhich might damage the root and limit root water uptake byinhibiting respiration.
EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
CONCEPTS (a) Reference Crop Evapotranspiration (ETo):
Used by FAO.
This is ET rate from a reference plant e.g. grass or alfalfa, not
short of water and is denoted as ETo. The ET of other crops
can be related to the Et of the reference plant.
ETo is a climatic parameter as it is only affected by climatic
factors.
The FAO Penman-Monteith method is recommended as the
sole method for determining ETo. The method has been
selected because it closely approximates grass ETo at the
location evaluated, is physically based, and explicitly
incorporates both physiological and aerodynamic parameters.
CROP ET UNDER STANDARD
CONDITIONS (ETc) This refers to crop ET under standard conditions, i.e.
ET from disease-free, well-fertilized crops, grown inlarge fields, under optimum soil water conditions.
ETc can be derived from ETo using the equation:
ETc = Kc . ETo where Kc is crop coefficient
Crop Evapotranspiration under non- standardconditions as mentioned above is called ETc(adjusted). This refers to growth of crops under non-optimal conditions.
DETERMINATION OF
EVAPOTRANSPIRATION Evapotranspiration is not easy to measure.
Specific devices and accurate measurements
of various physical parameters or the soil
water balance in lysimeters are required to
determine ET. The methods are expensive,
demanding and used for research purposes.
They remain important for evaluating ET
estimates obtained by more indirect methods.
ENERGY BUDGET METHOD
This method like the water budget
approach involves solving an equation
which lists all the sources and sinks of
thermal energy and leaves evaporation
as the only unknown. It involves a great
deal of instrumentation and is still under
active development. It is data intensive
and is really a specialist approach.
Energy Budget Method Contd.
Water Balance Method The Water Balance or Budget Method is a
measurement of continuity of flow of water.
This method consists of drawing up a balance sheetof all the water entering and leaving a particularcatchment or drainage basin.
The water balance equation can be written as:
ET = I + P – RO – DP + CR + SF + SW
Where: I is Irrigation, P is rainfall, RO is surfacerunoff, DP is deep percolation, CR is capillary rise,SF and SW are change in sub-surface flow andchange in soil water content respectively
Lysimeters For Water Balance
Method Lysimeters are normally adopted in water balance studies.
By isolating the crop root zone from its environment and
controlling the processes that are difficult to measure, the
different terms in the soil balance equation can be determined
with greater accuracy.
Using Lysimeters, crop grows in isolated tanks filled with either
disturbed or undisturbed soil.
In weighing lysimeters, water loss is directly measured by
change in mass while
In non-weighing ones, the ET for a given time is determined by
deducting the drainage water collected at the bottom of the
lysimeters, from the total water input.
Non-Weighing Lysimeter
ET Computed from
Meteorological Data: ET is commonly computed from weather data. A large number
of empirical equations have been developed for assessing crop
or reference crop evapotranspiration from weather data. Some
of these methods include the Blaney-Criddle, Penman,
Thornthwaite, Radiation, Hargreaves, Turc and many others.
Most of these methods have been found to only work in specific
locations.
Following an Expert Consultation by Food and Agriculture
Organization in May 1990, the FAO Penman-Monteith method
is now recommended as the standard method for the definition
and computation of the reference evapotranspiration. The FAO
Penman-Monteith equation is described in the Notes.
ET Estimated from
Evaporation Pans: Evaporation from an open water surface provides an
index of integrated effect of radiation, airtemperature, air humidity and wind onevapotranspiration. However, differences in thewater and cropped surface produce significantdifferences in the water loss from an open surfaceand the crop. The pan is used to estimate referenceETo by observing the evaporation loss from a watersurface (Epan) and applying empirical coefficients(Kpan)to relate pan evaporation to Eto thus:
ETo = Kp x Epan
Standard Pan: United States Class A
Pan
The most common Evaporation Pan used is the United States
Class A pan. This is made up of unpainted galvanized iron, 1.2
m in diameter and 25.4 cm deep. The bottom supported on a
wooded frame, is raised 15.24 cm above the ground surface.
The water surface is maintained between 5.0 and 7.6 cm below
the rim of the pan and is measured daily with a gauge. The
daily evaporation is computed as the difference between
observed levels corrected for any precipitation measured in an
adjacent or nearby standard rain gauge. A pan coefficient of 0.7
(0.6 - 0.8) is normally used to convert the observed value to an
estimated value for lake or reservoirs. This is because the rate
of evaporation in small areas is greater than that from large
areas.
US Class A Evaporation Pan
Incoming Radiation
q’ Absorbed By
Water
Evaporation
Air Flow
Conduction
Through Walls
of pan
q’ conv
absorbed by
the water
Incoming
Radiation Heats
Pan Wall q’’ rad
Convection
q”conv heats up
pan walls
Heat Transfer Mechanisms Involved In Heating Of Water In The Standard Pans (diameter D) And Their Walls (After Jagroop,2000).
Types of Evaporation Pans
A Comparison of Standard Open
Pans
Pan Dimensions Pan Coefficient
US Class A 1.2 m Diameter; 250
mm Deep
0.7 (0.6 to 0.8)
Australian Pan 900 mm Diameter; 900
mm Deep. Large Pan:
1200 mm Diameter and
850 mm Deep
0.9 ( 0.6 to 1.2)
British Tank 1.83 m Square 0.9 (Very Variable)
2.4. LEACHING REQUIREMENT
Most irrigation water contain dissolved salts.
Evaporation removes pure water leaving aconcentration of salt in soil.
Salt concentration may reach a level that isdetrimental to the growth of the crop and should becontrolled. The only practical way of achieving this isby leaching.
Leaching requirement is an extra water needed topass through the root zone in addition to the normalrequirement to ensure that salts are placed below theroot zone.
LEACHING REQUIREMENT
CONTD.
acceptableEC
RainETirrig
Ec
ZoneRoottheinContentSaltAcceptableRainETWaterIrrigationinionConcentratSaltLR
)(
)(
Ec acceptable = 4 mmhos/cm. For water quality, Ec of 0.8
Mmhos/cm is medium, quality while Ec of 4 mmhos/cm is saline.
2.5. EFFECTIVE PRECIPITATION
This is the component of rainfall that is
available to crops ie. does not runoff.
It can be estimated as 65% of total rainfall.
It can also be estimated as the rainfall value,
which has 80% probability of being exceeded
(D80).
2.6 NET IRRIGATION
REQUIREMENT (Nir)
This is the moisture that must be supplied by irrigation to satisfyevapotranspiration plus that needed for leaching and notsupplied by off-season storage, and the effects of precipitationand groundwater storage.
Nir = ET + Wl - Ws - Re
Where: Nir is the net irrigation;
ET is evapotranspiration,
Wl is leaching requirement;
Ws is off-season soil moisture carry-over.
All parameters are in mm of water.
2.7 GROSS IRRIGATION
REQUIREMENT (Gir)
Gross Irrigation Requirement is equal to:
Net Irrigation Requirement Divided by Irrigation Efficiency
Irrigation efficiency accounts for losses in storageand distribution systems, losses in applicationsystems as well as operation and managementlosses.
Irrigation Efficiency depends on the Method ofApplying Irrigation Water
2.8 IRRIGATION TERMS
2.8.1. Depth of Irrigation: This is the
depth of the readily available moisture.
This is the net depth of water normally
needed to be applied to the crops
during each irrigation
Example 1 The Moisture Content at Field Capacity of a Clay Loam Soil is
28% by Weight While that at Permanent Wilting Point is 14% byWeight. Root Zone Depth Is 1 m and the Bulk Density Is 1.2g/cm3 . Calculate the Net and Gross Depth of IrrigationRequired If the Irrigation Efficiency Is 0.7.
Solution: Field Capacity = 28%; Permanent wilting point =14%
i.e. Available moisture = 28 - 14 = 14% by weight i.e. Pm
Bulk density (Db) = 1.2 g/cm3
Root Zone depth (D) = 1 m = 1000 mm
Equivalent depth of available water (d) = Pm . Db . D
= 0.14 x 1.20 x 1000 mm = 168 mm
This is the net depth of irrigation.
Solution to Example 1 contd.
Gross Water Application is equal to:
Net Irrigation/Efficiency = 84/0.7 = 120 mm
Note: This is the actual water needed to bepumped for irrigation.
It is equivalent to:
120 /1000 mm x 10,000 m2 =1200 m 3 per hectare.
2.8.2 Irrigation Interval (II):
This is the time between successive
irrigations.
Irrigation interval is equal to:
Readily Available Moisture or Net Irrigation divided by
Evapotranspiration, ET
The shortest irrigation interval is normally use in
design. The irrigation interval varies with ET.
It is equivalent to Readily Available Water divided by the
Peak ET
Example 2
For the Last Example. the Peak ET is7.5 mm/day, Determine the ShortestIrrigation Interval.
Solution: From Example 1, ReadilyAvailable Moisture (RAM) = 84 mm
i.e. Shortest irrigation interval = RAM/Peak ET = 84/7.5 = 11 days.
Irrigation Period (IP)
This is the number of days allowed to
complete one irrigation cycle in a given
area.
Irrigation Period Contd.
Assuming water is applied in a border in a day,
the total period of irrigation is then 11 days.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Irrigation Interval and Period
In irrigation scheduling, the irrigation period
should be less that the irrigation interval.
This is because if the period is not smaller,
before the latter parts of the area are to be
irrigated, the earlier irrigated areas will need
fresh irrigation.
At peak evapotranspiration (used in design),
irrigation interval should be equal to irrigation
period. i.e. Generally IP < II
2.8.4 Desired Irrigation Design
Capacity (Qc)
This is the flow rate determined by the
water requirement, irrigation time,
irrigation period and the irrigation
application efficiency.
It is the flow rate of flow of the water
supply source e.g. pumps from a
reservoir, or a borehole required to
irrigate a given area.
Desired Irrigation Design Capacity
(Qc) Contd.
aEHFdA
cQ..
.
Where:
•Qc is the Desired Design Capacity;
•d is the Net Irrigation Depth = Readily Available Moisture;
•F is the number of Days to complete the Irrigation (Irrigation Period);
•H is the number of Hours the System is perated (hrs/day) and
• Ea is the Irrigation Efficiency
Example 3 A 12-hectare field is to be irrigated with a sprinkler
system. The root zone depth is 0.9 m and the fieldcapacity of the soil is 28% while the permanentwilting point is 17% by weight. The soil bulk densityis 1.36 g/cm and the water application efficiency is70%. The soil is to be irrigated when 50% of theavailable water has depleted. The peakevapotranspiration is 5.0 mm/day and the system isto be run for 10 hours in a day.
Determine: (i) The net irrigation depth
(ii) Gross irrigation ie. the depth of water to be pumped
(iii) Irrigation period
(iv) Area to be irrigated per day and (v)
the system capacity.
Solution to Example 3
Solution: Field Capacity = 28%; PermanentWilting Point = 17%
ie. Available Moisture = 28 - 17 = 11% , which isPm
Root zone depth = 0.9 m;
Bulk density = 1.36 g/cm3
Depth of Available Moisture, = Pm . Db. D
= 0.11 x 1.36 x 900 = 135 mm
Allowing for 50 % depletion of Available Moisturebefore Irrigation, Depth of Readily Available Moisture
= 0.5 x 135 mm = 67.5 mm
Solution of Example 3 Contd.
i) Net irrigation depth = Depth of the Readily AvailableMoisture = 67.5 mm
ii) Gross Irrigation = Net irrigation
Application efficiency
= 67.5/0.7 = 96.4 mm
iii) Irrigation interval = Net irrigation or RAM
Peak ET
= 67.5/5 = 13.5 days
= 13.5 days = 13 days (more critical)
In design, irrigation interval = irrigation period
ie. irrigation period is 13 days
Solution of Example 3 Contd. iv) Total area to be irrigated = 12 hectares
Area to be irrigated per day = Total area /irrigation period = 12 ha/ 13 days
= 1 ha/day
v) System Capacity, Qc = A. d m3 /s
F. H. Ea
Area, A = 12 ha = 12 x 10000 m2 = 120,000 m2
Net irrigation depth, d = 67.5 mm = 0.0675 m
Irrigation period , F = 13 days
Number of hours of operation, H = 10 hrs/day
Irrigation efficiency, Ea = 0.78
Solution of Example 3 Concluded
System capacity, Qc = 120,000 m2 x 0.0675 m13 days x 10 hrs/day x 0.7
= 89.01 m 3/hr
Recall: 1 m 3 = 1000 L and 1 hr = 3600 s
ie. 89.01 m3 /hr = {89.01 x 10 3 L}/3600 secs
= 24.73 = 25 L/s
The pump to be purchased for sprinkler irrigationmust have capacity equal to or greater than 25 L/s.
Alternatively, more than one pump can bepurchased.
2.9. IRRIGATION EFFICIENCIES
These irrigation efficiencies are brought aboutby the desire not to waste irrigation water, nomatter how cheap or abundant it is.
The objective of irrigation efficiency conceptis to determine whether improvements can bemade in both the irrigation system and themanagement of the operation programmes,which will lead to an efficient irrigation wateruse.
2.9.1 Application Efficiency
EWater in root zone after irrigation
Total volume of water applieda
Total vol of water applied Vol of Tailwater Vol of deep percolation
Total water applied
. ( . . )
Ea is inadequate in describing the overall quantity of water
since it does not indicate the actual uniformity of irrigation,
the amount of deep percolation or the magnitude of
under-irrigation. See diagrams in text.
Example 4 Delivery of 10 m3/s to a 32 ha farm is continued for 4
hours. The tail water is 0.27 m3/s. Soil probing afterirrigation indicates that 30 cm of water has beenstored in the root zone. Compute the ApplicationEfficiency.
Solution: Total volume of water applied
= 10 m3/s x 4 hrs x 3600s/hr = 144,000 m3
Total tail water = 0.27 x 4 x 3600 = 3888 m3
Total water in root zone = 30 cm = 0.3 m x 32 hax 10,000 m2/ha = 96,000 m3
Solution to Example 4 Contd.
= 96,000/144,000 = 66.7%.
EWater in root zone after irrigation
Total volume of water applieda
2.9.2 Water Conveyance Efficiency
EWater delivered to the Farm W
Water of water diverted from a stream reservoir or well Wc
d
s
( )
, ( )
Farm
Water lost by evap
And seepage Ws
Wd
Stream
Example 5 45 m3 of water was pumped into a farm distribution
system. 38 m3 of water is delivered to a turn out (athead ditch) which is 2 km from the well. Compute theConveyance Efficiency.
Solution:
EWater delivered to the Farm W
Water of water diverted from a stream reservoir or well Wc
d
s
( )
, ( )
= 38/45 = 84%
2.9.3. Christiansen Uniformity
Coefficient (Cu)
CX
m nu
100 10( .
/ /)
This measures the uniformity of irrigation
W here: is the summation of deviations from the mean depth
infiltered
m is the mean depth unfiltered and
n is the number of observations.
// X
Example 6
A Uniformity Check is taken by probing manystations down the border. The depths ofpenetration (cm) recorded were: 6.4, 6.5,6.5, 6.3, 6.2, 6.0, 6.4, 6.0, 5.8, 5.7, 5.5, 4.5,4.9. Compute the Uniformity Coefficient.
Solution: Total depth of water infiltered =76.7 cm
Mean depth = 76.7/13 = 5.9 cm
Locations Depths (cm) Deviations from Mean
1 6.4 0.5
2 6.5 0.6
3 6.5 0.6
4 6.3 0.4
5 6.2 0.3
6 6.0 0.1
7 6.4 0.5
8 6.0 0.1
9 5.8 0.1
10 5.7 0.2
11 5.5 0.4
12 4.5 1.4
13 4.9 1.0
Example 6 Concluded
This is a good Efficiency. 80% Efficiency is acceptable.
/ /X
CX
m nu
100 10( .
/ /)
Cu
100 106 2
59 13( .
.
.)
= 6.2
m = 5.9 cm; n = 13
= 92%
2.9.4 Water Storage Efficiency (Es)
2.9.5 Irrigation Efficiency
EVolume of water in the root zone after irrigation
Volume of water needed in root zone to avoid total water moisture depletions
E Steady stateET W R W
W
Net Irrigation
Water divertedi
l e s
i
( )
ET is Evapotranspiration;
Wl is Leaching Requirement;
Re is Effective Precipitation;
is change in storage;
Wi is water diverted, stored or pumped for irrigation.sW
2.10 IRRIGATION SCHEDULING
This means Predicting when to Irrigate andhow much to Irrigate
For efficient water use on the farm, the farmerneeds to be able to predict when his cropsneed irrigation. This can be done by:
Observing the plants;
Keeping a Water Balance Sheet
By Measuring the Soil Moisture Content or
Computer Software
2.10.1 Observing the Plants:
This is a direct way of knowing when the
crops need water.
The farmer observes the plants for any signs
of wilting or change in leaf colour or growth
rate.
The method is simple but its major
disadvantage is that the signs of shortage
appear after the optimum allowable depletion
has already been exceeded.
2.10.2. Keeping a Water Balance
Sheet
This approach works on the principle that thechange in water content of the soil isrepresented by the difference between wateradded by irrigation(or rainfall) and the amountlost by evapotranspiration.
The records are kept for each farm and cropsas shown in Table 2.4 below.
The method requires no equipment and iseasy to operate.
It can be operated on a daily or weekly or 10day basis.
Table 2.3: Example of a Water Balance
Sheet
Date Estimated
ET (mm)
Rainfall
(mm)
Accumulated
Deficit (mm)
Irrigation
Period
5.1.05 4.2 - 4.2
6.1.05 3.5 - 7.7
7.1.05 3.8 - 11.5
8.1.05 4.5 - 16.0
9.1.05 5.2 - 21.2
10.1.05 5.1 2.0 24.3
11.1.05 5.5 - 29.8
12.1.05 5.1 - 4.9 (34.9) 30.0
13.1.05 4.9 - 9.8
etc.
Irrigation Plan: Apply 30 mm of water at 30 mm deficit.
2.10.3 Measuring Soil Moisture
This is the best scheduling and the most widely used.Soil moisture can be indirectly measured usingdevices and instruments eg. tensiometers, resistanceblocks or neutron probes.
Direct measurement of soil moisture can be byweighing or the gravimetric method.
These methods are either too expensive orcomplicated.
The simplest and most practical method is toestimate the moisture content by the 'feel andappearance' of the soil.
Soil is collected at the root zone and checked toguess the right time to irrigate.
2.11 IRRIGATION WATER: SOURCES, QUALITY &
MEASUREMENT
2.11.1 Sources of Irrigation Water Supply
i) Rainfall or Precipitation: This is apractical and dominant factor.
The supply varies with time and place e.g.while Grenada receives 2,100 mm annualrainfall, Antigua receives only 1,100 mm.Trinidad receives 1, 950 mm (Data suppliedby Gumbs, 1987).
To be of greatest benefit for crop production,the rainfall amount should be enough toreplace water in the root zone on a regularbasis.
Mean Annual Rainfall of Caribbean
Countries
1127
1500 1524
1983
4500
2263 2253
20571980
1372
1971 1990
2500
2054
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
Ant
igua
& B
arbud
a
The Bah
amas
Bar
bados
Bel
ize
Dom
inica
Gre
nada
Guy
ana
Haiti
Jam
aica
St.
Kitts
& N
evis
St.
Lucia
St.
Vince
nt &
the G
rena
dine
s
Sur
inam
e
Trinidad
& T
obago
Mean
An
nu
al
Rain
fall
(m
m)
Sources of Irrigation Water
Contd. ii) Underground water sources: This can be
shallow or bore holes.
iii) Surface Sources: Streams, rivers, lakes, farmponds etc.
Streams should be gauged to ensure that there isenough water for irrigation.
Rivers or streams can also be dammed to raise theheight of flow and make more water available forirrigation.
Farm ponds can also be dug to store water fromrivers or channels (e.g. field station) or to collectwater from rainfall
Sources of Irrigation Water
Contd.
iv) Springs and waste water e.g.
industrial water and sewage: Determine
quality before use.
(For details of harnessing water for
irrigation in the Caribbean, see Gumb's
Soil & Water Conservation Methods,
Chapter 7).
2.11.2 Irrigation Water
Quality:
Irrigation water quality depends on
i) Amount of suspended sediment eg.
silt content
ii) The chemical constituents of water
i) Amount of Suspended
Sediment: The effect of sediment may depend upon the
nature of the sediment and the characteristicsand soil conditions of the irrigated area.
Silt content in irrigation may be beneficial if itimproves the texture and fertility of say sandysoil.
It can also be detrimental if it is derived froma sterile sub-soil, and applied to a fertile soil.
Silt accumulation can cause aggradation incanals or distribution systems. In sprinklersystems, silt can cause abrasion.
ii) The Chemical Constituents
of Water:
There are three main elements or
compounds that can cause hazards in
irrigation water. They include:
Sodium,
Boron and
Salts.
a) Salinity Hazards:
The units of salt concentration in irrigation water canbe parts per million (p.p.m), milliequivalents/litre(ME/litre) or electrical conductivity.
On the basis of salinity, irrigation water can beclassified as C1 to C4(see chart).
They refer to low, medium, high and very high salinitylevels respectively.
While C1 water can easily be used for irrigationwithout need for leaching requirement,
C4 water is not useable, except in permeable soilswhere adequate leaching and drainage is possibleand for highly tolerant crops.