Chapter Two

© 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, IncUpper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All Rights Reserved

Crisis InterventionWilliam Harmening

Roosevelt University

Harmening, Crisis Intervention: The Criminal Justice Response to Chaos, Mayhem, and Disaster

Chapter 2FIGHT, FLIGHT, OR FREEZE: THE PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGY OF CRISIS


1.1

1.2

1.3

1.4

To summarize the psychophysiological response to crisis in its many forms.

To explain the relationship between crisis and stress, and the impact they have on the body’s homeostatic

state.

To explain how the stress response is mediated, and to list the factors that buffer a person against the effects

of stress.

To summarize and explain the potential behavior patterns demonstrated by an offender under stress

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES

Understand the psychophysiological response to crisis in its many forms.

Learning ObjectivesAfter this lecture, you should be able to complete the following Learning Outcomes

1.1

1.1 Psychophysiology of Crisis

The Crisis-Stress Dynamic

The Human brain has evolved over time to facilitate a state of psychological and physiological equilibrium, or HOMEOSTASIS.

Any threat to this balance can be described as a STRESSOR. Essentially every crisis brings with it some amount of stress to the persons involved.

When homeostasis is lost, the resulting physiological and/or psychological DISEQUILIBRIUM initiates a series of reactions designed to adapt to the stressor and return to a state of homeostasis.

5


The Crisis-Stress Dynamic

Crisis Producing Event

Physical Reaction Psychological Reaction(Autonomic Nervous System) (Cognitive Mediation)

HOMEOSTASIS

DISEQUILIBRIUM (Stress)

ADAPTATION

RETURN TO HOMEOSTASISor

ACUTE STRESS REACTION

The body attempts to produce more energy to meet the challenge of the stressor. May result in physical exhaustion, which in turn increases negative psychological reaction.

The individual’s perception narrows to focus problem-solving entirely on stressor. May result in tunnel vision or panic. Panic increases physiological reaction.

(Fight, Flight, or Freeze)

6


General Adaptation Syndrome (Dr. Hans Selye, 1956)

Canadian endocrinologist who proposed a three-stage model of the stress response

ALARM STAGE – The fight or flight response is activated by the brain with the introduction of the stressor. This response prepares the individual to confront the stressor.

RESISTANCE STAGE – The initial surge of energy is now gone, and the body attempts to adapt to the continuing presence of the stressor.

EXHAUSTION STAGE – The body’s attempt to adapt begins to have a negative effect. Energy is depleted. Extreme exhaustion may lead to tonic immobility, or the FREEZE response.

7


General Adaptation Syndrome (Selye, 1956)

Normal Level of Functioning

Alarm Resistance Exhaustion

Passage of Time

Resi

stance

High

Low

8


Transactional Model of Stress (Cox & Mackay, 1976)

Proposed a psychological model of the stress in which the amount of stress experienced varies as a result of the individual’s perception of the demand the stressor places on them and the extent to which they believe they can cope with that demand.

Physical and psychological changes that take place with the introduction of the stressor increase the person’s performance level and their ability to effectively confront the stressor.

With the continued presence of the stressor, the person may begin to lose confidence in their ability to mediate the stressor. At that point they have reached the LEVEL OF OPTIMAL PERFORMANCE. The psychological and physiological changes that have taken place will now have a negative effect and decrease the person’s ability to mediate the stressor.

9


Transactional Model of Stress (Cox & Mackay, 1976)

Perf

orm

ance

Level

Stress level

Stress level increases as perception of ability to cope decreases

Boredom Exhaustion

Optimal Performance

Understand the relationship between crisis and stress, and the impact they have on the body’s homeostatic state.


1.2

11

1.2 Stress Response

The Physical Response to Stress

The AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM controls the body’s response to stress. It effects:

● Heart rate● Oxygen intake● Digestion● Size of pupils● Perspiration● Salivation

The ANS stimulates bodily functions in some situations, and suppresses them in others. It does this through the influence of two subsystems:

Sympathetic Nervous System

Parasympathetic Nervous System

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1.2 Stress Response

The SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM is designed to rapidly produce and deliver energy throughout the body in response to a stressor. It is responsible for the fight-or-flight response.

This response creates a significant amount of stress on various physiological systems impacted, and cannot be sustained for prolonged periods without negative consequences.

The PARASYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM returns the body to a normal homeostatic state once the stressor has passed. It is said to cause the rest-and-digest response.

1.2 Stress Response

The system responsible for activating the sympathetic nervous system in response to stress is the HYPOTHALAMUS-PITUITARY-ADRENAL AXIS (HPA Axis).

This chain reaction of events begins when the stressor is introduced into the sensory experience of the individual. Once perceived as such, then the HYPOTHALAMUS, the interface between the nervous system and endocrine system, initiates the fight-or-flight response.

1.2 Stress Response

Once the fight-or-flight response is activated, if the body is not returned in short order to a homeostatic state through the influence of the PARASYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM, such as in times of extreme and prolonged stress, then the person can become overwhelmed both physically and psychologically by the body’s efforts to adapt to the stressor. In this case, tonic immobility, or the FREEZE response is a possibility.

15

1.2 Stress Response

OptimalPositive Stress

FlightEscape Stressor

FightConfront Stressor

FreezeSurrender to

Stressor

Intensity and durationof stressor

Ability to mediatestressor

High

High Low

Low

The Stress Response Continuum

Understand how the stress response is mediated, and the factors that buffer a person against the negative effects of stress.


1.3

17

1.3 Mediating Stress

The amount of stress we experience in a given situation is mediated by our perception of how prepared we are to effectively confront it.

Sapolsky (2004) has argued that the amount of stress experienced is determined by two psychological factors:

CONTROL PREDICTABILITY

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CONTROL: The feeling that one is in control of the situation buffers the individual against stress. EX: A well-trained and well-armed police officer feels a relatively high degree of control most of the time, and thus they experience less stress than a civilian would in a similar situation.

PREDICTABILITY: Being familiar with a crisis-producing situation, including the potential outcomes, also provides a buffer against stress. EX: As a result of training and experience, a police officer knows what to expect most of the time when entering a crisis situation. This high level of predictability increases control and reduces stress.

19


LOCUS OF CONTROL (Rotter, 1954, 1990)

A person can have either an INTERNAL or EXTERNAL locus of control. Those with an internal orientation believe they are in control of their own destiny, regardless of the circumstances. Those with an external orientation believe their fate is determined by external forces, and that they have little control over their circumstances.

Self-efficacy is the belief one has in their ability to achieve a successful outcome. High self-efficacy leads to a high level of confidence. Thus the following…

Internal locus + Self-efficacy = Control

Experience + Training = Predictability

Control + Predictability = Reduced levels of stress

20


LOCUS OF CONTROL (Rotter, 1954, 1990)

Internal Orientation

External Orientation

Low

Sel

f-effi

cacy

Hig

h Se

lf-effi

cacy

Assertive

Helpless

Confident

Cautious

Doubting

Indecisive

Low

High

Abili

ty t

o m

edia

te t

he s

tress

or

High

Low

Level o

f st

ress

exp

eri

ence

21


WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?

1. It is important that those agencies tasked with crisis response focus their hiring and recruiting efforts on individuals who demonstrate an INTERNAL orientation.

2. Repetitive and realistic training is critical to increasing a sense of control and predictability in those who respond to crisis.

Understand the potential patterns of behavior demonstrated by a criminal offender under stress.


1.4

23

1.4 Offender Behavior Patterns

When we look at the dual dimensions of control and predictability in criminal offenders, we see four distinct RESPONSE MODES emerge.

It is critical that criminal justice professionals understand these potential response modes in order to adapt their own response to predictable outcomes. The four potential response modes are:

● Offense Mode ● Defense Mode ● Escape Mode ● Panic Mode

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Low Stress

Offense

Moderate-High Stress

Escape

Moderate–Low Stress

Defense

High Stress

Panic

High Control Low Control

HighPredictability

Lowpredictability

RESPONSE MODES

25


When we describe someone as being in “survival mode,” we are really talking about someone responding in OFFENSE MODE.

Ex: A criminal offender who has no intention of ever returning to prison, and who is being confronted by police officers with a warrant for his arrest. The situation is highly predictable for the offender, and the fact that he has a gun, and no intention of being taken alive, gives him a high degree of control. He experiences less stress, and is thus able to think clearer. This, along with the initial surge of energy from his fight-or-flight mechanism being activated, makes him a dangerous individual to confront.


The human brain has evolved to maintain in the individual a state of homeostasis. The introduction of

a stressor will cause disequilibrium to occur, potentially requiring intervention in order to return

the person to homeostasis.

With the introduction of a stressor, the person’s sympathetic nervous system is activated through the influence of various neuro-chemicals and hormones

(fight-or-flight). When the stressor has been removed, then the parasympathetic nervous system attempts

to return the person’s physiological system to homeostasis (rest-and-digest).

Various psychological factors, including a person’s perceived level of control and predictability, will

impact the level of stress they experience in a crisis situation.

A criminal offender will demonstrate one of four potential response modes in a crisis situation; offense,

defense, escape, or panic. Understanding these patterns of behavior allows those responding to adapt

to predictable outcomes.

CHAPTER SUMMARY

1.1

1.2

1.3

1.4


DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

1. How does training benefit a police officer in a stressful situation? How does a nothing-to-lose mentality benefit an offender?

2. Consider a bank robber trapped inside a bank by responding police officers. Employees are inside and the robber is armed. Describe how the robber might respond under each of the four response modes described in the chapter.

3. Describe the type of orientation (locus of control) the child of an abusive, authoritarian parent might demonstrate during adolescence and into adulthood, and why.

Chapter Two

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