Chapter Two 2.0 Literature Review 2.1 Introduction

Chapter two

2.0 Literature review

2.1 Introduction

Mushongahande, (2007), pointed out that, Zimbabwe is a land locked country in

Southern Africa covering more than thirty nine million hectares. Of the thirty nine

million hectares, one hundred and eight thousand two hundred and fourteen or (three

percent) of the total area is under commercial plantations which are mainly found in the

eastern highlands. The distribution of commercial tree species, is as follows: pines

occupies seventy one thousand seven hundred and seventy one hectares (66.32%),

eucalyptus occupies twenty six thousand two hundred and seventy four hectares

(24.28%), wattle have ten thousand and nine (9.25%) and popular has one hundred and

sixty hectares (0.15%).

As noted by Kammen, (2001), Zimbabwe’s economy depends heavily on natural

resources for employment creation, generation of foreign currency and sustenance of

livelihoods. The forestry sector contributes about three percent of the gross domestic

product largely from exotic plantations and commercial indigenous timber. The formal

forestry sector in Zimbabwe employed a total of fourteen thousand two hundred and fifty

three people in the year 2005.

2.1.1 Decline in timber production.

According to Mahonye and Makate, (2008), timber production declined from a peak of

four hundred and fifty cubic meters to less than one hundred and fifty thousand cubic

meters due to: influx of illegal settlers in Chimanimani plantations who are building

houses in plantations, power outages and collapse of cluster industries, prevented

foresters from accessing plantations to replant or carry out other forestry operations, and

fire outbreaks

Muchinguri, (2007), also added that timber exports during the 2006/07 season declined

by 15.2% to US$36 448 329, against a backdrop of mounting challenges in the sector. A

total of nine thousand six hundred and twenty cubic meters of sawn timber was exported

Chapanda Kudakwashe Gracious R0645087 - 2010 dissertation page 1

during the period under review, the bulk of it to the grossly under supplied South African

market. Gonad, (2008), explained that, as a result of veld fires the timber industry had

lost a lot of man hours in terms of production as more time was being committed to

fighting the fires. Production had nearly grounded to a halt from the ten to thirty percent

capacity that the industry was operating. The table below shows a simple illustration of

how production have been declining since 2005.

Table 2.1.1 (a) forestry production output between 2005 and 2008

Type of

plant

Number of

plants

Production

2005

Production

2006

Production

2007

Production

2008

Sawmill and

processed

timber

41 400000m3 390000m3 370000m3 365000m3

Treated

poles

6 95000m3 92000m3 90000m3 85500m3

Wattle

extract

1 4500tonnes 4480tonnes 4460tonnes 4455tonnes

Charcoal

1 9200tonnes 9190tonnes 9180tonnes 9178tonnes

Source: Mabugu, (2007), Accounting for forestry resources.

2.1.2 Causes of decline in timber production.

The Zimbabwean timber production have been affected by theft, animals and fire

resulting in low timber out put in the country. Kanyekanye, (2005), cited that, about

twenty two million United States Dollars of export timber was lost to forest fires and

baboons since the beginning of the year 2008. According to Hammond, (2006), vast

areas of forestry land in Zimbabwe have been destroyed by uncontrolled fires. One


thousand six hundred and twenty three hectares of timber owned by Border Timbers

Private Limited and two hundred hectares of timber belonging to Forestry Company of

Zimbabwe had been destroyed.

Zaikowski, (2008), cited that, the total global area burned annually between 2005 and

2006 was in the range of three hundred to four hundred million hectares, and about half

of this was in Africa. Southern Africa accounted for about thirty one percent of the forest

loss on the continent. Kadzere M, (2005), also added that due to the fires, animals and

theft, trees of all ages have been destroyed and consequently log shortages will occur for

many years. Added to that the new farmers were preventing foresters from replanting in

the fire damaged areas.

It can be noted from the above argument that the timber producing companies in

Zimbabwe were experiencing a decline in timber output since the year 2005. The Wattle

Company Limited is failing to meet the demands of the customers especially the South

African market which is the major importer of Zimbabwean timber. Failure to meet

demands may result in the company loosing its customers. The decline is said to result

from damages caused by fire, animals and theft.

2.2 Major threats on plantations

According to Fichani, (2009), low timber production is a result of damages caused by

fire, animals and theft. Nicolas and Beebe, (1999), explained that once a plantation has

been established it will be necessary to protect it against fire, animals and thieves. Evans,

(1992), pointed out that the nature of a plantation, its uniformity in age and species, often

along with the kind of site it occupies, renders it more susceptible to some forms of

damage.

The above authors considers fire, theft and animals as the major threats on plantations

hence plantations managers are required to take considerable measures to protect their

plantations from the damage caused by these threats. These threats are the major reason


why the management designs plantation security systems to protect their plantations from

any danger.

2.2.1 Fire

Evans, (1992), cited that fire will often be the most important danger facing plantations.

He pointed out that the greatest danger of fire is when the plantation is young before the

canopy have closed and suppressed the ground vegetation, though in dry conditions with

strong winds, mature plantations can also be destroyed. According to Nicolas and

Beebe, (1999), many plantations suffer from fires every year in the dry season though

how much is burnt can vary enormously. Lara, (1993), pointed out that damage by fire

impose a serious threat to plantations. Fire can originate from natural causes such as

lightning but many result of the activities of man. Lara , (1993), added that, plantation

fires can start from fires spreading from farmland on the perimeter, from activities of

hunters or from burning by herdsman to improve livestock grazing.

Fire danger is most high when the plantation is young and in the dry season as mentioned

by the above authors meaning that the security managers should implement tight security

strategies during this period of time when the risk is very high. It can also be noted that

fire can originate either from natural causes such lighting or from human activities such

as farming, hunting, transportation and children play. Human causes can either be

deliberate or by mistake.

2.2.2 Animals

2.2.2.1 Wild animals.

Evans, (1992), pointed out that, there are three orders of wild animals responsible for

damage; rodents (rats, mice, moles and squirrels); lagomorphs (hares and rabbits); and

artiodactyls (deer, antelopes, pigs and buffaloes). Evans, (1992), added that damage from

wild animals can threaten the quality of the trees. Baboon damage to plantations has

resulted in high tree mortality and significantly reduced log recoveries per hectare.


2.2.2.2 Domestic animals.

“Grazing domestic animals has and continues to be a most destructive agent of forest,

both natural and plantations”, said Evans, (1992:152). Rathfon and Farlee, (2002),

advised that , because cattle, sheep, goats and camels, eat tree foliage, they must be

excluded from a plantation while it is young. Inevitably this means that a young

plantation often has dense ground vegetation growing between the trees, which further

increases the attractiveness for grazing. McKenna and Woeste, (2009), explained that,

cattle sheep and horses tend to congregate beneath certain trees for shade and to rest, a

behavior that causes both direct and indirect injuries to trees.

Both wild and domestic wild animals have some effects on the timber production. As

mentioned by the authors above they affect both quality and quantity of timber to be

harvested. Baboons tend to be the most dangerous wild animals that affect the Wattle

Company’s timber plantations. Domestic animals like goats, cattle and sheep eat the tree

foliage of young plantations.

2.2.3 Theft.

Evans, (1992), noted that, in areas where there are shortages of firewood for cooking and

heating, stealing from a nearby plantation is almost inevitable. In some cases the right to

collect firewood is granted but often the villagers demand outstrips supply. Sometimes

villagers cut trees for poles used for the construction of houses, kraals and fencing.

Kanyekanye, (2007), stated that, resettled farmers are illegally cutting down timber from

plantations in the process of clearing land for farming.

People poach timber from plantations for different reasons as suggested by the above

authors. Some people are engaged in timber poaching as way to make money; others for

the construction of their houses, kraals and fencing; and others illegally harvest timber as

they will be clearing land for farming.


2.3 Plantation security system

To protect plantations from the mentioned threats, the forestry companies have the

necessary security systems in place. Nicolas and Beebe, (1999), explained that once a

plantation has been established it will be necessary to protect it against fire, thieves and

animals. Evans, (1992), argued that successful plantation is only possible provided there

is adequate protection.

A plantation need to be protected from the damage caused by animals, thieves and fire as

a result the management should make sure that they have designed effective plantation

security systems are. The more efficient the plantation security system is the lesser the

damages by fire animals and thieves.

2.3.1 Security.

According to O’Brien, (2005), security is a condition that result from the establishment

and maintenance of protective measures that ensure a state of inviolability from hostile

acts or influence. Security measures should be implemented, monitored and maintained

to ensure that there is enough protection of the plantation from any hostile acts. The

hostile acts are the threats mentioned above.

2.3.2 A system.

O’Brien, (2005), defined a system as a group of interrelated components working

together toward a common goal by accepting inputs and producing outputs in an

organized transformation process. According to Schulthers and Summer, (1999), a

system is an integrated set of components or entities, that interact to achieve particular

function or goal. A system has characteristics such as boundaries, outputs and inputs,

methods of converting inputs into outputs and system interfaces.

O’Brien, (2005), explained that a system has three basic interacting components or

functions which are: inputs – which involve capturing and assembling elements that enter

the system to be processed; processing – which involve transformation processes that


convert input into out put; output – which involve transferring elements that have been

produced by a transformation process to their unlimited destination.

From the above authors it can be noted that a system consist of components. These

components should be related in one way or another. There should be inputs, processing

and outputs.

2.3.4 Security system.

Schulthers and Summer, (1999), defined a security system as a device or multiple

devices designed, installed and operated to monitor, detect and communicate about

activity that may pose a security threat in a location or locations on a vessel or facility.

2.3.5 Plantation security system.

From the above definition one may have a view of what a plantation security system is. It

can be noted that a security system is a device or devices designed, installed and operated

to monitor, detect and communicate about activity or activities that may pose a security

threat in a location or locations.

On a plantation security system the, devices are the inputs of the system which include

the employees, community, neighboring companies, machinery and equipment. The

activities that may pose security threat on a plantation security system are fire, animals

and theft. These are the activities that the system has to monitor, detect and

communicate.

The location on the plantation security system is the plantation. So a plantation security

system consist of employees, community, neighboring companies, equipment and

machinery that are put together and operated to monitor, detect and communicate about

the fires, animals and theft on a plantation.


Fig 2.3.5 (a) a plantation security system.

Source: Nicolas and Beebe, (1999).

2.3.5.1 Inputs.

According to Nicolas and Beebe, (1999), the inputs of the plantation security system

consist of employees, the community, neighboring companies, equipment and

machinery.

Employees.

The security department should have enough employees who are well trained and

experienced in the field. These employees may consist of; foresters, fire fighters and

guards. Foresters are responsible for patrolling throughout the plantations during the day

for early detection of danger. Firefighters are those individuals who are trained to deal

with any kind of fire. Young plantations are usually guarded by some individuals who

will be chasing away animals from the plantation.

The community.

Chapanda Kudakwashe Gracious R0645087 - 2010 dissertation page

Inputs

Employees,Community,Neighboring companies,Equipment,Machinery

Processing

Observations- patrol, lookout towers, cameras, binoculars

Communication – two way radios, siren, bells, phones

Protection – firebreaks, fencing, fuel breaks, guards, repellents Action – fire fighting, chasing, arresting

Output

Timber production

8

The community refers to those people who are close to the plantations or those who

benefit from the plantation resources. Nicolas and Beebe, (1999), argued that, it is a

major step forward if the forestry companies integrate key communities into the

protection management of forests. Key communities are those with access to the area to

hunt and collect forestry produce, or simply because they are close to the plantations

boundaries.

Neighboring companies.

Most fires starts outside concessions and enter as wildfires. It is essential if security

management is to be successful, that neighboring companies cooperate and coordinate to

protect their areas from fire, animals and theft. The companies as suggested by Nicolas

and Beebe, (1999), need to discuss: communications to coordinate protection operations,

early warning and danger issues, plans for patrolling along the borders of the plantations,

approaches to and cooperation with local communities, training and awareness

campaigns; sharing of equipment and personnel.

Equipment and machinery.

Lara, (1993), noted that, the company should buy the necessary equipment and

machinery to be used in the protection program. Firefighting vehicles, motor bikes,

bulldozers, surveillance cameras, two way radios, chainsaws, rakes, and so on are very

important in the system. Without enough equipment and machinery the security system

will have a lot of loopholes with which the threats can use to damage the plantations.

2.3.5.2 Processing.

Observations.

The functions of the process as stated by Nicolas and Beebe, (1999), starts by

observations which is meant to detect any threat on plantation security. Rapid detection

and movement of the security teams to the scene will greatly reduce damage. For large

plantations detection is usually by watchers posted at times of high danger in lookout

towers. Where there are no towers observers can be posted at good vantage points with

views over the plantation. From the diagram it can be seen that observation is done


through patrols, lookout towers, surveillance cameras or binoculars. The community,

employees or workers from neighbor companies should be equipped with the necessary

skills and equipment to do some observations in the plantations.

Communication.

Communication is the second function of the system. Lara, (1993), stated that, if there is

any threat detected, it should be communicated immediately to everyone involved in the

plantation security system. According to Nicolas and Beebe, (1999), communication can

be done through two way radios, sirens, bells or phones. Evans, (1992), added that, rapid

detection is the first step, the alarm must be raised and information about a threat, its

location and possible size, relayed to the security department. Rapid detection of fire and

raising the alarm are first two essentials of good communication, the third is enabling the

firefighting teams to reach the scene quickly. Thus a plantation requires at least a

rudimentary system of roads and tracks passable by vehicles.

Protection.

The third function is protection. Lara, (1993), argued that, as the managers anticipate

damage from any of the discussed threats at any time, they are then forced to put some

protection measures to reduce the effects of the threats. As suggested by Nicolas and

Beebe, (1999), firebreaks, fuelbreaks, security fence, guards and repellents can be used

as protection measures.

Action.

According to Nicolas and Beebe, (1999), when the threat is detected and all the people

are informed, the necessary action should be taken. If it is the fire outbreak, people

should fight the fire; wild animals must be chased away from plantation and thieves

arrested.

2.3.5.3 Output.


The output of a plantation security system is the reduction of losses caused by fire,

animals and theft. When the system is operating at high level of efficiency, the effects of

the mentioned threats will be very low and as a result the loss of timber will be reduced.

Nicolas and Beebe, (1999), noted that the plantation security system is a group of

interrelated components that are designed to monitor, detect and communicate any

activity that may pose a security threat on a plantation.

For the system to operate efficiently it should have all the necessary resources. For

firefighting purposes water is the major resource required. Roads leading to the

plantation boundary are of special value as is a track running along a boundary so that

access is gained to where the danger may be approaching. When everything is in place

the management are then required to effectively manage the system so as to yield good

results. The main objective of designing a plantation security system is to reduce the

damages caused by humans and animals so as to increase timber output.

2.4 Challenges on managing security system

Nicolas and Beebe, (1999), noted that, once the security system is designed, it needs to

be effectively managed so as to reduce the lose caused by fire, animals and thieves.

However according to Fichani, (2009), managers are facing many challenges in the

process of managing these security systems. These challenges include economic,

political, environmental, social and legal challenges.

2.4.1 Physical environmental challenges.

2.4.1.1 Unpredictable weather

According to Kadzere, (2005), the occurrence of damaging weather phenomena is

usually unpredictable. Little can be done to protect timber plantations against the damage

caused by weather, except to grow tree species known to be resistant to the detrimental

effects of local weather patterns, or locating the stands of trees in sheltered areas. High

winds, rainfalls, temperatures, and so on are some of the weather phenomena which


causes damages to plantations. Gonda, (2008), also added that, Zimbabwe’s timber

industry is under threat amid projections that the country could face shortages in the next

fifteen years as a result of the tropical cyclones of 2000 and 2002. high cyclone induced

rainfall caused severe destruction of forests, particularly in the eastern highlands.

2.4.1.2 Climatic changes.

The impacts of global climate change on forest distribution was evaluated using the

Holdridge life zone and Goddard Institute of Space studies (GISS) general circulation

model scenarios, Matarira and Mwamuka, (1996). Across Zimbabwe, seventeen to

eighteen percent of the total land area is projected to shift from subtropical thorn

woodland and subtropical dry forest to tropical very dry forest under the Goddard

Institute of Space Studies scenario. The projected shift in forest distribution is

attributable to a future decline in precipitation patterns and an increase in ambient

temperatures.

2.4.1.3 Plantations are located at the exit points.

According to Mushongahande, (2007), most of the timber plantations in Zimbabwe are

located in the eastern highlands. Plantations are at the exit points to Mozambique and as

a result they are used by the border jumpers as they will be traveling to and from

Mozambique. Cooking fires, smoking stubs and other activities by the travelers

sometimes result in wild fires. The management of the Wattle Company Limited is

facing a great challenges from these travelers who are being very careless.

2.4.1.4 Plantations are located in remote areas.

Kammen, (2001), added that, ninety percent of the timber plantations in Zimbabwe are

in rural remote areas in the eastern highlands where there are no telephone facilities,

electricity nor good roads. This makes communication very difficult. Rathfon and Farlee,

(2002), argued that communication is very important for the security of plantations. Lara,

(1993), also pointed out that, if any threat is detected on the plantation it should be

communicated quickly. Without good roads the movement of vehicles is very slow,

however the security is advised to reach the scene of danger very quickly.


2.4.1.5 Plantations are located on sloppy ground.

According to Hammond, (2006), eastern highlands are characterized by a range of

mountains. Hirst, (2007), explained that, fire spreads far more quickly uphill than along

flatland or downhill. For every increase in slope a fire will double its rate of speed

traveling upslope. Nicolas and Beebe, (1999), stated that, slope greatly influence speed of

fire spread. Fuel breaks planted on hillsides are much more quickly burned through than

those on the flat ground. Slopes also affect the speed of the fire fighting team. Uphill

movement of the vehicles is very slow and due to the steepness of the ground roads are

sometimes affected by erosion during the rain season.

2.4.1.5 Sources of water are limited.

Mushongahande, (2007), also stated that natural sources of water are very limited within

the plantations. Because of the slopes in the eastern highlands, water from the rains

usually run downhill to the river. The sources of water for fire suppression are therefore

limited to rivers and dams. Evans, (1992), argued that it is very important for the

plantations to have some sources of water inside the plantations. The Wattle Company

Limited do not have other sources of water inside their plantations. They rely on water

from nearby dams or rivers.

2.4.2 Social challenges.

2.4.2.1 Land conflicts with the community.

According to Nicolas and Beebe, (1999), many plantation fires undoubtedly arise from

disputes over land ownership, water supply, recreational, fishing and hunting areas. The

villagers from the Nyaruwa and Chinyai clans in Chimanimani, as stated by Sifile,

(2008), resettled themselves on the timber plantations of Border Timbers Limited (BTL)

at the height of the land invasions, arguing that the plantation was situated on land that

used to belong to their ancestors. Repeated attempts including a high court order- to have

the estimated five hundred families evicted have been in vain.

2.4.2.2 Carelessness of the villagers.


It is true that most of the human causes of fire is deliberate, but it can also be argued that

in some cases it result from mistakes and carelessness. Evans, (1992), pointed out that,

sometimes fires occur as a result of the carelessness of the villagers. Farmers usually

burn their farms in preparation for the farming season or to improve their grazing

pastures and such burning usually end up in wild fires. The Wattle Company is facing so

many fire outbreaks from the villagers’ farming and hunting activities. Though the

villagers are educated about the danger of fire, they are very irresponsible.

2.4.2.3 Villagers hunting in the plantations.

Hirst, (2007), suggested that, hunting in plantations by the society also put the plantation

at a risk of fire. Hunters may leave their hunting fires burning, their smoking stubs and

they sometimes cut the young trees as they will be hunting thereby disturbing the growth

of the trees. Sifile, (2008), pointed out that, villagers sometimes burn plantations in their

process of searching mice and small animals to avert pervasive hunger. Restricting

villagers from entering plantations may result in unwelcome reactions by the villagers

and other hand allowing them to have access into the plantation is putting the plantation

at risk.

2.4.2.4 Playing village children.

Nicolas and Beebe, (1999), also talked of the children from the village who start some

plantation fires as they will be playing in the plantations. Since the communities are

located at the boundaries of the timber plantations the children have easy access to the

plantations and in most cases they find plantations a good playing area.

2.4.2.5 Domestic animals of the villagers.

Evans, (1992), suggested that grazing domestic animals has and continues to be a most

destructive agent of forest. The community let their livestock into the plantation to graze

usually on young plantation where there is dense ground vegetation growing between the

trees. According to Nicolas and Beebe, (1999), before planting, land acquired for

afforestation may be casually grazed. This is of no direct concern to a forester and may

even be encouraged to keep down rank vegetation, but when planting begins, the


curtailment of this right may be deeply resented by grazers used to pasturing their

animals on the land. The community will let their animals into the plantations to graze

and sometimes they cut the tree branches for fodder.

2.4.2.6 Poaching of timber by villagers.

Evans, (1992), pointed out that, in areas where there are shortages of firewood for

cooking and heating, stealing from a nearby plantation is almost inevitable. In some

cases the right to collect firewood is granted but the villagers often demand outstrips

supply. Sometimes villagers cut trees for poles to construct houses, kraals and fencing.

Because of poverty many households have turned to timber poaching as a way of

survival. The Wattle Company Limited is facing this problem of timbers but its very

difficult to find out those responsible since the timber plantations are very large.

2.4.3 Economic challenges.

2.4.3.1 High level of inflation.

According to Gumede, (2009), the hyper inflation in the recent years resulted in many

experienced workers leaving their employment in search for greener pastures. Forestry

companies in Chimanimani and Nyanga have been hit by a critical flight of workers who

abandoned their chainsaws for gold panning in nearby Mozambique.

Hammond, (2006), added that forestry companies experienced a critical shortage of

manpower. Most of the general hands abandoned work for gold panning, citing poor

remuneration and poor working conditions. Gumede, (2009), explained that, unless

something was done to rectify the problem, production at most timber estates could be

affected. According to Mahonye and Makate, (2008), over four million Zimbabweans

have fled the country. This massive brain drain of the most qualified Zimbabweans

undermines any possibility of reversing the catastrophic collapse of Zimbabwean

economy.


According Gonda, (2008), in a number of cases employees were getting frustrated with

the lack of salaries and their living standards as a result they blamed their employees for

not responsible. It is the government that is responsible for the collapse of the economy

but it seems easier and in some cases safer to take their frustrations out on their

employers. Many plantations have been suffering fires from the frustrated employees.

Inflationary period in the recent years kept on haunting the Wattle Company Limited’s

operations. During the period many of its experienced workers left to seek for greener

pastures in countries like South Africa and Botswana. From these individuals there were

some professionals from the security department. Because of this the company is facing a

shortage of experienced personnel in the security department. Nicolas and Beebe, (1999),

pointed out that well trained and experienced workers are part of the plantation security

system. Without one of the inputs the system may not work properly. This is one the

reasons why the systems are failing to produce quality results.

2.4.3.2 High level of unemployment.

Hammond, (2006), stated that, the increasing levels of unemployment and poverty in

Zimbabwe have led many households turning to timber poaching for survival. Zimbabwe

has a sixty percent unemployment rate as noted by Mushongahande, (2007). Many

people in the nearby communities turn to plantation burning as a way to create

employment for themselves in the fire suppression and subsequent replanting. He added

that, sixty two percent of Zimbabwean households are poor with forty six percent of

them living in absolute poverty as they can hardly afford basic food requirements some

of these households are turning to timber poaching for survival.

Forests are also being cleared for fuelwood fines imposed for breaching forestry laws

become increasingly meaningless and provide little deterrence. Much of the illegally

harvested timber has been exported to neighboring countries for below market value.

Under the Forestry Act, timber processing companies are only permitted to export

processed hardwood, but many have been exporting raw timber to make quick profits.


The Forestry Commission has made attempts to clamp down on illegal exports, working

with the police and revenue authorities. Some truckloads of timber have been seized. The

authorities have also tried to prevent fuelwood collection by providing guards for

forested areas, but this has proved largely ineffective as desperation has forced many to

find ways to evade being apprehended.

2.4.3.3 The plantations are very large.

Timber plantations covers a very large area of land, one hundred and eight thousand two

hundred and fourteen hectares, according to Mushongahande. The size of the timber

plantations make it very expensive to enclose them using security fences or employing

security guards to man around the plantations. This means that though there is high risk

of plantation damage by both human and animals, plantations are left unclosed and

unprotected. Plantations size also makes it difficult to quickly detect a threat.

2.4.4 Political challenges.

2.4.4.1 Political violence.

Zaikowski, (2008), stated that, political instability has forced many institutions to close

for long period. One consequence of this is that there is an acute shortage of trained

forestry practitioners. In many areas forestry management has been suspended and illegal

loggers have at times devastated forest resources. Post-conflict periods do not necessarily

lead to more sustainable systems. There may, for example, be an increased demand for

wood during post-conflict reconstruction which can worsen the situation.

2.4.4.2 Illegal settlement.

Kanyekanye, (2007), cited that, Zimbabwe’s timber industry was under threat from

resettled farmers who were causing fires when clearing land for farming or illegally

cutting down timber from plantations. Gonda, (2008), pointed out that, during the year

2007 alone the resettled farmers cost the nation above one trillion Zimbabwean dollars

worth of timber through illegal harvests or fires. Two hundred and fifty two fires


occurred, damaging and destroying ten thousand hectares. The national forest resource

was diminished by ten percent. According to Hammond, (2006), due to fires resulting

from arson attacks or land clearing activities by unauthorized settlers in the plantations

trees of all ages have been destroyed and consequently log shortages will occur for many

years. Added to that, the new farmers were preventing foresters from replanting in the

fire damaged areas.

Mahonye and Makate, (2008), pointed out that the government was for political reasons

reluctant to act against the black farmers accused of causing fires. The author went on to

explain that many of the settlers occupying the plantations were settled there by the

government contrary to its earlier claims that it would not seize plantations for

redistribution to landless people. Muchinguri, (2007), argued that the damage caused to

timber plantation could take up to twenty years to correct. The damage caused by

forestry fires since year 2000 when the government began its land redistribution exercise

was greater than damage incurred in the previous thirty years.

From the authors above it can be noted that, because of political reasons some people

seize some of the plantations that belonged to forestry companies. This is one of the

challenge that the Wattle Company Limited is facing. Some of its plantations were seized

by some political activists. Though the management went to court they were unable to

remove the settlers from plantations who claimed the land to be their ancestors’. Because

of politics the timber producing companies are not getting support from the government

to protect their plantations. Those plantations that were taken means that the will be a

period in the future where there will be some shortage of timber.

2.4.4.3 Land reform.

As noted by Gwaze, (2004), Zimbabwe’s commercial timber production has shrunk by

fifty percent, largely because of uncertainties caused by changes in land tenure

legislation, uncontrolled veld fires and increases in production costs. Uncertainty brought

about by the government’s chaotic land redistribution exercise has resulted in non

expansion of plantations.


2.4.5 Legal challenges.

Conversation of forest resources in Zimbabwe is responsibility of the Zimbabwe forestry

commission which was established by an act of parliament. The forestry commission has

four technical divisions namely research and development, indigenous resources,

commercial and forestry extension. These divisions implement the different aspects of

two acts (the forest act and the communal forest produce act)

According to Katerere, (1996), the forestry act of 1996 forbids people from burning,

growing or standing vegetation on any land without prior notice to the occupants of all

adjourning land and the police. The act further stipulates that in the event that one is

found guilt in a court of law, the accused should be liable of either a fine or

imprisonment.

The forestry act has been criticized as being inadequate. The fines that the people are

paying are very small that they can not stop people from poaching timber or burning the

plantations. the issue of Chimanimani settlers who were found guilt of burning

plantations as they were clearing land for farming and nothing was done to those people,

clearly shows that the laws are not functioning well. It seem laws and politics are linked

because the people in Chimanimani were let go because their issue was politically based.

The communal land forest produce act restricts the use of forest products in communal

areas by the local people to “own use”. It further states that communal people are not

allowed to enter the plantations or use plantation resources like dams, hunting, and so

forth without permission from the owners. This act was criticized for being too

restrictive. The act in its present form fails to recognize the rights and interests of

communities. The community is left with no incentive to protect the plantations and

sometimes they end up burning those plantations because of frustration.

The government is always imposing new rules and regulations some of which directly or

indirectly affect the security of timber plantations. Kanyekanye, (2006) stated that, in the


year 2000, the Forest Act was sidelined in favour of the land reform programme. Since

then , the plantations have had little protection against fires. In many cases plantation

managers have reported the illegal settlers to the police for burning down plantations and

illegally cutting down the trees but the police have shown unwillingness to arrest the

farmers because they considered the matter to be political.

2.5 Relationship among plantation security system, timber output, threats and

challenges

It can be noted that plantation security system is directly related to the timber output. By

designing an effective system the management can reduce any losses thereby increasing

timber output. However the effectiveness of the plantation security system can be

affected by economic, political, environmental and social challenges. All these

challenges are the contributing factors to the weaknesses in the plantation security

systems for the Zimbabwean timber producing companies. The loopholes created in the

plantation security systems by political, economic, environmental and social challenges

will create lines of weaknesses through which the threats passes through to damage the

plantations. When the plantations are damaged this means the future output of timber

will decrease by the percentage damaged. This is the reason why the Wattle Company

Limited is experiencing a decline in timber output. If this problem is to be solved first the

management should deal with the discussed challenges otherwise the problem will

persist.

2.6 Empirical evidence

Maunati, (2005), stated that, Indonesia has around 112.3 million hectares of state forests,

consisting of protected forest (29.3 million hectares), reserve forest (19 million hectares),

and production forest (64 million hectares). Most of the challenges that Zimbabwean

timber companies are facing currently have been also of concern in Indonesia in 1980s.

the country have tried to deal with those challenges as to improve its timber production.

2.5.1 Physical environmental challenges


The timber plantations in Indonesia most of them are in the Sumatra and Kalimantan,

where the terrain is sloppy. Just like the Zimbabwean timber companies Indonesia also

faced terrain problem. Nicolas and Beebe, (1999), stated that, slope greatly influences

speed of fire spread. Fuel breaks planted on hillsides are much more quickly burned

through than those on flat ground.

To reduce the problem of fire on steep slopes the concessions are making very wide fuel

breaks ranging from 250 – 350 meters. A fuel break is a strip of land on which the native

vegetation has been permanently modified so that fires that burn into them can be more

readily contained. If it is an economic necessity to make narrower fuel breaks, these

should be restricted to flat areas. Width must not be compromised where the ground next

to road is steep. Cleaning of the fuel breaks should be most thorough where they are on

slope.

Rathfon and Farlee, (2002), noted that , the installation of man made sources and access

of water are a part of a fire management planning where natural sources of water within a

concession are limited. Holes are dug within the plantations before the dry season to help

ensure a water supply in the dry season. Water tanks are also constructed within the

plantations to be filled with water pumped from the nearby dam or river. Canals that run

through the plantations are constructed to meet the water problem.

A network of wide tarred roads is also constructed in the plantations to cater for the

movement of fire fighting teams. In some areas light railways channels are laid within

the plantation for access of the security teams to the point of danger.

2.5.2 Social challenges.

As noted by Maunati, (2005), just like in Zimbabwe the timber companies in Indonesia

have been facing problems with the community who claimed the land to belong to their

ancestors. These villagers would turn to plantation burning as a way to show their

disapproval of forestry policies. As a result the concession owners had to do something

to reduce lose of timber caused by the villagers. Concessions encouraged the


communities to participate in fire prevention. This involved the employment of local

villagers as prevention aides.

Local communities are compensated to prevent fires as well as paid to form volunteers

fire crews. As noted by Nicolas and Beebe, (1999), it is a major step forward if the

concessions and plantations integrate key communities into the protection management

of forests. According to Zaikowski, (2008), key communities are those with access to the

area to hunt and collect forestry produce, or simply because they are close to the

plantation boundaries. The communities need to be identified and included in plantation

protection.

To gain involvement the concessions pay a sensible wage to groups of villagers to man

lookout positions every afternoon (the time of greater risk than the morning). Equipped

with radio they report every fire spotted. If a local fire does start they fight it immediately

and join concession crews who attend later. No additional pay is given for fire fighting.

The scheme has the merit that members of the community are paid even if there are no

fires and they thus do not have to work to earn. As a further incentive to community

involvement, properly trained and equipped village fire crews are paid to patrol close to

the village and to maintain the fuel breaks on the plantation boundaries.

Participatory land use planning followed by participatory boundary mapping is of

essence. If this is to work the companies must demonstrate goodwill and be prepared to

concede more land than they wish. The success of community involvement schemes

depend on mutual trust, a commodity that has been singularly absent in the past and

which will thus take time and patience to develop in the future.

The companies called for the adoption of a plantation policy that was crafted by the

industry, which among other issues calls for settlement bordering estates to be at least

five kilometers away from the edge of the forest plantation.

2.5.3 Economic challenges.


The peasants in the local communities are the most threat to illegal logging of plantation

in Indonesia. The rate of illegal logging have been increasing since 1980. The forestry

companies are employing people from the neighboring communities whenever vacancies

exist. This is trying to reduce the poverty level of the community so that in the future

there may be no cases of illegal logging. This also create a good relationship between the

villagers and the companies.

To retain most experienced workers from leaving the concessions are paying their

workers favorable wages better working conditions. Schools, hospitals, banking,

transport and other services are provided by the concessions in these remote rural areas.

The workers feel very comfortable with the environment they are working.

2.5.4 Legal challenges.

In the early 1980s laws for forestry protection in Indonesia were not effective just like in

Zimbabwe currently. Illegal loggers or those who were arrested for burning plantations

were given a very light sentence as a result people were not stopped from poaching

timber but encouraged to do so. However in 2004 according to Maunati, the government

designed policies to preserve the timber concessions. One such a policy was to increase

fine paid by illegal loggers and jail time.

2.5.5 Political challenges.

There was a time in Indonesia in early 1990s when people seize plantations for political

reasons. The government assisted the concession owners by sending hundreds of police

and paramilitaries with tear gas and guns to evict the illegal settlers from timber

plantations. the police and the army would guard the plantations during the day and night

to protect them from illegal loggers.

How successful were the strategies in Indonesia.

The strategies that were taken by the timber producing companies in Indonesia was very

successful since its timber production increased from 14000m3in 2004 to 26000m3 in

2008. The fire outbreaks have been reduced and illegal logging is no longer a big


problem to the forestry companies in Indonesia. The working environment in the industry

has attracted so many experienced personnel.

2.6 Chapter summary

In this chapter the researcher gave reference to articles and books that covered key

factors in the research. The researcher analyzed the challenges faced in the management

of plantation security systems and how these challenges can affect the effectiveness of a

security system in trying to protecting a plantation from the such threats as fire, animals

and theft. Solutions to the challenges are also highlighted in this chapter. Having

discussed the various approaches and variables that are available in the literature, the

following chapter presents the methodological approach to be used in this study.


Chapter Two 2.0 Literature Review 2.1 Introduction

Documents

Transcript of Chapter Two 2.0 Literature Review 2.1 Introduction