CHAPTER 5edhswilson.weebly.com/uploads/5/6/1/3/5613731/chapter_5_part_a.pdf · 6. Lower jawbone 7....

CHAPTER 5

©Thompson Educational Publishing, Inc. 2003. All material is copyright protected. It is illegal to copy any of this material.

This material may be used only in a course of study in which Exercise Science: An Introduction to Health and Physical Education (Temertzoglou/Challen) is the

Diagnostic TestSkeletal Words Made Easy

Match the terms on the right with the terms on the left.

1. Breastbone

2. Shinbone

3. Skull

4. Kneecap

5. Shoulder blade

6. Lower jawbone

7. Upper jawbone

8. Thigh bone

9. Tail bone

10. Fingers

11. Backbones

12. Upper arm

13. Toes

14. collarbone

1. Clavicle

2. Coccyx

3. Cranium

4. Femur

5. Humerus

6. Mandible

7. Maxilla

8. Patella

9. Scapula

10. Phalanges

11. Vertebrae

12. Sternum

13. Tibia

14. *one word is used twice

Diagnostic TestAnswers

1. Breastbone

2. Shinbone

3. Skull

4. Kneecap

5. Shoulder blade

6. Lower jawbone

7. Upper jawbone

8. Thigh bone

9. Tail bone

10. Fingers

11. Backbones

12. Upper arm

13. Toes

14. collarbone

1. Sternum

2. Tibia

3. Cranium

4. Patella

5. Scapula

6. Mandible

7. Maxilla

8. Femur

9. Coccyx

10. phalanges

11. Vertebrae

12. Humerus

13. Phalanges

14. clavicle

Lesson 5.1

© 2015 Thompson Educational Publishing, Inc.

4

ANATOMICAL TERMINOLOGY

~ ~ ~

TOPICS COVERED IN THIS LESSON

• (a) The Anatomical Position, Planes, and Axes

• (b) Describing Movements at Joints

Pg.118

The Anatomical Position

The anatomical position is

the standard position

(standing straight, looking

forward, arms at your side,

and hands facing forward)

used to describe the

locations and relationships

of anatomical parts on your

body.

•It is used in similar way to

how the markings on a

compass are used to describe

locations in geography.

Characteristics of the AnatomicalPosition


6

The key features of the anatomical position are as follows:

•The person is in an upright,

standing position with his or

her head, eyes, and toes pointing forward.

•The feet are together and the

arms are slightly out to the

side.

•The forearms are fully

supinated; in other words, the palms of the hands are facing

forward.

Examples of Anatomical Relationships


7

• Anterior / PosteriorThe sternum is anterior to the heart (so

anterior also means “in front of”). The

heart also has an anterior surface.

• Superior / InferiorSuperior refers to upward surfaces, inferior

refers to downward surfaces.

• Medial / LateralMedial means towards the midline or

towards the median plane, whereas lateral means away from the midline or

away from the median plane.

• Proximal / DistalProximal means towards the point of

attachment of the limb to the body,

whereas distal means farther away from

the point of attachment.

Anatomical Planes and Anatomical Axes


8

The anatomical position is further standardized by dividing the body into

•Anatomical planesand

•Anatomical axes

Pg. 120

Anatomical Planes


9

• Frontal planeThe frontal (coronal) plane is

vertical and extends from one side of the body to the other.

• Transverse plane The

transverse (horizontal) plane is

horizontal and divides the body into upper and lower segments.

• Sagittal planeThe sagittal (median) plane is

vertical and extends from the

front of the body to the back.

– A vertical plane that bisects the body into right and left halves.

Sagittal

Plane

Sagittal Plane

Flexion/extension

The Sagittal Plane

Sagittal plane– The plane dividing the body into right

and left portions

Frontal plane• A vertical plane that bisects the

body into front and back

• It is at right angles to the sagittal plane

Frontal

Plane

Frontal

Plane

Frontal plane– The plane dividing the body into front and back

portions

– Also called the Coronal plane

Transverse plane

– A transverse plane that bisects the body into top and bottom

– It’s at right angles to both the sagittal and frontal planes

Transvers

e Plane

Transverse

Plane

Transverse plane– The horizontal plane dividing the body into upper

and lower portions

– Also called the Horizontal plane

Anatomical Axes


19

• Horizontal axisThe horizontal axis extends from one side of the body to the other.

• Longitudinal axis The longitudinal axis (also known as the polar axis) is vertical, running from head to toe.

•Antero-posterior axisThe antero-posterioraxis extends from the front of the body to the back.

Horizontal Axis• Horizontal or (bilateral axis) is in an “east-west”

relationship to the anatomical position.

Antero-Posterior Axis• Antero-posterior axis is in a “front-to-back” relationship

to the anatomical position.

Longitudinal Axis

• Longitudinal or (polar axis) is in a “north-south” relationship to the anatomical position.

Planes and Corresponding Axes

Describing a Body Movement:General Rule


10

A body movement can be described in terms of the anatomical plane through which it occurs and the anatomical axis around which it rotates.

THE GENERAL RULE FOR DESCRIBING A BODY

MOVEMENT:

The axis of rotation is always perpendicular to the plane of

movement.

Axis of Rotation Plane of Motion Example

Horizontal (Bilateral)

Longitudinal (Polar)

Antero-Posterior

Relationship between Planes and Axes

Relationship between Planes and Axes

Axis of Rotation Plane of Motion Example

Horizontal (Bilateral) Sagittal Flexion, extension

Longitudinal (Polar) Transverse Rotation of extremities, axial rotation

Antero-Posterior Frontal (Coronal) Abduction, adduction

Various Movements and Planes of Movement

Activity Axis PlaneStride Jump

Cartwheel

Elbow extension

Nodding yes

Tuck

Somersault

Twirling

Shaking head no

Various Movements and Planes of Movement

Activity Axis PlaneStride Jump Horizontal Sagittal

Cartwheel Antero-Posterior Frontal

Elbow extension Horizontal Sagittal

Nodding yes Horizontal Sagittal

Tuck Horizontal Sagittal

Somersault Horizontal Sagittal

Twirling Longitudinal Transverse

Shaking head no Longitudinal Transverse

#1. Guess the plane and corresponding axis.

Sagittal Plane/Horizontal Axis


Transverse Plane/Longitudinal Axis


Frontal Plane/Antero-posterior Axis

Terms Used to Describe Movement


33

• Flexion is the action of bending at a

joint such that the joint angle

decreases (e.g., when you bend your

elbow to bring your palm up towards

your face).

• Extension is the opposite of

flexion.

• Abduction (“ab” = “from”) occurs

when you move a body segment to

the side and away from your body

(e.g., moving your arm out to the side

and bringing it level with your

shoulder).

• Adduction (“ad” = “to”) is the

opposite of abduction.



34

• Plantar flexion is specific to the ankle

joint. It occurs when you point your toes

(e.g., when you stand on your tip toes).

• Dorsiflexion occurs when you bend the

ankle to bring the top of your foot closer to

your shin.

• Supination is rotating the wrist such that

the palm of your hand is facing forward

(e.g., when youcatch a softball underhanded with one

hand).• Pronation occurs in the opposite

direction.



35

• Inversion is associated with the ankle joint.

It is a result of standing on the outer edge of your foot (e.g., when you twist your ankle).

• Eversion is a result of standing on the inner

edge of your foot.

• External rotation results when you twist

or turn a body part outward from the midline (eg., turning your toes outward).

• Internal rotation results when you twist or

turn a body part inward towards the midline.



36

• Elevation refers to movement in an upwards direction (e.g., hunching your shoulders).

• Depression is the opposite motion—movement in a downwards direction (e.g., slouching your shoulders).

• Circumduction is a combination of

flexion, extension, abduction, and

adduction. An example of this

movement occurs when asoftball pitcher throws a ball with a “windmill” action.

Supine Lying on the back

when performing a bench press

Prone Lying face down when preparing to

perform a push-up

Ankle Sprains

Inversion Ankle Sprain Eversion Ankle Sprain (Potts Fracture)

Guess the movements

Abduction

Guess the movements

Supination

Guess the movements

Dorsiflexion

Lesson 5.2


43

THE MUSCULOSKELETAL SYSTEM

~ ~ ~


• (a) The Human Skeleton: An Overview

• (b) The Axial and Appendicular Skeleton

Pg.124

What Is the Human Skeleton?

The adult human skeleton is made up of 206 bones, accounting for about 14 percent of total body weight.

Humans start life with more bones than that—about 300 bones at birth. Over time, several bones fuse as growth takes place (such as in the skull and lower part of the vertebral column).


44

Pg.124

The Human Skeleton


20

The Human Skeletal System

Bones are made up of living tissue—bone cells, fat cells, and blood vessels.

Compared to other body systems, the human skeletal system is extremely hard and durable.

Bones themselves are composed primarily of the mineral calcium.

People whose diet is low in calcium may find their bones becoming increasingly brittle and breakable—a major concern for older people (osteoporosis).


46

Main Functions of the Skeletal System


47

The skeletal system provides structural support to the body, protects vital organs, serves as a growth centre for cells, acts as a reserve for minerals, and of course plays a major role in movement.

Classification of Bones in the Human Body


48

Bones are normally classified according to their

shape—long, short, flat, irregular, and a fifth type

(sesamoid) that is found within tendons.

Long bones are found in the arms and legs (e.g., the femur).

Short bones are most common in the wrists (e.g., the carpal

bones).

Flat bones are flat and thin and are found in the

roof of the skull.

Irregular bones include odd-looking bones such as the

bones in the vertebrae.

Sesamoid bones are unusual, small, flat bones wrapped

within tendons that move over bony surfaces (e.g., the patella).

Pg.125


49

Sesamoid Bones

Classify each bone.

1. 3. 4. 5.

6.

7.

2.

8.

See H.O.

Classify each bone.

1.FLAT3.LONG 4.SHORT 5.SESAMOID

6.LONG

7.IRREGULAR

2.SHORT

8. FLAT

The Structure of the Skeleton


55

The human skeletal system is generally divided into two main parts:

•The axial skeleton(shown in orange), and

•The appendicular skeleton

•(shown in green).

Pg.126

The Axial Skeleton—80 Bones

The axial skeleton is comprised mainly of the vertebral column (the spine), much of the skull, and the rib cage.

Most of the body’s core muscles originate from the axial skeleton.

These core muscles help stabilize and support the axial skeleton, thus providing proper posture and alignment.


56

The Appendicular Skeleton—126 Bones


57

The appendicular

skeleton includes the

movable limbs and their

supporting structures

(girdles), which play a

key role in allowing us to

move.

The appendicular

skeleton can be divided

into six major regions:

pectoral girdle; arms and

forearms; hands; pelvis;

thighs and legs; and feet

and ankles.


This material may be used only in a course of study in which Exercise Science: An Introduction to Health and Physical Education (Temertzoglou/Challen) is the required textbook.

Axial vs. Appendicular Skeleton

The axial skeleton consists of 80

bones:

26 vertebral column

1 hyoid

22 skull

6 auditory

25 ribs

The appendicular skeleton consists

of 126 bones:

64 upper extremity

62 lower extremity

Axial (80) + Appendicular (126) = 206 bones

Bone Landmarks


59

All the bones in the human skeleton have

features known as landmarks.

A landmark is a ridge, bump, groove,

depression, or prominence on the surface of

the bone that serves as a guide to the

locations of other body structures.

For example, the quadriceps muscles of the

front thigh ultimately wrap around the

patella (kneecap) and insert on the tibial

tuberosity (a landmark at the top of the

tibia).

Pg.126

The Anatomy of a Long Bone


60

See H.O.

Section through the head of the femur, showing the cortex, the red bone marrow and a spot of yellow bone marrow.

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/51/Caput_femoris_cortex_medulla.jpg

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/51/Caput_femoris_cortex_medulla.jpg



Epiphyseal Plates and Lines

Epiphyseal plates (growth

plates)

Occur at various

locations at the

epiphyses of long

bones

Growth possible

Epiphyseal lines

Occur when epiphyseal

plates have fused or

come together

Growth not possible

Epiphyseal

plate

Epiphyseal

line

Epiphyseal Plate or Line?

PlateLine

Which is a child’s hand, which

is the adult’s hand?

A BChild Adult

Osteoporosis

Low bone mass and deterioration of the bone tissue

The number of osteoblasts is decreased and the number of osteoclasts stay the same

Leads to bone fragility

Increased susceptibility to bone fractures

Preventative measures include:

Balanced diet rich in calcium and vitamin D, and a healthy lifestyle

Weight-bearing exercises

Bone density testing and medication when appropriate

Bone Injuries and Bone Disease


30

• Fractures—bone “breaks,” normally divided

into three types: simple, compound, and

comminuted.

• Stress fractures—tiny cracks caused by a

rapid increase in activity or when an athlete

switches training surfaces or wears footwear

with improper cushioning.

• Shin splints—a painful condition occurring on

the medial or lateral side of the tibia (shin

bone)—are another common sports injury.

• Tearing of the interosseous membrane

• If not treated, it may lead to a stress

fracture

Overuse injury

Occurs on the medial or lateral side of tibia (on shaft)

Tearing of the interosseous membrane or periosteum

Or Inflammation of the interosseous membrane

If left untreated-develop into stress fractures

SHIN SPLINTS

Fractures

• Despite its mineral

strength, bone may

crack or even break if

subjected to extreme

loads, sudden

impacts, or stresses

from unusual

directions.

– The damage produced

constitutes a fracture.



http://www.medicalphoto.com/

http://www.medicalphoto.com/



Types of Fractures

Stress fracture – most difficult to detect; tiny

crack in the bone; muscles too tired to

absorb shock; overuse injury

Simple (Closed) fracture – no separation;

bone ends don’t penetrate the skin.

Compound (Open) fracture – bone breaks

into separate pieces; bone ends penetrate

the skin.

Comminuted fracture – bone shatters into

many pieces. Common in the elderly (brittle

bones).

Greenstick fracture- bone breaks

incompletely. One side bent, one side

broken. Common in children.

Spiral-ragged break caused by excessive

twisting forces. Sports injury/Injury of abuse

Simple

fracture

Compound

fracture

Comminuted

fracture

Avulsion Fracture

• A closed fracture where a piece of bone is

broken off by a sudden, forceful contraction of a

muscle.

Fractures

Greenstick Fracture Spiral Fractures



Stress Fractures





What kind of fracture is this?Comminuted

Lesson 5.3


76

MAJOR BONES OF THE HUMAN BODY

~ ~ ~


• (a) Bones of the Axial Skeleton

• (b) Bones of the Appendicular Skeleton

Bones of the Human Skull (Anterior View)


77

Bones of the Human Skull (Lateral View)


78

Coronal Suture

Sagittal Suture

Squamous Suture

Lambdoidal Suture

Occipital Suture

Skull of a Newborn

The Vertebral Column (Lateral View)


80

Cervical Vertebrae

Atlas –C1

-nodding

motion; “yes”

Axis –C2

-rotation;

“no”

Atlas

Axis

The Thoracic Cage (Anterior View)


91

Left Scapula (Anterior & Lateral Views)


92

Left Scapula (Posterior View)


40

Pelvis (Male, Anterior View)


94

Right Femur (Anterior & Posterior Views)


95

Right Fibula (Anterior & Superior Views)


96

Right Foot (Superior View)


97

Left Humerus (Anterior & Posterior Views)


98

Left Ulna and Radius (Anterior View)


99

Left Hand (Anterior View)


100

Lesson 5.4


101

THE ARTICULAR SYSTEM

~ ~ ~


•(a) The Different Types of Human Joints and Joint- Related Injuries

•(b) Shoulder Joint / Knee Joint / Ankle Joint

The Knee:• Femur, tibia and patella

The Shoulder: • Scapla, humerus and clavicle

The Ankle:

• Tibia, talus and fibula

Types of Joints

• With one exception (the hyoid bone), every bone in the body is connected (articulated) to or forms a joint with at least one other bone.

WHICH IS A TENDON? LIGAMENT?

Tendons :

Composed of collagen (bundles of white, fibrous protein)

Attach muscle to bone

Vascular

Ligaments :

Tough bands of white, fibrous tissue

Attach bone to bone

Avascular

Ligaments• Less rigid than bone• Do not stretch as much

as tendons• Tissue that attaches one

or more bones together• Made up of tough bands

of white, fibrous tissue • When they reach their

threshold-stretch minimally, usually tear

Tendons• Large bundles of white, fibrous protein (collagen) that

attaches muscle to bone• Greater stretching ability• Will tear with great force

1

0

9

Vascularity

• Amount of supplied blood a tissue has or requires

• Ligaments & cartilage are “avascular”-nutritional needs are not met through blood (take a long time to heal)

• The more vascular a tissue, the less time it takes to recover from an injury

• Bone and muscle are vascular and will take less time to heal than a ligament

Classification of Joints


111

Joints are classified according to their structure

(what they are made of) or their function (the type

and extent of movement they permit).

The structural classification recognizes three main types of joints:

•Fibrous joints,

•Cartilaginous joints, and

•Synovial joints

Structurally joints are classified as:(Their structural classification is based on the nature of the material

comprising them.)

1. Fibrous joints • joints held together by fibrous connective tissue, allow no movement, lack

joint cavity

• eg. sutures

2. Cartilaginous joints • (held together by cartilage, lacking a joint cavity, slight movement is possible)

• eg. intervertebral discs of the vertebral column

3. Synovial joints

• allow the most movement

• the joint contains a synovial cavity

• eg. Knee, shoulder, and the ankle

1.FIBROUS JOINTS

In fibrous joints, the bones are united by dense connective tissue consisting of collagen fibres which run between the bones.

There is NO JOINT CAVITY.

FIBROUS JOINTS (con’t)• The degree of movement permitted depends on the length of

the collagen fibers, and on the shape and extent of the bone surface at the joint.

Examples:

•Sutures-connecting fibres are short

•Syndesmosis- tib/fib jt.-a fibrous membrane connects the shafts of two long bones (connecting fibres are long)

•Gomphosis-peg-in-socket fibrous joint, where a tooth joins its bony socket

Gomphosis

FIBROUS JOINTS

SutureSyndesmosis

CARTILAGINOUS JOINTS

The bones are united with each other by cartilage.

NO JOINT CAVITY.

Ex. -the cartilaginous epiphyseal plate which separates the epiphysis from the diaphysis in long bones during growth. Obliterated by bone in adults

CARTILAGINOUS JOINTS

Ex. -the joint between the first rib and the sternum. (hyaline cartilage) Synchondrosis.

Ex.- the pubic symphysis and the intervertebral discs.(contains both hyaline cartilage and fibrocartilage)

Bone is covered with hyaline cartilage

Fibrocartilage joins bones together

CARTILAGINOUS

JOINTS

The Characteristics of Synovial Joints


121

Synovial joints permit movement between bones

and are distinguished by the following:

-Articular cartilage is located on the ends of bones that

come in contact with one another.

-The joint capsule consists of the synovial

membrane and fibrous capsule.

-The joint cavity is filled with synovial fluid, which

acts as a lubricant for the joint.

-The bursae are the small fluid sacs found at the

friction points (“bursa” is the singular).

-Intrinsic ligaments are thick bands of fibrous connective

tissue that help thicken and reinforce the joint capsule.

-Extrinsic ligaments separate from the joint capsule and

help to reinforce the joint.

The SynovialJoint


122

Ball & Socket and Gliding Joints


123

• Ball-and-socket (spheroidal) joints. The “ball” at one bone fits

into the “socket” of another, allowing movement around three axes

(e.g., the humerus rests in the glenoid cavity).

• Gliding (or plane or arthrodial) joints. This type connects flat

or slightly curved bone surfaces that glide against one another (e.g.,

between the tarsals and among the carpals).

Hinge and Pivot Joints


124

• Hinge (ginglymus) joints. A convex portion of one bone fits into a

concave portion of another (movement in one plane). The joint

between the ulna and the humerus is an example.

• Pivot (or trochoid) joints. A rounded point of one bone fits into a

groove of another (e.g., the joint between the first two vertebrae in

the neck, which allows the rotation of the head).

Saddle and Ellipsoid Joints


125

• Saddle joints. Saddle joints allow movement in two

planes (but not rotation like a ball-and-socket joint). A key

saddle joint is found at the carpo- metacarpal articulation

of the thumb.

• Elipsoid joints. This type of synovial joint also allows

movement in two planes. The wrist is an example of an

ellipsoid joint.

Joint-Related Injuries and Disease


126

•Dislocations. A dislocation occurs when a bone is

displaced from its joint. Dislocations are often caused by

collisions or falls, and are common in finger and shoulder

joints.

•Separations. A separation is more serious than a

dislocation. In a shoulder separation, the

ligaments attaching the collarbone (clavicle) and shoulder

blade (scapula) are disrupted.

•Osteoarthritis is a condition involving loss of cartilage

at joints. Osteoarthritis (a joint disease) is often confused

with osteoporosis, which is a disease characterized by low

bone mass and bone deterioration.

SEPARATIONS

occurs when

bones held

together by

fibrous

ligaments tear

and separate

from each other

130

Also called the glenohumeral joint

Extremely versatile

Ball and socket joint

Made up of the scapula, humerusand indirectly with the clavicle

131

THE SHOULDER JOINT

Rotator Cuff Tears


132

Rotator cuff tears usually

involve one or all four muscles

that make up the rotator cuff

at the shoulder joint:

supraspinatus, infraspinatus,

teres minor, and subscapularis.

•These muscles share a

common tendinous

insertion on the greater

tubercle of the humerus. Thus,

when a part of the tendon is

torn, all three muscles around

the joint are affected.

•The severity of a rotator cuff

tear must be diagnosed by a

doctor.

Left Shoulder Joint(Anterior View)


133

-Modified hinge joint (some rotation)

-Consists of articulation b/w: femur, tibia, and patella

-Largest joint in body

TH

E K

NE

E

Right Knee (Anterior & Anterior Deep)


60

Anterior Cruciate Ligament (ACL)

Comprised of 2 (sometimes 3) bands

Prevents anterior translation of tibia on femur and resists internal rotation of the tibia

THE KNEE

137

Extensive research

Mechanism of

injury

Deceleration of knee

rotation (cutting)

Hyperextension of

knee

Direct blow to knee

More often in non-

contact situations

ACL INJURY

Signs and symptoms

Hear or feel a “pop”

Rapid swelling (within hours)

“giving way” (feeling of

instability)

Locking (portion of ACL lig

sometimes get caught in the

joint)

Decrease ROM (due to

swelling)

Pain at time of impact

ACL INJURY

Right Knee (Posterior) & Left Knee (Deep)140

modified hinge joint that comprises the distal ends of the tibia and fibula resting on the talus to form the ankle joint

the joint is responsible for plantar flexion and dorsiflexion

Ankle sprain-Most common injuries seen in sports medicine

Common in sports involving jumping and changes in direction

141

THE ANKLE JOINT

Right Ankle Joint(Medial View)


142

Right Ankle Joint(Lateral View)


143

144

INVERSION ANKLE

SPRAINS

Approx. 85%

http://www.emedicinehealth.com/images/4453/4453-4463-8872-25001.jpg

http://www.emedicinehealth.com/images/4453/4453-4463-8872-25001.jpg

Inversion Sprains

80-85% of all ankle sprains are

to the lateral ligaments --

inversion sprains

Commonly referred to as

“rolling over your ankle” or

“twisted ankle”

Can affect one or all of the

lateral ligaments

Less bony stability on medial

side of ankle

145

ANKLE SPRAINS

Eversion Sprains (<15% of all ankle sprains)

Eversion sprains, while less frequent, are often severe.

Mech. Of Injury-comb. of eversion, dorsiflexion, & foot abduction

Rare because of the strength of the deltoid ligament

The deltoid ligament attaches the medial malleolus to three bones of the foot and is so strong that, instead of tearing, it tears off the tip of the medial malleolus

Pott’s Fracture-break in the medial malleolus and a break in the fibula (15 % of cases are avulsion fracture)

146

ANKLE SPRAINS

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