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CHAPTER III

The Existence of man and Universe in the Pañca –Nikāya

III.1. The introduction to the Pañca –Nikāya

Sometime during the sixth century BC a solitary, wandering ascetic

sat to meditate beneath a shady tree, resolving not to rise until he had

attained the ultimate knowledge of spiritual enlightenment. Thus began

Buddhism, one of the world’s great religions.

Historians, religious scholars, and various Buddhist sects debate the

actual year of the Buddha’s birth; it may have seen as early as 644-540 BC.

It is however, relatively certain that he was born Prince Gotama Siddhartha,

the son of Suddhodana, King of the Shakya tribe. His birthplace was the

forest grove of Lumbini in the hilly regions of what is today northeastern

India and Nepal. Miraculous events surrounded his birth. Sages prophesied

that he would become ether a powerful king or, renouncing his royal life, an

enlightenment being and religious leader. King Suddhodhana did everything

in his power to prevent the Prince from seeing the true nature of life, sought

to insulate his son from religious and philosophical concerns by surrounding

him with a life of ease and plenty. Ensconced within palace walls, the prince

grew to manhood and fatherhood never having seen old age, sickness,

poverty, or death. Yet this blindness to the full range of human experience

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was not to last. One day the prince ventured beyond the castle walls and,

witnessing the inevitable sufferings of human existence, recognized the

shallowness of his pampered life. Questions filled his thoughts; he stared to

think very deeply why living beings suffer in this world. What is the cause

of sufferings derived from sickness, old age and death? One day while he

was setting under the tree as a young, he saw a snake suddenly appear and

catch a frog. As the snake and the frog were struggling, an eagle swooped

down the sky and took away the snake with the frog still in its mouth. That

incident was the turning point for the young prince to renounce the worldly

life. He began to think about how living beings on the earth survive by

preying on each other. One life from tries to grab and the other tries to

escape and this eternal battle continues as long as the world exists. This

never-ending process of hunting and self-preservation is the basis of our

unhappiness. It is the source of all suffering the Prince decided that he would

discover the true path of spirituality to end this suffering. Thus at the age of

twenty-nine, he renounced his life as a prince and ran away from the palace,

let go the constraints of family and worldly responsibility to tread the path of

self-discovery.

Siddhartha studied under various spiritual teachers, or gurus.

Inquiring of their knowledge, he diligently practiced various yoga and

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meditations and learnt everything they had to teach but was unable to

discover how to end suffering. Seven years passed in extreme asceticism, yet

still he had not achieved his goal of enlightenment. He identified that

undertaking the religious trip of asceticism was also not the way to

overcome our pain, our suffering and causes of suffering. Finally, he

renounced the path of asceticism. In other words, he renounced the path of

religious fanaticism. He found the “Middle way”, the path that does not fall

into two extremes, pleasure and self-mortification. Siddhartha journeyed

toward the ancient sacred forests of Uruvela (modern Gaya in Bihar, in north

India) with the intention of finally and completely realizing the infinite.

Guided by visionary dreams and following in the footsteps of Krakucchanda,

Kanakamuni, and Kasyapa, the Buddhas of three previous ages, Sidhartha

sat beneath a beautiful tree called a ‘Boddhi’ tree. Touching the earth,

thereby calling it to witness the countless lifetimes of virtue that had led him

to this place of enlightenment, he entered into a state of deep meditation.

Forty-nine days and nights passed and his intention was realized. He was

peacefully resting his mind, exploring further and further the nature of mind,

the nature of suffering, the pain that he was going through in his mind, and

the calmness that he was experiencing through his meditative spiritual

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journey. Siddhartha became the Buddha, meaning the ‘Enlightened One’ or

‘Awakened One’.

The Buddha spent the next seven weeks in meditation near the

Bodhi tree. Then, at the request of the god Indra, he began to speak of the

great truth he had realized. His first sermon was given at Isipatana (modern

Sarnath near Banaras). This first discourse, often called ‘Setting in Motion

of Wheel of Truth’ presented the Four Noble truths and the Noble Eightfold

Path for which Buddhism is so famous.

The Buddha spent the remainder of his life traveling around

northeastern India teaching and establishing monastic communities for both

men and women. He died at the age of eighty in the village of Kusinara

(modern Kushinager, Uttar Pradesh state, India), and his death is known as

the Parinivana, the “going beyond nirvana”. His body was cremated with

great ceremony and the cremation relics were placed in an earthen jar. Soon

thereafter the relics were divided into eight portion and these, along with the

jar that held them and the embers of the cremation fire, were then distributed

among the rulers of eight territories in which the Buddha had traveled and

taught. The legends state that the Buddha ten Stupas (Buddhist reliquary

shrines) were constructed to house these sacred objects.

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Prince Siddhartha was born as a human being with the inheritance

of suffering common to human beings. He thought his own great exertion

through his own dedication developing his own innate activities such as

faith, mindfulness, effort, concentrating power, insight etc; gradually, he

rooted out single defilement and perfected himself.

During forty-five years Buddha of wandering life after his

enlightenment under the Bodhi tree, his teaching is acknowledge in the

whole Pali literature that has been fairly examined by various well-known

scholars.

The Sutta Pitaka is a collection of all the discourses in their entirety

delivered by the Buddha on various occasions. (A few discourses delivered

by some of the distinguished disciples of the Buddha, such as the Venearable

Sariputta, Maha Moggallana, Ananda, etc.., as well as some narratives are

also included in the books of the Sutta Pitaka.) The discourses of the Buddha

compiled together in the Sutta Pitaka were expounded to suit different

occasion, for various persons with different temperaments. Although the

discourses were mostly intended for the benefit of bhikkhus, and deal with

the practice of the pure life and with the exposition of the teaching, there are

also several other discourses which deal with the material and moral

progress of the lay disciples.

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The sutta Pitaka brings out the meaning of the Buddha’s teachings,

expresses them clearly, protects and guards them against distortion and

misconstruction. Just like a string which serves as a plumb-line to guide the

carpenters in their work, just like a thread which protects flowers from being

scattered or dispersed when strung together by it, likewise by means of sutta,

the meaning of Buddha’s teaching maybe brought out clearly, grasped and

understood correctly and given perfect protection from being misconstrued.

The Sutta Pitaka is divided into five separate collections known as

Nikayas. They are Digha Nikaya, Majjhima Nikaya, Samyutta Nikaya,

Anguttara Nikaya and Khuddaka Nikaya.

In the last division (khuddaka Nikaya) composes of works:

Khuddakapatha, Dhammapada, Udana, Itivuttaka, Sutta-nipata,

Vinanavatthu, Petavatthu, Theragatha, Therigatha, Jataka, Niddesa,

Patisambhidaamagga, Apadana, Buddhavamsa, Cariya-pitaka.

It is surveyed brief the establishment of Nikaya literature. Nikaya

literature is constituted basis on the Basket of Doctrine (Sutta-pitaka). It is a

collection of all the discourses of the Buddha on various occasions,for

various persons with different temperaments. These discourses deal with the

practice of the pure life for the benefit of Bhikkus and material, moral

progress of the lay disciple. Buddhist scholars had general opinion that the

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whole of Buddha’s ethics and philosophy lie in the Nikaya literature, which

consists of the basket of doctrine.

Digha Nikaya

Digha Nikaya is the collection of long discourses of the Buddha. It

consists of 34 suttas, which are divided into three divisions:

(a) Silakkhandha Vagga deals with 13 Suttas, Division Concerning

Morality

(b) Maha Vagga deals with 10 suttas, the Large Division.

(c) Pathika Vagga, 11 Sutta, the Division beginning with the

discourse on Pathika, the Naked Ascetic.

This collection is of importance for it contains some of the most

valuable suttas such as Brahmajala sutta, Mahaparinibbana Sutta etc. It

discusses the wrong views then prevalent as well as Bramin view of sacrifice

and caste, and various religious practices such as extreme self-mortification.

There is one discourse, Singala Sutta addressed to a young Brahmin showing

the duties to be performed by members of the human society besides

containing the ethical and philosophical teaching delivered by the Buddha’s

last stage of life. In addition, the prominent doctrines as the Four Noble

Truths, the law of Causal Conditions the Four Foundations of Mindfulness,

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the Path to Freedom i.e. sila (discipline), Samadhi (concentration) and Panna

(wisdom), all are emphasized in this Nikayas.

Majjhima Nikaya

Majjhima Nikaya is the collection of medium-length discourse. It

consists of152 suttas, which are divided into three books (pannasa):

(a) Mulapannasa deals with 50 Suttas in 5 vaggas (section or

chapter).

(b) Majjhimapannasa consists of 50 Suttas in 5 vaggas.

(c) Uparipannasa, 52 Suttas in 5 vaggas.1

This Nikaya is extremely rich in its content. Each Sutta enveloped

with deep meaning, which has attracted the preference of preachers.

Buddha taught the way to restrain the six sense vis-e-vis six

external objects, the ways to prevent all defilements of mind such as envy,

ill-will, deceit, wrong views etc and harmfulness of desire. Also in this

Nikaya, the complete principal doctrines are presented. There are some

specialsuttas related to Sunna (emptiness) on which the theory of Sunyata of

the Madhyamika School is based.

Some other well-known suttas as the Alaggadupama Sutta, in which

the Buddha compared his teachings like a raft used to cross the ocean of

1 This division is of Pali text Society, I.B. Horner’s translation. Vol.I is composed of 76 suttas, Vol. II, 30 (from Sutta 77-106) and Vol. III, 46 (from Sutta 107-152)

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births and deaths. The Mahatanhasankhaya Sutta, in which Bhikkhu Sati, a

representative of ordinary human-beings, holds a wrong view that this

vinnana (consciousness) has been wandering unchangeably from existences

to existences in samsara. The Buddha insisted that existence of

consciousness is due to conditions; it is impossible to preserve it

permanently.

Samyutta Nikaya

Samyutta Nikaya is the collection of the discourses arranged

according to different subjects. The whole this collection has 56 samyuttas

and 2576 Suttas of short is divided into five volumes.

1. Sagatha Vagga consists of 11 samyuttas (groups) with 276 Suttas.

2. Nidana Vagga consists of 10 samy (groups) with 284 Suttas.

3. Khandha Vagga consists of 13 samy (groups) with 498 Suttas.

4. Salayatana Vagga consists of 10 samy (groups) with 376 Suttas.

5. Maha Vagga consists of 12 samy (groups) with 1142 Suttas.

About the content in Sagatha Vagga, the samyuttas are arranged

according to various subjects such as Devata (Devata-samyutta), Devaputta-

samy, Mara-samy, Bhikkhuni-samy, Brahma-samy, Bramana-samy, and so

on.

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Nidana Vagga explained in the detailed formula, which is called

‘Paticcasamuppada’, conditioned Genesis or Dependent Origination,

consisting of twelve links of Causation.

Khandha Vagga is one of the five Khandhas (Aggregates) that

constitute what is regarded as a being. Each of its components, namely,

matter, sensation, perception, mental concomitants and consciousness is

shown to be a bundle of dukkha, suffering.

Sayatana Vagga mentions of the six ayatana (sense organs or bases

of contact name internal sense bases i.e. eye. Ear, nose, tongue, body and

mind), six corresponding sense objects known as external sense bases

(visible form, sound, odor, taste, tangible things and mind-objects), six

vinnana (consciousness) that arises in relation to each pair of these internal

and external sense based, six phassa (touch), six vedana (feeling).

Maha Vagga comprises of the whole basic teaching of the Lord

covering both the theoretical and practical aspects. It arranged into different

subjects, namely, the Eightfold Path, the seven Limbs of Enlightenment, and

the Foundations of Mindfulness. Generally, it consists of Thirty-seven

Factors of Enlightenment. Besides, there also are the Four Limbs of Stream-

winning and the Four Noble Truths. In the opening suttas, it is pointed out

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how friendship with the good and association with the virtuous is of

immense help for the attainment of the Path and Perfection.

Anguttasa Nikaya

Anguttara Nikaya is the collection of discourses numerical

groupings and arranged serially in an ascending order. These short suttas are

divided into five volumes, which comprise of eleven Nipatyas (parts)

1. Volume I of three Nipatyas (Ekaka-nipata, Duka-nipata and

Tika-nipata) arranged in 54 vaggas (section or chapter) and

consists of 960 Suttas.

2. Volume II consists of the Book of the Fourth (Catukka-nipata),

28 vaggas and 271 Suttas.

3. Volume III consists of:

- The Book of the Five (Pancaka-nipata, 26 vaggas and

12000 Suttas).

- The book of the sixes (Chakka-nipata, 12 vaggas, 152

Suttas).

So the total number of this volume is 28 vaggas and 1352 Suttas.

4. volume IV consists of:

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- The Book of the sevens (Sattaka-nipata, 8 vaggas, 80

Suttas and 1040 Suttas without numbering in the Pali

recension)

- The Book of the Eights (Atthaka-nopata, 10 vaggas, 510

Suttas)

- The Book of the nines (Navaka-nipata,10 vaggas, 432

Suttas)

So the total number of Vol. IV is 28 Vaggas and 1022 Suttas and

1040 Suttas without number.

5. Volume V consists of:

- The Book of the Tens (Dasaka-nipata, 22 vaggas, 219

Suttas)

- The Book of the Eleven ( Ekadassaka-nipata, 3 vaggas, 25

Suttas).

So the total number of this volume is 25 vaggas and 244 Suttas.

Therefore, the five of volumes of Anguttara-Nikaya has 11 nipatas,

163 vaggas, 3849 Suttas and 1040 Suttas without number in volume IV, the

Book of The Sevens.2

2 In Khuddakapatha Atthakatha, p.12. Buddhaghosa says the total number of Suttas of Samyutta Nikaya is 7762 and of Anguttara Nikaya is 9557. In ‘An introduction to Pali literature’, S.C. Banerji says Samyutta Nikaya composes of 56 samyuttas with 2889 Suttas and Anguttara Nikaya has eleven Nipatas with at least 2308 Suttas.

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Anguttara Nikaya is very attractive and abundant in contains variety

of subjects. It constitutes an important source book on Buddhist psychology

and ethics.

Khuddaka Nikaya

Khuddaka Nikaya is a miscellaneous collection containing not only

the discourse by the Buddha, but compilation of brief doctrinal notes mostly

in verse, accounts of personal struggles and achievements by theras and their

also in verse, the birth stories, the history of the Buddha etc., may account

for its title.

Khuddaka Nikaya3 consists of 18 works as following:

Kuddakapatha

Kuddakapatha is a collection of small works only nine suttas. Most

of which are also found in other parts of Tipitaka. It may be composed as a

manual for a new novice under training, namely, (a) the three refuges (b) the

ten Precepts (c) the thirty-two parts of the body (d) simple teaching for

novices in the form of the body (e) Mangala Sutta (f) Ratana Sutta (g)

Tirokutta (h) Nimhikanda Sutta and (i) Metta Sutta.

Dhammapada

3 U ko lay, ‘Guide to Tipitaka’, pp. 125-138. However, the most of Buddhist scholars agree to the first fifteen of khuddaka Nikaya.

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Dhammapada is a collection of basic and essential principles of the

Buddha’s teaching. It comprises of 423 verses grouped in 26 vaggas (chapter

or sections). With deep meanings illustrated by the interesting stories, it has

attracted people throughout the world not only for spiritual development but

also for everyday living. The Dhammapada describe the path of purity

bringing to a happy life is impossible both now and hereafter, which

Buddhist-people regard it, as bedside book should follow.

Udana

Udana is a collection inspired utterances of the Buddha in verses on

unique occasions. Each Udana in verse is accompanied by an annotation in

prose of the circumstances that led to their being mentioned. It consists of 80

Suttas divided into 8 vaggas.

The content of Udana deals with various subjects. For instance, the

Buddha expressed his feeling the bliss of liberation in the first week after his

enlightenment at the foot of the Bodhi tree; or he exclaimed for the

ignorance of human beings who, because of the fondness for senses-

pleasures, have done evil-deeds in relation to body, speech and mind to

suffer bad kamma in the future; or he praised the monks who were diligent

in practicing meditation; or the Buddha’s explanation and praise of Nibbana.

Itivuttaka

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This title means ‘Thus was said (by the Buddha)’ Itivuttaka

contains 112 suttas with verses and prose mixed. It is divided into four

Nipatas (Eka- , Duka-, Tika-, and Catukka nipata). The arranging n

numerical groupings of Itivuttaka looks like that of the Anguttara Nikaya.

There is some doubt of the authority of Catukka nipata when comparing the

Pali collection with the Chinese collection.4

The content of Itivuttaka comprises abundant various subjects. For

example, the Buddha recommended in Eka-nipata “Bhikkhus, abandon

craving; I guarantee attainment to the stage of an Anagamin5(the fruition 3rd

stage of liberation) if you abandon craving”, or in Duka-Nipata he exposed

two forms of Nibbana dhatu, namely, Sa-upadisesa nibbana dhatu with the

five khandhas still remaining, and An-upadisesa nibbana dhatu without any

khandha (the material body form) remaining.

Sutta-Nipata

Sutta-Nipata means ‘the small collection of doctrinal lectures’. As

well known as the Dhammapada, the Sutta-Nipata consists of 1149 verses,

which are further divided into five vaggas (chapter):

Volume I -Uraga-vagga of 12 Suttas

Volume II -Cula-vagga of 14 Suttas 4 This Chinese collection is evidently translated from Sankrit by Yuan-Chang in 650 A.D. The whole work consists of 65 Suttas and Catukka-Nipata is absent from there.5 See D. I. 156; D. II. 92; D. III. 107, or M.II. 146.

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Volume III -Maha-vagga of 12 Suttas

Volume IV -Atthaka-vagga of 16 Suttas

Volume V -Parayana-vagga of 16 questions

The Sutta-Nipata deals with various subjects in the important

teachings of Buddha, which may be practiced in the course of one’s

meditation,6 daily life,7 such as ‘True friends are rare to come by these days;

a show of friendship very often hides some private ends. Man’s mind is

defiled by self-interest. So, becoming disillusioned, roam alone like a

rhinoceros’8

It is related to caste,9 and the welfare of human beings.10 Some

suttas are also related with the biography of the Buddha and the Buddha

warning to human beings of the harm of kamma (sensual pleasures), of

greed, of hatred, of existence.11

Vimanavatthu

6 .Sn. V. 5-7.7 Vagga II, 6, 8-11 and 13-14; III, 12; IV 14-16; in the last Vagga, the Buddha answered 16 questions of the disciples of Brahman Bavari.8 Vagga I, khaggavisana Sutta.9 Vagga I. 7; M. 4 and 9.10 Vagga I. 6, 8 and 10; II. 1, 4 and 8; III. 3,5 and 811 Vagga I. 1, 3; IV. 1-2 and 7-13

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Vimana means ‘mansion’. Vimanavatthu12 is collection of stories of

celestial beings that got divine mansions as result for their acts of merit in

the former life.

The Vimanavatthu containing of 85 stories divided into 7 Vaggas

(chapter). The first four chapters are regarding celestial females with 50

stories and the remaining three consists of 35 stories of celestial males.

These stories concern those who have been reborn in deva realm by

developed themselves to the stages of Sotapanna (the fruition first stage of

liberation); who have made obeisance to the Buddha with clasped hands;

who had expressed words of jubilation at the ceremony of building a

monastery for the Sangha; who observed the moral precepts; who had

observed the precepts and given alms; who have been given alms (dana) to

Buddha and Sangha; who served in being a devoted wife13 or in being a

dutiful son to his parents14

Petavatthu

12 It says that Ven. Moggallana who with the intention to bring out to public the definite results of kamma to urge people diligently in practicing good deeds collected Vimanavatthu and Petavatthu. Having got permission from the Buddha, with his extraordinary magic powers, he went to heaven to question the past deeds of the happy gods and goddesses in heavens; and to the Maya world to question the miserable life of individual petas as well, and reported it to the Buddha who cited it as example in his preaching.

13 Viman. i. 11-12; iii.3-4.14 Ibid. V. 2 and vii. 1-2 respectively.

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Petavatthu consists of 51 stories, which divided into 4 vaggas

(chapter), describing the miserable states of beings that have been reborn in

unhappy existences as consequence of their misdeeds in the previous life.

These beings endured image of a spindle, hungry, naked, bad-smelled, foul

and ugly because they’re past life being that of either wicked women, stingy,

unbelieving with a sharp tongue15 or a rude behavior to a lone-Buddha16. Or

they are irreligious people who had no faith and were possessed of the sin of

avarice. Or they cheated people with either false measures or other tricks in

their daily business.17 There are also Petas who enjoy happiness as celestial-

people (devi) on daytime, but have to suffer at nighttime.18 Or they are with

gold body but fouled-smell mouth.19

In other words, they have done bad kamma related to body, speech

and mind through greed, hatred and delusion; o due to the result of Kamma-

force, they have to suffer.

However, in the Petavatthu, the retribution of kamma of the

miserable spirits is released dependent to the merit of their family. This

event goes against the spirit of the law of kamma-teaching of the Buddha.

So, Thailand sangha, Theravada Buddhism does not regard Petavatthu as a

15 Pv. 6(41)16 Pv. 7 (41), p. 240 tr; 16 (51),p. 249 tr.17 Pv. 14 (49),p. 247.18 Pv. 10, p. 159; 11 (46), p. 244; 12 (24), p. 19819 pv. 2-3.

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canonical work. The petavatthu, however, reflects one phase of Indic and

Buddhist thought, even though it is on a lower level.

Theragatha-Therigatha

Theragatha and Therigatha are collections of verses uttered by the

elders and the lady elders of Sangha. This collection consists of 1279 verses

of 264 Theras and 522 verses of 73 Theris through pure jubilation and

delight that arise their inspiration. These inspiring verses emanated from the

heart of Bhikkhus and Bhikkhuni after their attainment of Arahantship as a

message of their attainment and also as statement of their effort, which has

led to their ultimate enlightenment. These verses is also appeared when they

attained freedom from the attachment of greed, hatred and ignorance; when

they achieved victory in their meditation, in inner fight between the forces of

good and evil; or they found bliss, peace and calm in their solitary life at

glades and groves of forest.

Jataka

The stories Jataka are the collection of the recounted by the Buddha

about his previous existences before his enlightenment spent innumerous

lives as a Bodhisatta for self-development by practicing paramitas.

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The Jataka containing 547 stories20 is divided into 22 Nipata (or

book) according to the number of verses in each story. For instance, Eka-

Nipata means group of stories containing only one verse, Duka-Nipata, that

of two verses, till large number of verse etc.

Jataka stories are well-established moral teaching as seen through

the virtues of the Bodhisattva. It gives a vibrant depiction of the social life

customs of ancient Indian culture and arts, which still exist on the walls of

Bharhut, on the sculptures of Sanshi-stupa, and the caves of Ajanta.

Niddesa

Niddesa, which is ascribed to Ven. Sariputta, literally means

‘Explanation’. These exegetic works is regarded as earliest forms of

commentary on some parts of Suttanipata. It consists of two parts:

Mahaniddesa and Cullaniddesa.

Maha-Niddesa, the major exposition is elaborate elucidation of the

At.t.hakavagga (the fourth vagga) and Culla-Niddesa, the minor exposition

is annotation of the Khaggavisana sutta of the first vagga and the Parayana-

vagga of the fifth of Suttanipata.

Paisambhidamagga

20 According to Burma tradition, Jataka comprised 550 stories.

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This title means ‘The Path of Analysis’ which is attributed to Ven.

Sariputta. It comprised into three vaggas (division), namely, Mahavagga,

Yuganaddhavagga and Pannavagga. Each vagga is divided into 10 kathas

(sub-groups) namely, Nanakatha (treatise on knowledge), Ditthikatha

(treatise on views) therefore the total work is of 30 kathas dealing with a

detailed analysis reason of different subjects.

The way of writing in Patisambhidamagga is the same as that of

Abhidhamma. But it is classified into Sutta Pitaka is due to its begin with the

phrase “Evam me suttam” (Thus have I heard) as which are written in the

form of Sutta.

Apadana

The word Apadana means ‘moral instruction’. It is a biographical

work containing the life stories (past and present) of the Buddha and his

Arahant disciple.

Apadana entirely written in verse comprises of four parts, namely,

Buddhapadana (moral instruction of the Buddha), Paccekabuddhadana

(moral instruction of the lone Buddhas), Thera-apadana (moral instruction of

the Elders), and Their-apadana (moral instruction of the Lady-Elders). These

treatises are also classified into two groups, i.e. Thera-apadanas (compose of

Buddhapadana and Paccekabuddhapadana) has 55 vaggas (sections), with

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547 apadanas and Theri-apadanas consisting in 4 vaggas, with 10 apadanas

each.

Buddhavamsa

Buddhavamsa means the history of the Buddhas. This work consists

of 29 sections in verses, which related with the chronicle of 24 Buddhas who

are said to have preceded the Buddha Gotama (from Dipankara-Buddha to

the Lord Kassapa). In chapter XXVII, there is the mention of the names of

three Buddhas who lived before the Dipankara Buddha at different intervals

of the same world cycle.

Cariya-pitaka

The title Cariya-Pitaka means ‘Basket of Conduct’, which consists

of thirty-five stories of Buddha’s previous lives in 372 verses. The collection

exposed the process cultivation fulfilled the dasa paramitas (or ten

perfections) of a Boddhisattva throughout innumerable ages, in his long

previous existences.

Cariya-pitaka is arranged in three vaggas (or section), which

illuminates seven21 among ten Paramitas:

Vagga I: Danaparamita (perfection of charity) with 10 stories.

Vagga II: Silaparamita (perfection of virtue) 10 stories. 21 The concluding verses (verses 366-369, p.36) showed that the complete ten paramitas are illuminated in the work. Besides seven mentioned above, these three are missing: panna-paramita (perfection of wisdom), viriya-paramita (perfection of energy) and khanti-paramita (perfection of patience).

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Vagga III belong to five Paramita, namely,

Nekkhamma-paaramita (perfection of renunciation) with 5 stories

Adhitthana-paramita (perfection of firm determination) 1 story

Sacca-paramita (perfection of truthfulness) 6 stories

Metta-paramita (perfection of loving-kindness) 2 stories

Upekkha-paramita (perfection of equanimity) 1 story.

Netti

Netti is short treatise, which composed of seven chapters. Its

content is as the commentary of Sutta.

Petakopadesa

Petakonpadesa is also short treaties, divided into eight chapters. It is

different from the other books of the Tipitaka because they are exegetical

and methodological in nature.

Milindapanha

Milindapanha is the last of the Books of Khuddaka Nikaya. It

recordsthe question asked by King Milinda and the answers given by Ven.

Nagasena (who attained Arhantship) about five hundred years after the

Parinibbana of the Buddha. King Milinda, who want to have some points on

the Dhamma clarified, asked abstruse questions concerning the nature of

man, his survival after death, and other doctrinal aspects of the dhamma.

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Found on the teaching of the Buddha, the Ven. Nagassena gave him

satisfactory replies on each question asked.

Thus, the teachings of Buddha aim to open the door of true

happiness, joyfulness. That is the path of the knowledge of life and the

liberation from all ills. It applies and verified by self-realization. The

practice of the Buddha’s dhamma move man towards the perfect perception

on impermanence (anicca) of all things, all mental activities; on no-soul

(anatta) of one’s body and mental functions; on suffering (dukka)

contemplates the three kind of ill of body or mental pain on the state of

equanimity (upekkha) as the balance of mind at the time of crisis and a

moment of election from success and unexpected gain; on the mood of

sympathetic joy (mudita) as antidote to the poison of envy and hatred; on the

practice of compassion (karuna), that is not only to mitigate the suffering of

others in his thought, but also in practical life; on friendship (maitri) as

eagerly to help all and to be a protector of all beings; on the righteous-

conduct (sila) of man, aim at cleaning the body, on mind of its impurities.

All true dhamma want to infuse the structure of power with the

canons of reason, equity and justice, which provide higher legitimacy to

human being. Thus, to put it briefly, the Buddha’s dhamma is really a human

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discovery. It motivates man to take the world a kingdom of enlightenment,

without any help of supernatural, god, and Brahma.

III.2. Explanation of Man and Universe through Dependent

Origination

Dependent Origination is one of the most important teachings of the

Buddha, and it is also very profound. The Buddha has often expressed His

experience of Enlightenment in one of two ways, either in terms of having

understood the Four Noble Truths, or in terms of having understood the

nature of the dependent origination. However, more people have heard about

the Four Noble Truths and can discuss it than the Law of Dependent

Origination, which is just as important.

Although the actual insight into dependent origination arises with

spiritual maturity, it is still possible for us to understand the principle

involved. The basis of dependent origination is that man or the universe is

built on a set of relations, in which the arising and cessation of factors

depend on some other factors which condition them. This principle can be

given in a short formula of four lines:

When this is, that is this arising, that arises When this is not, that is

not this ceasing, that ceases.

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Imasmim sati, idam hoti. Imass uppadadam uppajjati. Imasmim asati, idam

na hoti. Imassa nirodha, idam nirujjhati."22

On this principle of interdependence and relativity rests the arising,

continuity and cessation of man and universe. This principle is known as the

Dependent Origination in Pali, Paticca-samuppada. This emphasizes an

important principle that all phenomena in this universe are relative,

conditioned states and do not arise independently of supportive conditions.

A phenomenon arises because of a combination of conditions which are

present to support its arising. And the phenomenon will cease when the

conditions and components supporting its arising change and no longer

sustain it. The presence of these supportive conditions, in turn, depend on

other factors for their arising, sustenance and disappearance.

Dependent Origination is a realistic way of understanding the man

and universe. The fact that everything is nothing more than a set of relations

is consistent with the modern scientific view of the material world. Since

everything is conditioned, relative, and interdependent, there is nothing in

this world which could be regarded as a permanent entity, variously

regarded as an ego or an eternal soul, which many people believe in.

22 S. Vol. II.p.28.

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The phenomenal world is built on a set of relations, but is this the

way we would normally understand the world to be? We create fictions of its

permanency in our minds because of our desires. It is almost natural for

human beings to cling to what they consider as beautiful or desirable, and to

reject what is ugly or undesirable. Being subjected to the forces of greed and

hatred, they are misled by delusion, clouded by the illusion of the

permanency of the object they cling to or reject. Therefore, it is hard for us

to realize that man and universe are like a bubble or mirage, and not the kind

of reality we believe it to be. We do not realize that they are unreal in

actuality.

In speaking of understanding reality, human being is a very

important and decisive aspect of it. It is very important therefore that the

nature and his relation to reality are understood as essential aspects of

dependent origination. Unlike in Brahmana tradition where human being is

understood in terms of his individual soul and its relation to the universal

soul, which is understood as the Creator God, Buddhism understand human

being as a dynamic interaction of five aggregates, namely, material form,

feeling, perception, constructions and consciousness. These five are not

static entities but are processes that undergo constant change. In other words,

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this means that human being is not a permanent or an absolute entity but a

dynamic and causally conditioned phenomenon.

In this manner both universe and human being are causally

conditioned phenomena and are subject to the same characteristics of

existence. Nothing in the universe and in human being remains unchanged.

It is the cause of the unsatisfactory feeling experienced by all beings. What

is changing and unsatisfactory is characterized as no soul, no-self, non-

substantiality (anatta). There is nothing that we can grasp within or without

oneself as ‘it is me’ and ‘it is mine’. A well known statement in Buddhism

says that ‘all phenomena are impermanent’23

The fundamental principle at work in dependent origination is that

of cause and effect. In dependent origination, what actually takes place in

the causal process is described in detail. To illustrate the nature of dependent

origination of the things around us, let us consider an oil lamp. The flame in

an oil lamp burns dependent upon the oil and the wick. When the oil and the

wick are present, the flame in an oil lamp burns. If either of these is absent,

the flame will cease to burn. This example illustrates the principle of

dependent origination with respect to a flame in an oil lamp. Or in an

example of a plant, it is dependent upon the seed, earth, moisture, air and

23 Dhp. Vs. 277

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sunlight for the plant to grow. All these phenomena arise dependent upon a

number of causal factors, and not independently. This is the principle of

dependent origination.

In the Dhamma, we are interested to know how the principle of

dependent origination is applied to the problem of suffering and rebirth. The

issue is how dependent origination can explain why we are still going round

in Samsara, or explain the problem of suffering and how we can be free from

suffering. It is not meant to be a description of the origin or evolution of the

universe. Therefore, one must not be mistaken into assuming that ignorance,

the first factor mentioned in the dependent origination, is the first cause.

Since everything arises because of some preceding causes, there can be no

first cause.

It is just impossible to conceive of a first beginning. None can trace

the ultimate origin of anything, not even of a grain of sand, let alone of

human beings. It is useless and meaningless to go in search of a beginning in

a beginningless past. Life is not an identity, it is a becoming. It is a flux of

psychological and physiological changes, a conflux of mind and body

(naama-ruupa).

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“There is no reason to suppose that the world had a beginning at all.

The idea that things must have a beginning is really due to the poverty of our

imagination. Therefore, perhaps, I need not waste any more time upon the

argument about the first cause.”24

Instead of a first cause, the Buddha speaks of conditionality. The

whole world is subject to the law of cause and effect, in other words, action

and reaction. We cannot think of anything in this cosmos that is causeless

and unconditioned.

The principle of Dependent Origination shows the interdependence

and interrelation of man and universe in the form of a continuum. As a

continuum, it can be analyzed from a number of different perspectives:

Man and universe are interrelated and interdependent; man and

universe exist in relation to each other; man and universe exist dependent on

determinants; man and universe have no enduring existence, not even for a

moment; man and universe have no intrinsic entity; man and universe are

without First Cause, or Genesis.

To put it another way, the fact that man and universe appear in their

diverse forms of growth and decline shows their true nature to be one of a 24 Bertrand Russell, Why I am Not a Christian (London, 1958),

94

continuum or process. Being a continuum shows them to be compounded of

numerous determinants. The form of a continuum arises because the various

determinants are interrelated. The continuum moves and changes form

because the various factors concerned cannot endure, even for a moment.

Things cannot endure, even for a moment, because they have no intrinsic

entity. Because they have no intrinsic entity they are entirely dependent on

determinants. Because the determinants are interrelated and interdependent,

they maintain the form of a continuum, and being so interrelated and

interdependent indicates that they have no First Cause.

To render it in a negative form: if things had any intrinsic entity

they would have to possess some stability; if they could be stable, even for a

moment, they could not be truly interrelated; if they were not interrelated

they could not be formed into a continuum; if there were no continuum of

cause and effect, the workings of nature would be impossible; and if there

were some real intrinsic self within that continuum there could be no true

interdependent cause and effect process. The continuum of cause and effect

which enables all things to exist as they do can only operate because such

things are transient, ephemeral, constantly arising and ceasing and having no

intrinsic entity of their own.

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The property of being transient, ephemeral, arising and ceasing, is

called aniccata. The property of being subject to birth and dissolution, of

inherently involving stress and conflict, and of being intrinsically imperfect,

is called dukkhata. The quality of voidness of any real self is called anattata.

The principle of Dependent Origination illustrates these properties in all

things and shows the interrelatedness and inter-reaction of man and universe

to produce the diverse events in nature. If things were permanent and had

intrinsic being in themselves none of the natural laws, including the law of

kamma, could operate. Moreover, these laws support the truth that there is

no First Cause, or Genesis.

Concepts are formed in the mind through the association of

relationships. For most people, once a set of relationships is formed into a

concept, the habit of clinging to things through craving (tanha) and clinging

(upadana) attaches to those concepts as fixed entities. Such clinging isolates

the concept from its relationship with other things, and stains perceptions

with notions of 'me' and 'mine,' leading to identification with them and thus

preventing any true understanding.

Man and universe have no root cause or first arising. Tracing back

along the stream of causes ad infinitum, no root cause can be found for

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anything. Yet there is a tendency for people to try to find some kind of

original cause; this kind of thinking conflicts with the way of nature and

causes perceptions which are at variance with the truth. It is a form of self-

deception, caused by the human habit of stopping any inquiry into causes at

the immediate one and going no further. Thus the usual understanding of

cause and effect, believing in an original cause for things, is inaccurate and

contrary to the laws of nature.

According to the Buddha's teaching, there is nothing which exists

beyond or separate from nature, either as a mystical power controlling

events from without, or in any other way related to or involved in the

proceedings of nature. Whatever is associated with nature cannot be separate

from nature, but must be a component of it. All events in nature proceed at

the direction of the interrelationship of natural phenomena. There are no

accidents, nor is there any creative force independent of causes. Seemingly

astounding and miraculous events are entirely causally arisen, but because

the causes are sometimes obscured from our knowledge, those events may

appear to be miraculous. However, any sense of perplexity or wonder soon

disappears once the cause of such events is understood. The word

'supernatural' is simply a contrivance of language referring to that which

exceeds our current understanding, but in fact there is nothing that is truly

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'supernatural.' The dependent and inter-connected nature of reality is not

something invented by the Buddha. As the Buddha himself has claimed

“whether the Buddhas were to exist or to not exist this nature of reality is

there, namely, the conditionality”25

The common belief that all things have a Creator is another idea

which contradicts reality. Such a belief is a result of deductive thinking,

based on the observation of man's ability to create things and produce

artifacts of various kinds, such as the arts and so on. The deduction follows

that therefore all things in the world must have a creator. In this case, we are

deceived when we isolate the concept 'building' or 'creating' from the normal

cause and effect continuum, thus taking a falsehood as our basic premise. In

fact, 'building' is only one phase of the Dependent Origination process. That

we are capable of creating anything at all is through becoming determinants

in the process of relationship which produces the desired result. We differ

from the purely physical factors concerned only in that in our case there are

some mental factors, involving intention, also present. Even so, those factors

remain part of a totality of factors and must also proceed according to the

cause and effect process. For instance, when we wish to build a skyscraper,

we must become part of the stream of determinants, manipulating other

25 S. Vol. II.p.25

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determinants in the process to completion. If the thought of creation was

capable of bringing things into existence independent of the cause and effect

process, then we could create skyscrapers anywhere simply by thinking them

into existence, which is impossible. Thus, the word 'creation' has no meaning

beyond a description of part of a process. Moreover, when things proceed

smoothly along the cause and effect process, the question of a creator is no

longer relevant at any point along the way.

In any case, searching for the facts regarding the question of a First

Cause, a Creator God, and such, have little value in the Buddhist view,

because they are not essential to a meaningful life. The question “who am

I?” assumes that ‘I am’, only one does not know what. In the Sabbsav Sutta

the Buddha called such enquiries ‘attending unwisely’26 (ayonisamanasikra),

and in the Mahtanhsankhaya Sutta the Buddha described this as remaining

‘inwardly perplexed’27 (kathamkath). What was once assumed to be ‘me’, a

self or a soul, or assumed to be an illusion or complete emptiness, is now

clearly seen as the impersonal process of the Dependent Origination, a

causal sequence rolling on from life to life, containing all and anything that

can meaningfully be a soul, the ‘usual suspects’ as I call them, but nothing

continuing in being. So, if you wanted to find out who you are, now you 26 M. Vol. I. P. 8. Sabbasavasutta.2.27 M. Vol. I. PP.311-324. Mahatanhasankhayasutta 38.

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have the answer – Dependent Origination. And if you want find out what is

Universe, now you also have the answer- Dependent Origination, Paticca-

samuppada- That’s universe.

The paticca-samuppaada in its order of arising manifests the process

of becoming (bhava), in other words, the appearance of suffering (dukkha,

the first truth); and how this process of becoming or suffering is conditioned

(dukkha-samudaya, the second truth). In its order of ceasing the pa.ticca-

samuppaada makes plain the cessation of this becoming, this suffering

(dukkha-nirodha, the third truth), and how it ceases (dukkha-nirodha-

gaamini pa.tipadaa, the fourth truth). The Buddha-word with regard to this

fact appears in the Anguttara Nikaaya thus:

“And what, monks, is the noble truth of the origination of suffering?

Dependent on ignorance arise mental formations; dependent on mental

formations, consciousness; dependent on consciousness, mentality-

materiality (mental and physical combination); dependent on mentality-

materiality, the sixfold base (the five physical sense organs and

consciousness as the sixth); dependent on the sixfold base, contact;

dependent on contact, feeling; dependent on feeling, craving; dependent on

craving, clinging; dependent on clinging, the process of becoming (rebirth);

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dependent on the process of becoming, ageing and death, sorrow,

lamentation, pain, grief and despair come to pass. Thus does the whole mass

of suffering arise. This, monk, is called the noble truth of the origination of

suffering.

“And what, monks, is the noble truth of the cessation of suffering?

Through the entire cessation of ignorance cease mental formations, through

the cessation of mental formavions, consciousness … (and so on) … the

cessation of the whole mass of suffering. This, monks, is called the cessation

of suffering.”28

The Buddha discovered this eternal truth, solved the riddle of life,

unravelled the mystery of being by comprehending, in all its fullness, the

paticca-samuppaata with its twelve factors, and expounded it, without

keeping back anything essential, to those who yet have sufficient

intelligence to wish for light.

1. Ignorance (Avijja)

What is avijjaa? Lord Buddha defined:

28 A. Vol. I PP.160-161

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"Nesciejce conCerning ill, its rise, its cessation and conCerning vhe

way going to the cessation of ill. This is called ignorance".29

It is the non-knowledge of the Supreme Enlightenment. In other

words is not-knowing the Four Noble Truths. It is also not-knowing

dependent origination. Owing to this nescience, the uninstructed worldling

entertains wrong views. He regards the impermanent as permanent, the

painful as pleasant, the soulless as soul, the godless as god, the impure as

pure, and the unreal as real. Further, avijjaa is the non-perception of the

conglomerate nature of the five aggregates (pañcakkhandhaa), or mind and

body.

Ignorance or delusion is one of the root causes of all unwholesome

actions, all moral defilements (akusala). All conceivable wrong notions are

the result of ignorance. Independently of this crowning corruption no evil

action, whether mental, verbal or physical, could be performed. That is why

ignorance is enumerated as the first link of the chain of the twelvefold

paticca-samuppaada. Nevertheless, ignorance should not be regarded as a

prima causa, a first beginning, or an ultimate origin of things. It is certainly

not the first cause; there is no conception of a first cause in Buddhist

29 S. Vol. II, P. 4.

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thought. The doctrine of paticca-samuppaada can be illustrated by a circle,

for it is the cycle of existence, bhavacakka. In a circle any given point may

be taken as the starting point. Each and every factor of the paticca-

samuppaada can be joined together with another of the series, and therefore

no single factor can stand by itself or function independently of the rest. All

are interdependent and inseparable. Nothing is independent, or isolated.

Dependent origination is an unbroken process. In this process nothing is

stable or fixed, but all is in a whirl. It is the arising of ever changing

conditions dependent on similar evanescent conditions. Here there is neither

absolute non-existence nor absolute existence, only bare phenomena roll on

(suddhadhammaa pavattanti).

Ignorance, the first factor of the series, therefore, is not the sole

condition for volitional formations, the second factor (sankhaara). A tripod,

for instance, is supported by its three legs; it stands upright because of the

interdependence of the legs. If one gives way, the other two fall to the

ground unsupported. So, too, the factors of this paticca-samuppaada support

one another in various ways.

2. Mental Formation (Sankhaaraa)

What is mental formation? Lord Buddha said:

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"These are three mental formations: those of deed, speech and

mind. These are mental formations ". 30

Mental formations are of three types: physical, vocal, and mental.

Mental formations presuppose volition (cetanā). The function of volition is

to conceive, to urge or to incite. As such it is the basis of all wholesome and

unwholesome actions such as almsgiving or killing. The meditator knows its

nature empirically through contemplation. Another time, Lord Buddha

taught:

"And what, brethren, are the mental formations? They are these

seats of will: the will for sights, the will for sounds, for smells, for tastes, for

touches, and for mental images. These, brethren, are the mental

formations".31

Wholesome sankhaaras are capable of bringing about a good rebirth

or birth in a good state of existence. Unwholesome sankhaaras can cause a

bad rebirth or birth in an evil state of existence. It must be mentioned that all

sankhaaras, all good and evil actions, have ignorance as condition. Good

actions are the direct consequence of whatever clear understanding there

may be in the doer. It is not because of delusion and craving that a man gives

30 S. Vol. II, P. 4.31 S.Vol. III, PTS, London, 1975,P.53.

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up killing, etc., but because he has the wisdom to see the evil consequences

of such actions and also because he is moved by such qualities as

compassion and virtue. It is not possible, except for the perfect ones, to act

from complete insight or detachment. To the generality of men such

knowledge is unthinkable. If to be detached means to be neutral always,

such detachment is for the imperfect quite impossible and meaningless. But

occasional detachment is possible, and a measure of knowledge adequate for

understanding the good is available for an intelligent man of virtue, for

producing actions that are wise and unsoiled by the yearning for rewards in

this life. There is much that is done in the world today with no hope of

reward, or recognition, out of compassion or for the furtherance of

knowledge and peace.

Ignorance of the real nature of life is primarily the ignorance of the

Four Noble Truths. It is because of this non-knowledge of the truths that

beings take birth again and again.

Only the actions of one who has entirely eradicated all the latent

tendencies (anusaya), and all the varied ramifications of sorrow’s cause, are

incapable of producing rebirth; for such actions are issueless. He is the

arahat, Consummate One, whose clarity of vision, whose depth of insight

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penetrates into the deepest recesses of life, in whom craving has quite ceased

through cognizing the true nature that underlies all appearance. He has

transcended all appearance. He has transcended all capacity for error through

the perfect immunity which penetrative insight, vipassanaa, alone can give.

He is, therefore, released from ignorance (avijjaa) and his actions no more

bring about rebirth. That’s why the Buddha said that:

“Monks, it is through not understanding, not penetrating the Four

Noble Truths that we have run so long, wandered on so long in this long

long way, both you and I … But when these Four Noble Truths are

understood and penetrated, rooted out is the craving for existence, destroyed

is that which leads to renewed becoming, and there is no more coming to

be.”32

3. Consciousness (Viññaana)

Dependent on the kamma or good and evil actions of the past, is

conditioned the conscious life in this present birth. Consciousness, therefore,

is the first factor or first of the conditioning links belonging to the present

existence. Ignorance and mental formations belonging to the past together

produce viññaana, consciousness in this birth. Rebirth is caused by one’s

32 D. Vol. II. PP. 96-97; Vin I 229.

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own good and evil actions, and is not work of a supreme being, a Creator

God, nor is it due to mere chance.

What is consciousness? Lord Buddha taught:

"These are the six groups of consciousness: Eye - consciousness,

ear - consciousness, smell-consciousness, taste - consciousness, touch -

consciousness, and mind - consciousness".33

It is explained that:

"And why, brethren, do you say Consciousness? One is conscious,

brethren. Therefore the word "Consciousness" is used. Conscious of what?

of [flavour] sour or bitter, acrid or sweet, alkaline or non - alkaline, saline

or non - saline. One is conscious, brethren. That is why the word

"Consciousness" is used".34

Consciousness does not mean unchanged, continues in the same

state without perishing throughout this cycle of existence. Consciousness is

also conditioned, and therefore is not permanent. Consciousness also comes

into being and passes away yielding place to new consciousness. Thus this

perpetual stream of consciousness goes on until existence ceases. Existence

33 S.Vol. II, P.4.34 S. Vol. III, 87.

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in a way is consciousness. In the absence of consciousness no “being” exists

in this sentient world. We should be clearly understood that consciousness is

not a “self” or a “soul” or an ego entity that experiences the fruits (vipaaka)

of good and evil deeds. The Mahaatanhaa-sankhaya Sutta records the

following incident:

During the time of the Buddha there was a monk called Saati who

held the following view: “In so far as I understand the Dhamma taught by

the Buddha, it is the same consciousness that transmigrates and wanders

about (in rebirth).”

The monks who heard of this tried to dissuade Saati, saying, “Do

not, brother Saati, speak thus, do not misrepresent the Lord; neither is

misrepresentation of the Lord proper, nor would the Lord speak thus. For,

brother Saati, in many a figure is dependent origination spoken of in

connection with consciousness by the Lord, saying: ‘Apart from condition

there is no origination of consciousness.’”But Saati would not change his

view. Thereupon the monks reported the matter to the Buddha, who

summoning him, spoke to him thus:

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“Is it true, as is said, that a pernicious view like this has arisen in

you, Saati: ‘In so far as I understand the Dhamma taught by the Lord, it is

this consciousness itself that runs on, fares on, not another’?”

“Even so do I, Lord, understand the Dhamma taught by the Lord: ‘It

is this consciousness itself that runs on, fares on, not another.’”

“What is this consciousness, Sati?”

“It is that which expresses, which feels (vado vedeyyo) and

experiences the result of good and evil deeds now here, now there.”

“But to whom, foolish man, have you heard me teaching the

Dhamma in this way? Have I not in many ways explained consciousness as

arising out of conditions, that apart from conditions there is no arising of

consciousness? But now you, foolish man, misrepresent me because of your

own wrong grasp.”35

The Buddha then explained the different types of consciousness and

made clear, by means of examples, how consciousness arises depending on

conditions.

35 M.Vol. I. PP. 311-324. Mahatanhasankhayasutta. 38.

109

In the words of the Buddha, the paticca-samuppaada is a very deep

and intricate doctrine, and in this difficult doctrine the most subtle and deep

point, difficult to grasp, is this third link, consciousness, viññaa.na or

patisandhi-viññaana; for it is this link that explains rebirth.

4. Name and Form (Naama-Ruupa)

What are Name and form? Lord Buddha defined:

"Feeling, Perception, Will, Contact, work of mind; this is called

Name.The four great elements and the form derived from them; this is called

form. This is the Name, this is the Form called Name-and-Form". 36

The term naama here stands for the mental states (cetasika), in

other words, the three mental groups: feeling (vedanaakkhandha),

perception (saññaakkhandha), and volitional or mental formations

(sankhaarakkhandha). The term Ruupa is composed of five aggregates or

groups (pañcakkhandha): physical body, feeling, perception, volitional

formations, and consciousness. If consciousness is taken as the mind, then

feeling, perceptions and volitional formations are the concomitants or factors

of that mind. Now when we say dependent on consciousness arises naama-

36 S.Vol. II, P. 4.

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ruupa, name and form, form means the physical body, its organs, faculties,

and functions. Name means the factors of the mind mentioned above.

Consciousness and its factors (citta-cetasika) are always interrelated

and interdependent. Consciousness cannot arise and function independently

of its factors, nor can the factors arise and function without consciousness.

They arise simultaneously (sahajaata-paccaya) and have no independent

existence.

5. Sixfold sense sphere (Salaayatana)

What is sixfold sense sphere?

"The sense of eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, and mind. This is called

sixfold sense".37

The five physical sense organs—eye, ear, nose, tongue, and body—

and the mind base (manaayatana). Manaayatana is a collective term for the

many different classes of consciousness, i.e. for the five kinds of sense-

consciousness and the many kinds of mind-consciousness. Hence, five

37 S.Vol. II, P. 4.

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senses are physical phenomena, namely eye, ear, nose, tongue, and body;

and the sixth, mind sense, is identical with consciousness.38

The function of viññaana, consciousness, is varied. The third factor

of the chain is made known to us as viññaana; now here again we hear of a

sixth base, manaayatana, which is identical with consciousness. But here by

manaayatana different types of consciousness are meant. It should be borne

in mind that consciousness is not something that is permanent and

everlasting. It undergoes change, not remaining the same for two

consecutive moments; it comes into being and immediately passes away

yielding place to a new consciousness. “These mental phenomena are, as it

were, only the different aspects of those units of consciousness which like

lightning every moment flash up and immediately thereafter disappear

forever.”39

If there were no naama-ruupa (name and form), no sa.laayatana

(sixfold sense sphere) could arise. Because of ruupa, the physical sense

organs, eye, ear, etc. appear, and because of manaayatana (different types of

consciousness) the physical sense organs function. Thus naama-ruupa and

salaayatana are inescapably interrelated and interdependent.

38 Nyanaatiloka Thera, Fundamentals of Buddhism (Colombo,1949)39 Nyanaatiloka Thera, Fundamentals of Buddhism (Colombo,1949)

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6. Contact (Phassa)

What is Contact? The Buddha declared:

"There are these six groups of contact; eye- contact, ear - contact,

nose - contact, tongue - contact, body - contact, and mind - contact. This is

called Contact".40

In the preceding proposition we saw the sixfold sense sphere, eye,

ear, etc.; they are internal bases (ajjhattika-aayatana). External to one’s

material body, there are the corresponding five sense objects—form, sound,

smell, taste, and tactile objects—and further, the mental objects. These are

known as the six external bases (baahira-aayatana). These external senses

are food for our internal senses. Hence they are interrelated. Although there

is this functional relationship between these six sense organs and their

objects, awareness comes with viññaa.na or consciousness. Hence it is said,

“If consciousness arises because of eye and forms it is termed visual

consciousness.”

Now when eye and forms are both present, visual consciousness

arises dependent on them. Similarly with ear and sounds, and so on, down to

mind and mental objects (ideas). Again, when the three, namely, eye, forms, 40 S. Vol. II, P. 4.

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and eye-consciousness come together, it is their coincidence that is called

“contact” (or impression). From contact there arises feeling, and so on.41

“Dependent on the sixfold sense sphere arise contact or

impressions,” means: The visual contact conditioned by the eye; the sound

contact conditioned by the ear; the smell contact conditioned by the nose;

the taste contact conditioned by the tongue; the bodily contact conditioned

by the body; the mental contact conditioned by the mind.

7. Feeling (vedanaa)

What is feeling? -Lord Buddha taught:

"There are these six groups of feeling: feeling that is born of eye -

contact, feeling that is born of ear -contact, feeling that is born of nose -

contact, feeling that is born of tongue - contact feeling that is born of body -

contact, feeling that is born of mind - contact. This is called feeling".42

Feeling born of visual contact; feeling born of sound contact;

feeling born of smell contact; feeling born of taste contact; feeling born of

body contact, and feeling born of mental contact. Feeling may be pleasurable

41 M.Vol. I, PP.141-148. Madhupindika Sutta, 18, and M.Vol. I. PP. 311-324. Mahatanhasankhayasutta. 38. 42 S.Vol. II, P.4.

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(sukha), painful (dukkha), or neutral, i.e. neither pleasurable nor painful

(adukkhamasukha = upekkhaa).

Sense objects can never be cognized by the particular sensitivity

without the appropriate kind of consciousness, but when these three factors

come together, there arises contact. With the arising of contact,

simultaneously there arises feeling (vedanaa) and it can never be stopped by

any power or force. Such is the nature of contact and feeling. The

experiencing of desirable or undesirable kamma-results of good and evil

actions performed here or in a previous birth, is one of the prior conditions

due to which feeling can arise.

Seeing a form, hearing a sound, smelling an odour, tasting a

flavour, touching some tangible thing, cognizing a mental object (idea), we

experience feeling; but it cannot be said that all beings experience the same

feeling with the same object. An object, for instance, which may be felt

agreeable by one, may be felt unpleasant by another, and neutral by still

another. Feeling also may differ in accordance with circumstances. A sense

object which once evoked unpleasant feelings in us may possibly produce

pleasant feelings in us under different circumstances, in a totally different

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background—geographical condition, climatic conditions, etc. Thus we

learn how feeling is conditioned by contact.

8. Craving (Tanhaa)

What is craving? - Lord Buddha showed:

"There are these six groups of craving: craving for things seen, for

things heard, for odours, for tastes, for things tangible, for ideas. This is

called craving".43

Craving has its source, its genesis, its rise in feeling. All forms of

appetite are included in tanhaa. Greed, thirst, desire, lust, burning, yearning,

longing, inclination affection, household love—these are some of the many

terms that denote tanhaa, which in the words of the Buddha is the leader to

becoming (bhavanetti). Becoming, which manifests as dukkha, as suffering,

frustration, painful excitement, is our own experience. The enemy of the

whole world is lust or craving through which all evils come to living beings.

Through clear understanding of craving, the origin of craving, the cessation

of craving, the true way of practice leading to the cessation of craving, one

disentangles this tangle. “Where does craving arise and take root? Where

there is the delightful and the pleasurable, there craving arises and takes 43 S.Vol. II, P.4.

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root. Forms, sounds, smells, tastes, bodily contacts, and ideas are delightful

and pleasurable, there craving arises and takes root.”44

In the discourse of Right View (Sammàdi-tthisuttam), Mahàthera

Sàriputta mentioned three groups of craving as follows:

"And what, your reverences, is the uprising of anguish? That

craving which is connected with again - becoming, accompanied by delight

and attachment, finding delight in this and that, namely the craving for sense

pleasures, the craving for becoming, and the craving for annihilation-this,

your reverences, is called the origin of anguish".45

Craving, when obstructed by some cause, is transformed into wrath

and frustration. “From craving arises grief, from craving arises fear. To one

free from craving there is no grief. Whence fear?”46

Craving is conditioned not only by pleasurable and agreeable

feelings, but by unhappy and unpleasant feelings, too. A man in distress

craves and thirsts to get rid of it, and longs for happiness and release. To

express it in another way, the poor and the needy, the sick and the disabled,

in brief, all sufferers, crave for happiness, security, and solace. On the other

44 D.Vol. II. PP. 339-341. D. II. 308-309.45 “The discourse on right View”, Middle length Saying, I, PTS, 1987, p, 60.46 Dhp 216.

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hand, the rich, the healthy, who have not glimpsed the sufferings of the

distressed, and who are already experiencing pleasure, also crave. They

crave and long for more and more pleasures. Thus craving is insatiable. As

cattle go in search of fresh pasture so do people go in quest of fleeting

pleasures, constantly seeking fuel for this life-flame. Their greed is

inordinate.

“All is burning, all is in flames. And what is the “all” that is in

flames, that is burning? The five sense organs and the five sense objects are

burning. Mind and thoughts are burning. The five aggregates of grasping are

burning. With what are they burning? With the fire of craving, with the fire

of hate, with the fire of delusion.”47

The more we crave, the more we suffer; sorrow is the tribute we

have to pay for having craved. Wherefore, know this craving as our foe here,

in samsara, that guides us to continued and repeated sentient existence, and

so builds the “House of Being.”

The Buddha on attaining full enlightenment spoke these joyful words:

“Through many a birth in samsara have I wandered in vain, seeking

the builder of this house (of life). Repeated birth is indeed suffering! 47 Vin I 34-35. For detail see Thera Piyadassi, The Buddha’s Ancient Path (BPS, 5th ed., 1987)

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O house-builder, you are seen! You will not build this house again.

For your rafters are broken and your ridgepole shattered. My mind has

reach the Unconditioned; I have attained the destruction of caving.”48

9. Clinging (Upaadaana)

What is clinging? - The Buddha said:

"There are the four clinging: clinging of desire, clinging of opinion,

clinging of rule and ritual, and clinging of soul - theory. This is called

clinging".49

Clinging is the mental state that clings to, or grasps, the object even

as a piece of raw meat that sticks to a saucepan. Because of this clinging,

which is described as craving in a high degree, man becomes a slave to

passion, and falls into the net he himself has made of his passion for

pleasure, like the caterpillar that spins itself a tangle in which it lives. Man

entertains thoughts of craving, and in proportion as he fails to ignore them,

they grow till they get intensified to the degree of tenacious clinging.

All the various wrong views (ditthi) that were in existence during

the time of the Buddha can be included in annihilationism (ucchedaditthi)

48 Dhp 153,154.49 S.Vol. II, P.4.

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and eternalism (sassataditthi). To some, especially to the intellectuals, at

times the giving up of a view that they have cherished is more difficult than

giving up objects of sense. Of all wrong views the clinging to a belief in a

soul or self or an abiding ego-entity (attavaada-upaadaana) is the strongest,

foremost and most pernicious.

The Buddha rejected the notion of a self or soul (attaa). In this

conflux of mind and body which undergoes change without remaining the

same for two consecutive moments, the Buddha could not see a lasting,

indestructible soul. In other words, he could locate no abiding soul in this

ever-changing “being.” The Master, therefore, emphatically denied an attaa

either in the five aggregates (material form, feeling, perception, volitional

formations, consciousness) or elsewhere. “All this,” he said, “is void of an

attaa or anything of the nature of an attaa (suññam idam attena vaa

attaniyena vaa).”50 If this wrong notion is got rid of, all the existing wrong

and pernicious views automatically cease.

10. Becoming (Bhava)

What is becoming? It is defined that:

50 M.Vol. I. PP.167-182; M. Vol. I. Alagaddupamasutta 22; M. I. 138.

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"There are these becomings: becoming in Kàma (worlds), becoming

in Rupa (worlds), and becoming in Arupa (worlds)".51

Clinging leads to becoming (bhava), of which there are two kinds:

kammabhava and upapattibhava. Kammabhava means the kamma that leads

to rebirth. Upapattibhava means the aggregates of existence that result from

kamma. It comprises consciousness, mind and matter, sense-bases, contact,

and feeling. The becoming conditioned by attachment is kammabhava;

upapattibhava is merely its by-product. From contact with the six pleasant

or unpleasant sense-objects, six pleasant or unpleasant feelings arise.

Feelings lead to craving, and craving develops into attachment. Attachment

may become excessive to the point of longing for reunion with one’s family

in a future life or attainment of nibbāna with one’s beloved.

True religion is the religion of the virtuous. Those who follow the

true religion hear wise teachings, avoid immoral deeds, words, and thoughts,

and acquire right views about the future life, kamma and its fruits. So, for

their own benefit, they cultivate wholesome thoughts and practise charity,

morality, and meditation. Such practices are noble because they are

blameless and acceptable to everybody. Nobody will blame a man who

51 S. Vol. II, P. 4.

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avoids killing, stealing, slander, and other misdeeds. The meritorious deeds

that we do are wholesome kammas stemming from attachment to the sensual

realm. They lead to rebirth in the human or celestial realms.

11. Birth (Jaati)

What is birth? It is explained as follows.

" That which, of this and that being in this or that group, is birth,

continuous birth, descent, reproductive, appearance of component factors'

acquiring of sense - spheres. This is called birth"52

Dependent on becoming arises birth. Here birth means not the

actual childbirth, but the appearance of the five aggregates (material form,

feeling, perception, formations, and consciousness) in the mother’s womb.

This process is conditioned by kamma-bhava.

The present birth is brought about by the craving and clinging

kamma—volitions (tanhaa-upaadaana) of the past birth, and the craving

and clinging acts of will of the present birth bring about future rebirth.

According to the teaching of the Buddha, it is this kamma-volition that

divides beings into high and low.

52 S.Vol. II, P. 4.

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“Beings are heirs of their deeds; bearers of their deeds, and their

deeds are the womb out of which they spring,”53 and through their deeds

alone they must change for the better, remake themselves, and win liberation

from ill.

There is nothing that passes or transmigrates from one life to

another. Is it not possible to light one lamp from another and in this process

does any flame pass from one to the other? Do you not see the continuity of

the flame? It is neither the same flame nor a totally different one.

The kammic process (kamma-bhava), therefore, is the force in

virtue of which reaction follows actions; it is the energy that, out of a present

life, conditions a future life in unending sequence.

12. Ageing and Death (Jaraamarana)

"What is ageing and death? - It means that: "That which, of this or

that being, in this and that group, is decay, drecrepitute, breaking up,

hoariness, wrinkling of skin, shrinkage of a life - span, over - ripeness of

faculties: this is called ageing. That which of this or that being from this or

that group, is falling or decease, separation, disappearance, mortality or

dying, accomplishment of time: separation of component factors, 53 M.Vol. III. P.249; M. Vol. III. Culakammavibhangasutta. 135.

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layingdown of the carcase: this is called death. Thus, it is this decay and this

dying that is called ageing and death".54

Dependent on birth arise ageing and death, and with them naturally

come sorrow, lamentation, pain, grief, and despair. Birth is inevitably

followed by ageing and death; in the absence of birth there will be no ageing

and death. Thus this whole mass of suffering arises dependent on the

twelvefold dependent origination. Ageing and death are followed by birth,

and birth, on the other hand, is followed by ageing and death. The pair thus

accompany each other in bewildering succession. Nothing mundane is still;

it is all in flux. People build up wishful hopes and plans for the morrow, but

one day, sudden perhaps and unexpected, there comes the inevitable hour

when death puts an end to this brief span of life, and brings our hopes to

naught. So long as man is attached to existence through his ignorance,

craving, and clinging, for him death is not the final end. He will continue his

career of whirling along with the wheel of existence, and will be twisted and

torn between the spokes of agony. Thus, looking around us in the world at

the different types of men and women, and at the differences in their varying

fortunes, we know that these cannot be due to mere chance.

54 S. Vol. II, P. 4.

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According to the teachings of the Buddha, the direct cause of the

distinctions and inequalities of birth in this life is the good and evil actions

of each individual in past lives. In all actions, good and evil, mind is the

most important factor. “All mental states have mind as their forerunner;

mind dominates, everything is mind-made. If one speaks or acts with a

polluted mind, pain follows him in consequence as the cartwheel follows the

foot of the beast of burden.” In like manner, “in consequence of mentations

made, words spoken and deeds done with a pure and placid mind, happiness

follows him even like the inseparable shadow.”55

The world seems to be imperfect and ill-balanced. We are too often

confronted with many a difficulty and shortcoming. People differ from one

another in many ways and aspects. Among us human beings, let alone the

animal kingdom, we see some born as miserable wretches, sunk in deep

distress and supremely unhappy; others born into a state of abundance and

happiness enjoying a life of luxury and knowing nothing of the world’s woe.

If we but pause for a moment and impartially investigate and intelligently

inquire into things, we will find that these wide differences are not the work

of an external agency or a superhuman being. We will find that we ourselves

are responsible for our deeds whether good or ill and that we ourselves are

55 Dhp 1,2.

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the makers of our own kamma. The Buddha said: “According to the seed

that is sown, So is the fruit ye reap therefrom. The doer of good (will gather)

good, The doer of evil, evil (reaps).Sown is the seed and planted well; Thou

shalt enjoy the fruit thereof.”56

To reiterate what was mentioned earlier, this doctrine of Dependent

Origination merely explains the processes of Birth and Death, and is not a

theory of the evolution of the world. It deals with the Cause of rebirth and

Suffering, but in no way attempts to show the absolute Origin of Life.

Ignorance in Dependent Origination is the ignorance of the Four Noble

Truths. It is very important for us to understand the Four Noble Truths

because it is the ignorance of these Truths that has trapped us all in the

endless cycle of birth and death.

Dependent Origination is not a creation by the Buddha or by any

other person. But it is there whether the Buddhas were to be born or not.

What the Buddha does is to reveal it, which is already present there, to the

world. In the other words, Dependent origination is not a subjective

explanation but an objective reality.

56 S. Vol. I. P. 293. S I 227; The Kindred Sayings, I.

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III.3 Explanation of Man and Universe through Five Aggregates

One of the most central to the Buddha’s teaching was the khandhas,

which are most frequently translated into English as "aggregates." Prior to

the Buddha, the Pali word khandha had very ordinary meanings: A khandha

could be a pile, a bundle, a heap, a mass. It could also be the trunk of a tree.

In his first sermon, though, the Buddha gave it a new, psychological

meaning, introducing the term "clinging-khandhas" to summarize his

analysis of the truth of stress and suffering. Throughout the remainder of his

teaching career, he referred to these psychological khandhas time and again.

Their importance in his teachings has thus been obvious to every generation

of Buddhists ever since.

Why are they called aggregates, khandha? Khandha means "heap"

or "accumulation." It is easy to understand that the body is a heap of material

elements. We maintain its process of growth by heaping it up with gross

material food. In the mental sphere, too, through our experiences we

accumulate feelings, perceptions and ideas, volitions, and consciousness.

Therefore all five aspects of the personality are called heaps, accumulations,

or aggregates. Since they are intimately interconnected and act on one

another, the processes are extremely complex and complicated. According to

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one commentarial simile they are like the waters at a confluence where five

rivers meet. One cannot take a handful of water and say that it came from

such and such a river. The aggregates are ever-changing and are constantly

in a state of flux.

The word aggregate means a collection, thus each aggregate is a

collection of many components. The components of one aggregate may be

different types of phenomena, such as love and anger, or they may be

different possibilities of one phenomenon, such as the feeling of different

levels of happiness. When part of experience, each variable component

changes from moment to moment and has a different length of continuity.

The five aggregate factors, then, resemble five bags. Each moment

of our experience has one or more components from each of the bags, and

every variable that constitutes our experience is in one or another of the

bags. The bags, however, are merely abstractions imputed on the basis of

collections of components. The bags and their components do not exist on

their own somewhere, either inside or outside of us. When an aggregate

factor, such as happiness or anger, is not part of our experience of the

moment, it does not exist as something findable somewhere else. We do not

see the five aggregates as phenomena but as an entity because of our deluded

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minds, because of or innate desire to treat these as a self in order to pander to

our self-importance. Then we will not mistake the superficial for the real.

We will then see that these aggregates arise and disappear in rapid

succession, never being the same for two consecutive moments, never static

but always in a state of flux, never being but always becoming. If the five

aggregates and all the other things are conditioned and interdependent, there

should also be no free will. With this Conditioned Genesis together with the

analysis of the Five Aggregates, one finds that there is also no immortal

abiding essence in man. Whether this essence is called Atman or soul it does

not matter. This is the Buddhist doctrine of Anatta, No-Soul or No-Self. In

conventional truth or daily conversation we use the word “I” merely to

signify an individual separate from other individuals. However in ultimate

truth there is no essence or abiding substance behind this individual. ‘A

person should be mentioned as existing only in designation, but not in

reality.’ The Buddha said:

All created things are transitory;

Those who realize this are freed from suffering.

This is the path that leads to wisdom.

All created things are involved in sorrow;

Those who realize this are freed from suffering.

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This is the path that leads to pure wisdom.

All states are without self;

Those who realize this are freed from suffering.

This is the path that leads to pure wisdom.57

All created things are impermanent and therefore involved in

dukkha, sorrow and suffering. There is no Self or Atman in the Five

Aggregates or outside the Five Aggregates. Furthermore, there is also no

Self or Atman in the unconditioned. For those the Five Aggregates work

interdependently in a constant flux within the law of cause and effect, and

that there is no eternal, unchanging, and permanent essence in all

conditioned and unconditioned things and states.

The five aggregates constitute a real private prison for us. We suffer

a great deal due to our attachment to this prison and our expectations of what

the prison should be. As our perception of the external world and our

relations with our fellow human beings are conditioned by the nature of this

prison, interpersonal relations and communication become extremely

complex, tricky, and problematic. Problems become more and more

complicated to the extent that we identify ourselves with this private prison.

57 Dhp. Vs, 277, 278, 279.

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Now let us try to supplement our understanding of the canonical

teachings in terms of our daily experience and see how we cling to each and

every one of these aggregates as "I" and "mine," and continue to suffer in the

private prison that we make for ourselves.

Understanding of the five khandhas or Aggregates plays a big part

in Buddhism. These five khandhas, viewed in another way, can be divided

into Mind and Matter, or rather, Mentality and Materiality.

Whenever Consciousness arises, there arise also the Feeling

Aggregate and the Perception Aggregate and the Mental Formations

Aggregate. These are the four Mental Aggregates. The Matter Aggregate is

generated simultaneously by the four generators, viz., Karma,

Consciousness, Temperature and Nutriment. This makes up the five

Aggregates.

These five Aggregates come from nowhere and go to nowhere.

They just arise and disappear. This concept is very important in Buddhist

Meditation. The five Aggregates are evanescent. They just flash forth and

disappear.

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One Mind succeeds another; the five Aggregates arise and

disappear immediately. Consciousness can arise through any of the six

Doors. The five Aggregates that arise from the Eye Door are different in

kind to the five Aggregates that arise through the Ear-Door, and again are

different in kind to the aggregates that arise through the Nose-Door, etc.

It is all automatic. It will be seen that the "I" or self does not enter

into the picture at all. However, the Mind-Consciousness, which is the Big

Magician, brings in the ideas of "I" and Mine and Myself, and therefore

there is attachment to these five khandhas.

We have seen how these five khandhas arise and how they

disappear immediately - arising and cessation, and once again arising and

cessation, and so on. They just flash forth when the conditions are fulfilled

and immediately disappear; they are evanescent.

What is called individual existence is in reality nothing but a mere

process of those mental and physical phenomena, a process that since time

immemorial has been going on, and that also after death will still continue

for unthinkably long periods of time. These 5 groups, however, neither

singly nor collectively constitute any self-dependent real ego-entity, or

personality (attā), nor is there to be found any such entity apart from them.

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Hence the belief in such an ego-entity or personality, as real in the ultimate

sense, proves a mere illusion.

"When all constituent parts are there, The designation ‘cart’ is used;

Just so, where the five groups exist, of ’living being’ do we speak."58

The fact ought to be emphasised here that these five groups,

correctly speaking, merely form an abstract classification by the Buddha, but

that they as such, i.e. as just these five complete groups, have no real

existence, since only single representatives of these groups, mostly variable,

can arise with any state of consciousness. For example, with one and the

same unit of consciousness only one single kind of feeling, say joy or

sorrow, can be associated and never more than one. Similarly, two different

perceptions cannot arise at the same moment. Also, of the various kinds of

sense-cognition or consciousness, only one can be present at a time, for

example, seeing, hearing or inner consciousness, etc. However, a smaller or

larger number are always associated with every state of consciousness, as we

shall see later on.

Some writers on Buddhism who have not understood that the five

khandha are just classificatory groupings, have conceived them as compact

58 S. Vol. I, PP. 169-170.

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entities (‘heaps’, ‘bundles’), while actually, as stated above, the groups

never exist as such, i.e. they never occur in a simultaneous totality of all

their constituents. Also those single constituents of a group which are

present in any given body- and -mind process are of an evanescent nature,

and so also their varying combinations. Feeling, perception and mental

formations form merely the various different aspects and functions of those

single units of consciousness which, like lightning, flash forth at every

moment and immediately there after disappear again for ever. They are to

consciousness what redness, softness, sweetness, etc. are to an apple and

have as little separate existence as those qualities.

In Samyutta- Nikaya there is the following short definition of these

five groups:

"What, o monks, is the Aggregate of Matter? The four primary

elements (mahā-bhūta or dhātu) and corporeality depending thereon, this is

called the Aggregate of Matter.

"What, o monks, is the Aggregate of Sensation? There are six

classes of feeling: due to visual impression, to sound impression, to odour

impression, to taste impression, to bodily impression, and to mind

impression....

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"What, o monks, is the Aggregate of Perceptions? There are six

classes of perception: perception of visual objects, of sounds, of odours, of

tastes, of bodily impressions, and of mental impressions....

"What, o monks, is the Aggregate of Mental Formations? There are

six classes of volitional states (cetanā): with regard to visual objects, to

sounds, to odours, to tastes, to bodily impressions and to mind objects....

"What, o monks, is the Aggregate of Consciousness? There are six

classes of consciousness: eye-consciousness, ear-consciousness, nose-

consciousness, tongue-consciousness, body-consciousness, and mind-

consciousness."59

About the inseparability of the groups it is said:

"Whatever, o brother, there exists of feeling, of perception and of

mental formations, these things are associated, not dissociated, and it is

impossible to separate one from the other and show their difference. For

whatever one feels, one perceives; and whatever one perceives, of this one is

conscious"60

59 S. Vol. III, PP, 50,51,52,53.60 M. Vol. I. PP. 350-360. Mahavedallasutta 43.

135

Further: "Impossible is it for anyone to explain the passing out of

one existence and the entering into a new existence, or the growth, increase

and development of consciousness independent of corporeality, feeling,

perception and mental formations" 61

Regarding the impersonality (anattā) and emptiness (suññatā) of the

five groups, it is said in Samyutta Nikaya:

"Whatever there is of corporeality, feeling, perception, mental

formations and consciousness, whether past, present or future, one’s own or

external, gross or subtle, lofty or low, far or near, this one should understand

according to reality and true wisdom: ’This does not belong to me, this am I

not, this is not my Ego.’"62

Further also in Samyutta Nikaya: "Suppose that a man who is not

blind were to behold the many bubbles on the Ganges as they are driving

along; and he should watch them and carefully examine them. After

carefully examining them, however, they will appear to him empty, unreal

and unsubstantial. In exactly the same way does the monk behold all the

corporeal phenomena ... feelings ... perceptions ... mental formations ...

states of consciousness, whether they be of the past, present or future ... far

61 S. Vol. II, p, 60.62 S. Vol. III, PP, 42,43.

136

or near. And he watches them and examines them carefully; and after

carefully examining them, they appear to him empty, unreal and

unsubstantial."63

The five groups are compared, respectively, to a lump of froth, a

bubble, a mirage, a core less plantain stem, and a conjuring trick 64

The teaching of The Five Aggregates is an analysis of personal

experiences and a view on cognition from a Buddhist perspective. It also

provides a logical and thorough approach to understand the Universal Truth

of Not-self. Self is just a convenient term for a collection of physical and

mental personal experiences, thus each aggregate is a collection of many

components. The components of one aggregate may be different types of

phenomena, such as love and anger, or they may be different possibilities of

one phenomenon, such as the feeling of different levels of happiness. When

part of experience, each variable component changes from moment to

moment and has a different length of continuity. Now, we should go on to

analyse all our personal experiences in terms of The Five Aggregates. There

are the five aspects in which the Buddha has summed up all the physical and

63 S.Vol. III, P, 119.64 Ibid

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mental phenomena of existence, and which appear to the ignorant man as his

ego, or personality, to wit:

1. Aggregate of Matter (rūpa-kkhandha)

“Why is it called 'matter' (rupa)? Because it is afflicted (ruppati),

thus it is called 'matter.' Afflicted with what? with cold, heat, hunger, thirst

and with the touch of flies, mosquitoes, wind, sun and reptiles. Because it is

afflicted, it is called matter.”65

The first is the Aggregate of Matter (rūpa-kkhandha). In this term

'Aggregate of Matter' are included the traditional Four Great Elements

(cattari mahabbutani), namely, solidity, fluidity, heat and motion, and also

the Derivatives (upadaya-rupa) of the Four Great Elements. In the term

'Derivatives of Four Great Elements' are included our five material sense-

organs, i.e., the faculties of eye, ear, nose, tongue, and body, and their

corresponding objects in the external world, i.e., visible form, sound, odour,

taste, and tangible things, and also some thoughts or ideas or conceptions

which are in the sphere of mind-objects (dharmayatana). Thus the whole

realm of matter, both internal and external, is included in the Aggregate of

Matter.

65 S. Vol. III, PP, 72-74.

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The Buddha defines the matter or body, or form, as that which gets

re-formed and de-formed; it is afflicted with heat, cold, and insects. The

body is but a body-building activity. Modern medical science informs us that

the body is composed of billions and billions of cells which are continually

in a process of growth and decay. What is meant here can be explained with

the help of a simile. We say that there is rain and use the noun "rain." But in

actuality there is no "thing" called rain apart from the activity of raining. The

process of drops of water falling from the sky — that we call rain. Though

we use the noun "rain," there is in reality only the activity of raining which

can be better described with a verb. If we look at the paper and really see it,

we are seeing the tree this was made from, the person who cut that tree

down, the family he or she came from. We are seeing the rain that gave it

nourishment, the sun that provided for its growth and development, the earth

that supported it. If you take away any of those elements, the paper cannot

exist. The paper, therefore, is empty of anything that we would recognize as

paper. Certain things have come together, interdependently; in this object we

call a piece of paper. So, while the paper is void or empty of self, it is full of

"non-paper elements." Similarly, what we call the body is but a process of

body building; therefore the Buddha defines the noun "form" (rupa) with its

corresponding verb "forming" (ruppati ). This process of body-building is

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going on all the time and thus is always in a state of unrest. Therefore form

is looked upon as impermanent (anicca). In this changing process of body-

building activity there is absolutely nothing that can be regarded as a self, an

unchanging ego, an "I," a permanent soul. Thus our identification with the

body as self is a big delusion. In the same way, we are made up not of a self,

but of the stars and the sun, of the earth and rain, mutually interdependent in

ways that are striking that when we see this, really see it, we have no words.

We have, then, seen the universe as it is, not as we imagine or wish it to be,

and we see the process in others around us and in the clouds and in our own

state of being.

2. Aggregate of Sensation or feeling (vedanā-kkhandha)

"And why is it called 'feeling'? Because it feels, thus it is called

'feeling.' What does it feel? It feels pleasure, it feels pain, it feels neither-

pleasure-nor-pain. Because it feels, it is called feeling.”66

Aggregate of Sensation are included all our sensations, pleasant or

unpleasant or neutral, experienced through the contact of physical and

mental organs with the external world. They are of six kinds: the sensations

experienced through the contact of the eye with visible forms, ear with

66 S. Vol. III, PP, 72-74.

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sounds, nose with odour, tongue with taste, body with tangible objects, and

mind (which is the sixth faculty in Buddhist Philosophy) with mind-objects

or thoughts or ideas. All our physical and mental sensations are included in

this group.

It should clearly be understood that mind is not spirit as opposed to

matter. It should always be remembered that Buddhism does not recognize a

spirit opposed to matter, as is accepted by most other systems of

philosophies and religions. Mind is only a faculty or organ (indriya) like the

eye or the ear. It can be controlled and developed like any other faculty, and

the Buddha speaks quite often of the value of controlling and disciplining

these six faculties. The difference between the eye and the mind as faculties

is that the former senses the world of colours and visible forms, while the

latter senses the world of ideas and thoughts and mental objects. We

experience different fields of the world with different senses. We cannot

hear colours, but we can see them. Nor can we see sounds, but we can hear

them. Thus with our five physical sense organs-eye, ear, nose, tongue, body-

we experience only the world of visible forms, sounds, odours, tastes and

tangible objects. But these represent only a part of the world, not the whole

world. What of ideas and thoughts? They are also a part of the world. But

they cannot be sensed, they cannot be conceived by the faculty of the eye,

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ear, nose, tongue or body. Yet they can be conceived by another faculty,

which is mind. Now ideas and thoughts are not independent of the world

experienced by these five physical sense faculties. In fact they depend on,

and are conditioned by, physical experiences. Hence a person born blind

cannot have ideas of colour, except through the analogy of sounds or some

other things experienced through his other faculties. Ideas and thoughts

which form a part of the world are thus produced and conditioned by

physical experiences and are conceived by the mind. Hence mind (manas) is

considered a sense faculty or organ (indriya), like the eye or the ear.

The Khandhasamyutta says that: The uninstructed man, being

impressed by feelings which are produced through contact with ignorance,

thinks "I am this (body)." The body is strewn with an intricately woven

network of nerve fibers, and there is no part of the body which is not

sensitive to touch. The entire sensitive volume constitutes the I, the self, the

ego.67

There are three kinds of feelings, namely, pleasurable or happy

feelings, unpleasant or painful feelings, and neutral feelings. No two types

ever occur concurrently at any single moment. When pleasurable feelings

67 S. Vol. III, p, 41.

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are present the other two are absent; when painful feelings are there pleasant

and neutral feelings are absent; similarly with neutral feelings. The

Mahanidana Sutta asks the question: when feelings are so complex in this

manner, which feeling would one accept as one's self? Feelings differ from

person to person. We don’t all feel the same way about the same thing. Our

feelings are dependent on our experiences and the way we process

information. Not every person processes information in the same way, nor

do they come to the same conclusion. And our feeling can and do change

during our existence.

"And what is feeling? These six classes of feeling — feeling born of

eye-contact, feeling born of ear-contact, feeling born of nose-contact, feeling

born of tongue-contact, feeling born of body-contact, feeling born of

intellect-contact: this is called feeling."68

Our feelings are extremely private and personal. One may have a

splitting headache, but the one next to him may not know anything about his

painful sensations. We only infer the pain of another by his facial

expressions, behavior, and words, but we certainly do not know the feelings

of another. We are so unique in the experiences of feelings: one may be

68 S. Vol. III, p, 55.

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sensitive to heat; another to cold, mosquitoes, or fleas; another to certain

kinds of pollen. One may have a low threshold for pain, another a high

threshold. Thus each one is so unique in the totality of his sensitivity that we

are utterly and absolutely alone in our private prison of feelings.

The Buddha defines feeling as the act of feeling. There is no "thing"

called feeling apart from the act of feeling. Therefore feelings are dynamic,

ever-changing and impermanent.

3. Aggregate of Perceptions (saññā-kkhandha)

"Why is it called 'perception'? Because it perceives, thus it is called

'perception.' What does it perceive? It perceives blue, it perceives yellow, it

perceives red, it perceives white. Because it perceives, it is called

perception.”69

This aggregate perceives or recognizes both physical and mental

objects through its contact with the senses. When we become aware or

conscious of an object or idea, our perception recognizes its distinctions

from other objects or ideas. This distinction makes us familiar with the

object or idea when we sense it in the future. Perception is what enables

69 S. Vol. III, p, 73.

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memory. They can also be deceptive, and they too change during our

existence.

A familiar Buddhist illustration tells of a farmer, who after sowing a

field, sets up a scarecrow for protection from the birds, who usually mistake

it for a man and will not land. That is an example of the illusionary

possibilities of perception; this aggregate can produce false impressions. A

perception can become so indelible on our mind that it becomes difficult to

erase.

Like sensations, perceptions also are of six kinds, in relation to six

internal faculties and the corresponding six external objects. Like sensations,

they are produced through the contact of our six faculties with the external

world. It is the perceptions that recognize objects whether physical or

mental.

"These six classes of perception — perception of form, perception

of sound, perception of smell, perception of taste, perception of tactile

sensation, perception of ideas: this is called perception."70

Each one of us perceives the world around us through our own

preconceived ideas. Let us take a very gross example. A doctor's perception 70 S. Vol. III, p, 56.

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of the world will be quite different from the perception of a politician or a

businessman. A doctor looking at an apple might think of its nutritional

value, a politician of the advantages and disadvantages permitting

importation, the businessman of the commercial value. Thus we are so much

conditioned by our interests and ideologies — some absorbed from

upbringing, some from the culture we are exposed to, some from the

academic and professional training we have acquired — that no two people

can have identical perceptions.

We identify ourselves with our ideas too: "This is my point of view,

this is my idea, this is my opinion, this is what I meant" — these are all

expressions identifying ourselves with ideation and perception. Sometimes

this identification is so strong that we are ready to sacrifice our lives for the

sake of an idea. Many wars are waged in the world propagating or defending

ideas. Our ideas change due to changing emotions and circumstances. A

friend becomes a foe, an enemy becomes an ally, a stranger becomes a

spouse. Therefore in ideation too there is nothing constant and permanent.

4. Aggregate of Mental Formations (or activities-compound)

(sankhāra-kkhandha)

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“And why, brethren, do ye say "the activities-compound"? Because

they compose a compound. That is why, brethren, the word "activities-

compound" is used. And what compound do they compose? It is the body

that they compose into a compound of body. It is feeling that they compose

into a feeling-compound. It is perception that they compose into a perception

compound; the activities into an activities-compound; consciousness into a

consciousness-compound. They compose a compound, brethren. Therefore,

the word (activities)-compound is used”.71

This aggregate includes all mental factors except feeling and

perception, which are two of the possible fifty-two mental factors noted in

Buddhism. These factors are volitional; no action produces change or

karma, unless there is intention, volition (choice), and action. Contact

through the senses brings about the necessity of choosing an action and the

action we choose depends upon our thought process, which is the result of

our experiences and our individual evolution, including that of gaining or

loosing wisdom. In this group are included all volitional activities both good

and bad. What is generally known as karma comes under this group. Its

function is to direct the mind in the sphere of good, bad or neutral activities.'

Just like sensations and perceptions, mental formations also connected with

71 S. Vol. III, p, 73.

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the six internal faculties and the corresponding six objects (both physical and

mental) in the external world. Sensations and perceptions are not volitional

actions. They do not produce karmic effects. It is only volitional actions -

such as attention (manasikara), will (chanda), determination (adhimokkha),

confidence (saddha), concentration (samadhi), wisdom (panna), energy

(viriya), desire (raga), repugnance or hate (patigha) ignorance (avijja),

conceit (mana), idea of self (sakkaya-difthi) etc. - that can produce karmic

effects. There are 52 such mental activities which constitute the Aggregate

of Mental Formations.

The noun sankhara is defined by its verbal counterpart thus:

"Mental formations are those (volitional activities) which construct, form,

shape or prepare the physical body into what it is, the feelings into what they

are, perceptions, mental formations and consciousness into what they are."

This is a process that is going on all the time. What is meant can be

understood in the following manner: the distinctive physical and mental

characteristic features of each individual are determined by these volitional

activities. To this category belong all our hopes, aspirations, ambitions and

determinations, and we identify ourselves with them as my hopes, my

ambitions, etc. No two people will be identical in this respect too. What one

person will treasure and strive for, another may consider a trifle. When one

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person prefers to hoard money, another would prefer to spend it on

education. Still another may consider both of these as insignificant and run

after power, honor, and prestige. We shape our destinies alone, imprisoned

as we are within the wall of volitional activities. If we want to free

ourselves, we have to give up identification with this prison wall too.

5. Aggregate of Consciousness (viññāna-kkhandha).

"And why is it called 'consciousness'? Because it cognizes, thus it is

called consciousness. What does it cognize? It cognizes what is sour, bitter,

pungent, sweet, alkaline, non-alkaline, salty, and unsalty. Because it

cognizes, it is called consciousness."72

The most important of the aggregates, because it is where the

mental factors wind up. Without consciousness there can be no mental

factors; they are interrelated, interdependent and coexistent.

The mind and its faculty is not something physical. It is concerned

with thoughts and ideas. Forms are seen only via the eye, not via the ear,

whose faculty of hearing is not that of the eye, etc. Thoughts and ideas

belong to the faculty of the mind. The senses cannot think, nor can they

mull over ideas, choose possible actions and arrive at conclusions. 72 S. Vol. III, p, 74.

149

Consciousness is made possible through the interaction of the

senses. Thoughts and ideas originate in the mind, which in Buddhism is

called the sixth sense. The five aggregates are not permanent; they are ever

subject to change and they do change as we experience life.

A human is composed of mind and matter, and according to

Buddhism, apart from mind and matter, there is no such thing as an immortal

soul, an unchanging “thing” separate from these five aggregates.

Thus the combination of the five aggregates is called a being which

may assume as many names as its types, shapes, and forms. According to

Buddhism’s dharma, a human is a moral being with both positive and

negative potentials. We make choices concerning which of these potentials

we choose to nourish thereby becoming a part of exactly who each one of us

is, in terms of characteristics, personality traits, and disposition. It is the

potential of each human to gain wisdom and enlightenment. Buddhism

teaches that each one of us is the architect of our own fate, and we will reap

what we sow.

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III.4. The Twelve spheres and Eighteen Realms of Existence

The relationship between the twelve spheres (aayatana) and

eighteen Realms (dhaatu) of existence is epistemologically significant.

While twelve spheres (aayatana) are located within the category of as

eighteen Realmss (dhaatu), the six sense-organs belonging to both of twelve

spheres (aatayana) and of eighteen Realmss (dhaatu), and sixfold

consciousness (vi~n~naa.naa) of eighteen Realmss (dhaatu) can be placed

under the category of five aggregates of human personality (pa~nca-

kkhandha // pa~nca-skandha). Again, while the first five sense-organs (viz.,

eye, ear, nose, tongue and body) and the corresponding five objects

(baahira-aatayana) (viz., the visible, sound, smell, taste and touch) plus

some of mental objects (dhamma-dhaatu / dhammaayatana) are located

within the aggregate of form (raapakkhandha), the sixth faculty (viz., mind,

mano) along with some corresponding objects, namely concepts or ideas

(dhamma ), plus the sixfold consciousness (vi~n~naa.na) within the

category of the aggregate of consciousness (vi~n~naa.nakkhandha). This

relation can be illustrated through the following Table.

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Relation between Twelve Spheres and Eighteen Elements

Using this framework we can begin to understand how our

experience is constructed from these components. When a sense faculty, a

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sensory object, and a corresponding sense consciousness come together

there is contact (phassa). From contact arises feeling (vedanā), experienced

as either pleasant, painful, or neutral. From feeling arises craving (tanhā). If

the feeling is pleasant it gives rise to craving as “This is good, I want this.”

If it is painful it gives rise to aversion as “This is no good, I don’t want this.”

And if it is neutral it gives rise to indifference. These contingent processes

are described in Chachakka Sutta:

Dependent on the eye and forms, eye-consciousness arises. The

meeting of the three is contact. With contact as condition there is feeling.

With feeling as condition there is craving.

Dependent on the ear and sounds, ear-consciousness arises. The

meeting of the three is contact. With contact as condition there is feeling.

With feeling as condition there is craving.

Dependent on the nose and odors, nose-consciousness arises. The

meeting of the three is contact. With contact as condition there is feeling.

With feeling as condition there is craving.

Dependent on the tongue and flavors, tongue-consciousness arises.

The meeting of the three is contact. With contact as condition there is

feeling. With feeling as condition there is craving.

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Dependent on the body and tactual objects, body-consciousness

arises. The meeting of the three is contact. With contact as condition there is

feeling. With feeling as condition there is craving.

Dependent on the mind and phenomena, mind-consciousness arises.

The meeting of the three is contact. With contact as condition there is

feeling. With feeling as condition there is craving.73

The Buddha’s insight into this situation involves seeing that these

twelve spheres and eighteen components which make up all of our dualistic

sensory experiences are impermanent, changing, always becoming other

than they were. This impermanence means that they are not dependable. And

because they are impermanent and unreliable, they are unsatisfactory

(dukkha) in that they will never bring any lasting happiness. And because

they are impermanent, unsatisfactory, and occur conditionally, they are not-

self (anatta) in that there can’t be found any permanent, fully autonomous

agent or controller within any of the eighteen components. This is expressed

in Dutiyadvaya Sutta:

Dependent on the eye and forms, eye-consciousness arises. The eye

is impermanent, changing, becoming otherwise. Forms are impermanent,

73 M.Vol. III.PP, 331-336. chachakka sutra (no.148)

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changing, becoming otherwise. Thus this dyad is moving and wavering,

impermanent, changing, becoming otherwise.

Eye-consciousness is impermanent, changing, becoming otherwise.

The cause and condition for the arising of eye-consciousness is also

impermanent, changing, becoming otherwise. When, monks, eye-

consciousness has arisen in dependence on a condition that is impermanent,

how could it be permanent?

The meeting, the encounter, the occurrence of these three things is

called eye-contact. Eye-contact too is impermanent, changing, becoming

otherwise. The cause and condition for the arising of eye-contact is also

impermanent, changing, becoming otherwise. When, monks, eye-contact has

arisen in dependence on a condition that is impermanent, how could it be

permanent?

Contacted, monks, one feels, contacted one intends, contacted one

perceives. Thus these things too are moving and wavering, impermanent,

changing, becoming otherwise.

Dependent on the ear and sounds, ear-consciousness arises. The ear

is impermanent, changing, becoming otherwise. Sounds are impermanent,

changing, becoming otherwise. Thus this dyad is moving and wavering,

impermanent, changing, becoming otherwise...

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Dependent on the nose and odors, nose-consciousness arises. The

nose is impermanent, changing, becoming otherwise. Odors are

impermanent, changing, becoming otherwise. Thus this dyad is moving and

wavering, impermanent, changing, becoming otherwise...

Dependent on the tongue and flavors, tongue-consciousness arises.

The tongue is impermanent, changing, becoming otherwise. Flavors are

impermanent, changing, becoming otherwise. Thus this dyad is moving and

wavering, impermanent, changing, becoming otherwise...

Dependent on the body and tactual objects, body-consciousness

arises. The body is impermanent, changing, becoming otherwise. Tactual

objects are impermanent, changing, becoming otherwise. Thus this dyad is

moving and wavering, impermanent, changing, becoming otherwise...

Dependent on the mind and phenomena, mind-consciousness arises.

The mind is impermanent, changing, becoming otherwise. Phenomena are

impermanent, changing, becoming otherwise. Thus this dyad is moving and

wavering, impermanent, changing, becoming otherwise...

Mind-consciousness is impermanent, changing, becoming

otherwise. The cause and condition for the arising of mind-consciousness is

also impermanent, changing, becoming otherwise. When, monks, mind-

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consciousness has arisen in dependence on a condition that is impermanent,

how could it be permanent.

The meeting, the encounter, the occurrence of these three things is

called mind-contact. Mind-contact too is impermanent, changing, becoming

otherwise. The cause and condition for the arising of mind-contact is also

impermanent, changing, becoming otherwise. When, monks, mind-contact

has arisen in dependence on a condition that is impermanent, how could it be

permanent?

Contacted, monks, one feels, contacted one intends, contacted one

perceives. Thus these things too are moving and wavering, impermanent,

changing, becoming otherwise.74

Again, this is why the Buddha exhorts us to develop dispassion

towards these phenomena and abandon them. We are instructed to not

conceive (maññati) of anything in terms of these phenomena which are

always becoming otherwise.

Now what, monks, is the way that is suitable for uprooting all

conceiving? Here monks, a monk does not conceive the eye, does not

conceive in the eye, does not conceive from the eye, does not conceive, ‘The

74 S. Vol. IV.PP, 39-40.

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eye is mine.’ He does not conceive forms... eye-consciousness... eye-

contact... and as to whatever feeling arises with eye-contact as condition,

whether pleasant or painful or neither-painful-nor-pleasant, he does not

conceive that, does not conceive in that, does not conceive from that, does

not conceive, ‘That is mine.’ For, monks, whatever one conceives, whatever

one conceives in, whatever one conceives from, whatever one conceives as

‘mine’ — that is otherwise. The world, becoming otherwise, attached to

existence, seeks delight only in existence.

He does not conceive the ear... He does not conceive the mind... and

as to whatever feeling arises with mind-contact as condition... he does not

conceive that, does not conceive in that, does not conceive from that, does

not conceive, ‘That is mine.’ For, monks, whatever one conceives, whatever

one conceives in, whatever one conceives from, whatever one conceives as

‘mine’ — that is otherwise. The world, becoming otherwise, attached to

existence, seeks delight only in existence.

Whatever, monks, is the extent of the aggregates, the components,

and the sensory spheres, he does not conceive that, does not conceive in that,

does not conceive from that, does not conceive, ‘That is mine.’

Since he does not conceive anything thus, he does not cling to

anything in the world. Not clinging, he is not excited. Unexcited, he

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personally attains complete nibbāna. He discerns that, ‘Birth is ended, the

holy life fulfilled, done is what had to be done, there is nothing further

here.’75

The Twelve spheres and eighteen Realms are useful for

understanding conditioned phenomena in that they help to illustrate how our

experience arises through conditions, as well as illustrating how

dissatisfaction arises. The experiential identification of these twelve spheres

and eighteen Realms are essential if we want to begin to break down our

experience into these basic phenomenological processes.

Whereas discernment of the five aggregates is primarily concerned

with investigating the aspects of the body and mind that we usually identify

with and take as our self, discernment of the twelve sensory spheres and

eighteen components extend this investigation further in order to see how we

habitually create a world of individuated particulars, populated with people,

places, and things.

Now what, Ānanda, is the recognition of selflessness? Here,

Ānanda, a monk, gone to the wilderness, to the root of a tree, or to an empty

place, discriminates thus: ‘The eye is not-self, forms are not-self; the ear is

75 S. Vol. IV. P,12. Padhamasamugghātasappāya Sutta 35.31

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not-self, sounds are not-self; the nose is not-self, odors are not-self; the

tongue is not-self, flavors are not-self; the body is not-self, tactual objects

are not-self; the mind is not-self, phenomena are not-self.’ Thus he abides

contemplating selflessness with regard to the six internal and external

sensory spheres. This, Ānanda, is called the recognition of selflessness.76

In practice, we need to be able to recognize this absence of self in

our immediate experience: When seeing, there is the coming together of

visible form, the eye, and visual consciousness. When hearing, there is the

coming together of sound, the ear, and auditory consciousness. When

touching, there is the coming together of tactual sensation, the body, and

tactile consciousness. When thinking, there is the thought, the mind, and

mental consciousness. These processes arise simply through ‘contact.’ When

a sense faculty and a sensory object make contact, the corresponding sensory

consciousness arises. This entire process occurs through specific

conditionality (idappaccayatā). There is no independent, fully autonomous

agent or self controlling any of this.

76A. Vol.V. PP.74-77; A.10.60 Girimānanda Sutta.

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Thus, monks, the Tathāgata does not conceive an [object] seen

when seeing what is to be seen. He does not conceive an unseen. He does

not conceive a to-be-seen. He does not conceive a seer.

He does not conceive an [object] heard when hearing what is to be

heard. He does not conceive an unheard. He does not conceive a to-be-heard.

He does not conceive a hearer.

He does not conceive an [object] sensed when sensing what is to be

sensed. He does not conceive an unsensed. He does not conceive a to-be-

sensed. He does not conceive a senser.

He does not conceive an [object] known when knowing what is to

be known. He does not conceive an unknown. He does not conceive a to-be-

known. He does not conceive a knower.

Sensory consciousness can’t be isolated as separate and

independent. Nor can any of these other interdependent phenomena. Even

the designations that we apply to these various phenomena are entirely

conventional, dependent designations. But this doesn’t mean that we should

now interpret our experience as being some sort of cosmic oneness or unity

consciousness or whatever one may want to call it. That's just another

empty, dependent label isn’t it? The whole point of this analysis is to see the

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emptiness of all referents, and thereby stop constructing and defining a

“self.”77

When there is no self to be found one’s experience becomes very

simple, direct, and uncluttered. When seeing, there is the coming together of

visible form, the eye, and visual consciousness, that’s all. There is no

separate “seer.” The seer is entirely dependent upon the seen. There can be

no seer independent of the seen. There is no separate, independent subject or

self.

This is also the case for the sensory object. The “seen” is entirely

dependent upon the eye faculty and visual consciousness. There can be no

object seen independent of the eye faculty and cognition. This is the case for

all possible sensory objects. There is no separate, independent sensory

object.

The same holds true for sensory consciousness as well. “Seeing” is

entirely dependent upon the eye and visible form. There can be no seeing

77A. Vol.II. PP,26-28. Kānakārāma Sutta 4.24

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independent of the eye and cognition. This is the case for all possible

sensory cognitions. There is no separate, independent sensory consciousness.

It’s important to understand this experientially. Let’s take the

straightforward empirical experience of you looking at this screen right now

as an example. Conventionally speaking, you could describe the experience

as “I see the computer screen.” Another way of describing this is that there’s

a “seer” who “sees” the “seen.” But look at the screen: are there really three

independent and separate parts to your experience? Or are “seer,” “sees,”

and “seen,” just three conceptual labels applied to this experience in which

the three parts are entirely interdependent?

The “seer,” “seen,” and “seeing” are all empty and insubstantial.

The eye faculty, visible form, and visual consciousness are all

interdependent aspects of the same experience. You can’t peel one away and

still have a sensory experience — there is no separation

The Teaching on Emptiness in connection with the twelve spheres

and eighteen worldly dharmas, or the eighteen realms; the uninstructed lack

understanding of the Dharma, of Emptiness and repeatedly yield to the play

of delusion as permanence and as independent existence. Ultimate

Emptiness is not the obstinate void of the worldlings nor the annihilation

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view of those on the heterodox path; it is not the analysis of the Void as

practiced by Theravadins, nor the Void of the present moment as perceived

by the bodhisattva.

The supramundane Emptiness of True Existence is not possessed by

buddhas alone: All of us are endowed with the same truth and would come

to know it, if only we relinquished our discriminating mind; that is the

supramundane Void of True Existence. In order to have correct practice it is

not necessary to apply the method of Theravada, the Middle Vehicle or the

Mahayana. Anyone can become buddha spontaneously by deeply

comprehending that "all existence is Void." The Arhat of Theravada is equal

to a worldly person of great potential.

A worldling of superior potential can sharpen his/her wisdom and

receive the radiant Dharma at any time. People of mundane concerns wear

themselves out in the realm of the eighteen mundane dharmas that lead to

confusion and craving; for them there can be no salvation. The six organs,

i.e., eye, ear, nose, tongue, body and mind, and the corresponding six sense-

objects, i.e., form, sound, smell, taste, touch and mental formations generate

the six kinds of consciousness, i.e., eye consciousness, ear consciousness,

nose consciousness, tongue consciousness, body consciousness and mind

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consciousness. The group is referred to as the eighteen realms or the

eighteen mundane dharmas. To be conscious means to be conscious of

something, to distinguish or to discriminate.

The average person works to make a living, eats and drinks every

day always bound by the twelve spheres and eighteen realms. He/she always

sees with his/her eyes, hears with his/her ears, smells with his/her nose,

tastes with his/her tongue, touches with his/her body and knows mental

objects with his/her mind. The cognitive objects are discerned, produce

sense data and from the six kinds of consciousness arise all the other

functions.

People assume the reality of subject and object behind the process,

unaware as they are of it being a mere assumption unverifiable by

experience. To understand this doctrine means liberation, but getting

confused about it means falling into the ocean of suffering. Six kinds of

consciousness arise from the six organs and the six data. The six organs are

useless to a dead body. How could the six kinds of consciousness receive the

six data and act upon receiving them? Since Emptiness is the substance of

the six organs and, consequently, of the six kinds of data, what do the six

kinds of consciousness depend on for their existence? The sutra says: "No

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realm of the eye all the way up to no realm of consciousness," meaning no

realm of eye consciousness, no realm of ear consciousness, no realm of nose

consciousness, no realm of tongue consciousness, no realm of body

consciousness and no realm of mind consciousness.

The mundane Dharma of eighteen realms and their range is clear:

Each of them has a character of its own. As a matter of fact, just as one

hundred rivers merge into one ocean, all dharmas are contained in one

teaching, the teaching of Emptiness. To attain enlightenment instantly, all

one needs is to comprehensively understand the Dharma of Emptiness as the

essence of reality. The uninformed majority submerge their True Nature in

confusion resulting from misconception regarding the twelve spheres and

eighteen realms, a concept that has no counterpart in reality. Whenever mind

touches a point, there is feeling; it may itch, hurt, feel numb, burn, or

produce any of the countless sensations, and the knowing consciousness is

alerted. When the taste buds are stimulated, there is the knowing of tasting.

There is sweet, bitter, sour, etc. and the tasting nature becomes confused by

the variety and the complexity. Similarly, the moment the eye makes

contact, the eye consciousness engages in making distinctions in terms of

light, dark, and the pristine seeing nature gets covered over by them. When

the ear catches a sound, the hearing nature gets lost in judgments regarding

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it. These cognitive patterns are so deep it is difficult to trace and abandon

them. And yet, it manifests complete misunderstanding of the original nature

of consciousness. Looking at the city at night, we see the brilliant lights of

ten-thousand households: Such is the form of light. During blackout we are

able to observe the form of darkness. Light and darkness both have birth and

death, yet the nature of seeing is free of cyclic existence. It is in the nature of

seeing to perceive darkness in the absence of light and light in the absence of

darkness. This should help us to understand the timeless nature of seeing.

Our tendency to crave and grasp the object of seeing is a major obstacle to

an understanding of the true nature of reality.

Attachment resulting from pleasurable eye contact, once

established, is exceedingly difficult to relinquish. Most people do not have

any understanding of the subject of seeing. The organ of the eye does not

have the ability to see - only the nature of seeing does. The one who can

enlighten himself/herself as to the subject of the nature of seeing can

understand his/her own mind and see his/her own nature immediately.

Whether a person is holy or worldly depends entirely on his/her ability (or

the lack of it) to see his own Original Nature. This holds true for the nature

of hearing, smelling, tasting, touching and for the nature of knowing.

The preceding explanation dealt with the eighteen realms consisting of six

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sense organs, six sense data and six kinds of consciousness. Now I would

like to sum up, using the eye organ for illustration:

There are two aspects to the eye: There is the organ of sensation and

the faculty of sensation; the eye is the organ; the faculty of sensation has two

parts - seeing and form. The capacity of the eye to see, or the subject of

seeing, is called the nature of seeing. The form of seeing is related to the

object of seeing: It is always connected to an object, and therefore the eye is

always seeing something, whether a thing, a shape, a color or a size. The

object of seeing is most confusing, and the uninstructed can easily fall into

self-deception as to the independent existence of whatever they are looking

at. The process of experience gets twisted so it suits the volition to grasp and

to possess, thus changing into a source of suffering. The Buddha's teaching

is the path to liberation and whoever understands this, understands all the

Mahayana sutras as well.

The mirror was made to reflect whatever it faces, including

mountains, rivers, even the great earth; the problem arises when the

reflection is mistaken for the object and when it is no longer realized that it

may vanish at any time, it being part of the birth/death cycle. The

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susceptibility to reflect is the real self, the timeless characteristic of the

mirror we are talking about, yet it is very seldom realized.

Time passes very quickly; even if we live for one-hundred years, it

still is a very brief period of time. Those who inhabit heavens still worry

about death although their lives last much longer. Things seen during one's

life are completely useless after one has died. The nature of seeing, however,

is not amenable to birth or death, it is not dependent on the organ of the eye.

To have eyes does not necessarily mean having seeing awareness. The

nature of seeing is like the capacity of the mirror to reflect images, shapes or

actions; after the images, shapes or actions vanish, the nature of seeing

remains, unmovable and unchangeable. The same applies to the nature of

hearing, smelling, tasting, touching and knowing.

Simply stated, people should not hold reflections as permanent,

clinging to them and grasping them. To perceive the reflectivity of the

mirror as the True Self means quick release from defilement and an

expeditious liberation. The remaining five sense doors can be inferred from

the example of the eye organ; the six sense-organs with their corresponding

six data and six kinds of consciousness collectively generate the eighteen

realms or the eighteen worldly Dharmas: All of these are reflections,

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impermanent, subject to birth and death. Only the nature of seeing, hearing,

smelling, tasting, touching and knowing, like the nature of the mirror,

remains unchanged. Furthermore, that which reflects is the also reflection,

and the reflection becomes that which reflects it: They complement one

another. Thus there is "no eye, ear, nose, tongue, body and mind: No form,

sound, smell, taste, touch and no mind object. No eye realm until no realm

of consciousness."