60

CHAPTER III

PHYSICAL AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC FACTORS AFFECTING

AGRICULTURE

3.1 Physical Factors

Agriculture depends to a great extent on the physical factors of natural

environment. The agricultural typology is related to natural environment and therefore,

man without developed technology and science has little control over success or failure

of the agricultural enterprise. The physical factors influencing agriculture of the district

Darrang include topography, climate, flood and soil erosion.

3.1.1 Topography

Agricultural development of the district is determined by its topography. The

district consists of seven community development blocks. Each block has peculiarity in

topography. As a result, agricultural pattern of each development block is different

from the other. Physiographically, the configuration of the region is that it is mainly an

alluvial plain with an abrupt southern slope in the North.

The south-western corner of Sipajhar development block is occupied by some

low hills of maximum heights upto 100 metres only above mean sea level. In this south

western part there is a large number of swamps, beels and low lying areas. During

summer, these swamps and beels remain full of water but in winter, water level

decreases. As a result, boro rice is cultivated in this low lying area. The north western

part of Sipajhar development block is mostly an alluvial plain. As irrigation facilities

are not available in this region, agricultural activities depend on rain water and so only

winter rice is cultivated here. The river Nanoi flows through the middle of this block,

thereby enriching its banks with alluvial soil. The low lying areas, particularly the char

areas are also rich in alluvial soil. Different types of crops such as vegetables, rape &

61

mustard are grown in large quantity in these char areas. For the nature of topography of

the Pub-Mangaldai and Pachim-Mangaldai development blocks, the crops like winter

rice, boro rice, wheat, maize etc. are cultivated. This has taken the district ahead in

respect of agriculture. Dalgaon-Sialmari development block is in the south-eastern part

of the district. The middle and the eastern parts are high land areas. Orang Wild Life

Sanctuary falls in one of these high level areas. The southern part is a flood prone area.

Farmers cultivate both winter and summer rice and different types of rabi and kharif

crops. The Bechimari development block is located in the north-eastern part of the

district. This development block is generally a new alluvial plain area and agriculturally

a developed area. Mixed farming and double farming are common in this development

block. Kalaigaon development block is located in the northern part of the district. It is

an alluvial plain area. Farmers in the eastern part of this block practise double cropping

in comparison to the western part as the eastern part has sufficient irrigation facilities.

In this eastern part Muslims of immigrant origin are inhabited. They cultivate winter

rice in a large scale and also cultivate different types of vegetables both rabi and kharif.

Especially on account of the topography of the eastern part, Kalaigaon development

block becomes famous in the district for growing different types of crops. The

topography of Khairabari development block is characterized by plain area and black

soil, as a result of which this block is dominant in the production of winter rice, jute,

potato, wheat etc. Mainly the indigenous Hindu people inhabit in this block.

3.1.2 Climate

Like other parts of Assam, the climate of the district is characteristically

monsoonal with changing season. The high temperatures being experienced during the

south-west monsoon season along with abundant rains and highly humid atmosphere

throughout the year. Winter starts from December and ends in February, which is

62

followed by a season of thunder storms, from March to May. Next from June and up to

the beginning of October is the season of south-west monsoon and October and

November are marked as post-monsoon season. The agricultural activities of the

farmers are conditioned by the seasonal and spatial variations in the distribution of

climatic elements. Accordingly the cropping pattern varies from development block to

block and season to season. In the cold weather and the retreating monsoon season, rabi

crops are cultivated in Pub-Mangaldai, Pachim-Mangaldai, Dalgaon-Sialmari,

Bechimari and Kalaigaon development blocks. These blocks are the leading producer

of vegetables and supply them to different markets of Assam.

3.1.3 Flood

Like the most parts of Assam, the district of Darrang too is chronically a flood

affected area. Droughts are little known in the district while widespread flood has

become a regular phenomenon here. Every year large areas are inundated by floods

causing heavy loss in terms of life and property and extensive damage to standing

crops. Kharif crops are the victims of summer floods and this unfortunately is an

irreparable loss that is inflicted on the economy of the farmers.

There are a large number of rivers in Darrang district. The important rivers are

the Nanoi, the Noanoi, the Mangaldai River and the Zia-Dhansiri. This region receives

intensively heavy and continuous rainfall within a short period in summer months

which inundates extensive areas of the district. The Brahmaputra and its tributaries also

add the volume of water in this period.

The incidence of flood and erosion is rooted in the typical physiographical

features and meteorological conditions obtaining in this part of the state. The heavy

water and silt discharges occurring in the upper region during the peak and rivulet

resulting in excessive spilling on the banks of the rivers and their tributaries and

63

consequent water logging in extensive. It is also believed that the great earthquake 1950

causing extensive hill slides in the catchment of the Brahmaputra is also one of the

reasons of floods in this district.

Indiscriminate deforestation in the catchment and the upper reaches of the

Brahmaputra river basin causes heavy soil erosion. Consequently the huge load of

sediment carried by the Brahmaputra and their tributaries is deposited on their beds and

banks leading to the raising of the beds and spilling of the water to the surrounding low

lands during the flood. The Nanoi, Noanoi and the Zia-Dhansiri rivers pass through this

district causing meanders and depositing river loads. It has been destroying agricultural

lands. The construction of embankment on the river banks as a measure of flood control

without prior survey and investigation of the geographical and hydrological behaviour

of the rivers and the soils also creates flood havoc in certain areas where there are

abrupt breaks in the earthen embankment.

Considering the physiographical features of the district, the floods remain

unavoidable, but if sufficient precautions are taken, the extent of damages can be

minimized.

3.1.4 Soil Erosion

Soil erosion is an important inhibitory physical factors faced by the farmers in

the district. Along the Brahmaputra and its tributaries, the problems of fluvial erosion

are very severe because of running water caused by heavy rainfall in the entire Darrang

district. Soil erosion is influenced by the nature of the soil, by the length and steepness

of the slope, by the climate, especially by rainfall and by the crops grown. Heavy rains

causes flood run off that leads to severe erosion. Agricultural practices and the crops

grown have their influence on soil erosion, as the crops grown vary in the degree of

exposure of soil. Cotton, Maize, beans, cabbage, tobacco, potatoes and most of the

64

vegetables are soil explosive crops. Along the river Brahmaputra and many of its

tributaries that pass through the district, soil erosion has led to the formation of a vast

and intricate network of fissures and gullies and the loss of invaluable agricultural land.

Every year after the recession of flood, large areas of good agricultural land are eroded

inflicting untold misery to the poor farmers of the district. The destruction of the forests

in the catchment areas of the rivers has caused rapid run-off and erosion leading to the

deposit of an increasing mass of debris on river beds.

This increasing mass of debris on river beds in the low lying areas obstacles in

this rapid run-off and force them to change their way. This change results in heavy

floods and great damage to the people. Moreover, soil erosion reduces the productivity

of land, makes the land unfit for cultivation and the people poor.

3.2 Socio-Economic Factors

In addition to the physical factors, agricultural land use, cropping pattern and

agricultural processes of the district Darrang are also largely influenced by the socio-

economic factors such as fragmentation of operational holdings, labour, land revenue

system, mechanization and equipments, transportation facilities and marketing

facilities.

3.2.1 Size of Land Holdings

Efficiency of agricultural operation depends to a large extent on the possession

and size of landholding of the peasants. The size of landholding and the size of farm

decide the degree of risk that a farm operator may bear.

Determined by the physical condition, history of settlement and social setting

the size and distribution of landholdings in the villages under this study exhibit

different patterns, with the aim of understanding the social setting, landholding

structure of the different villages of the seven community development blocks, a survey

65

through a schedule (appendices-annexure - II) is carried out in 31 villages of seven

development blocks of the district. Attempt has been made to collect primary data on

the above mentioned aspects at least from 30 percent households from each village as

far as practicable, selecting from with the help of stratified random sampling on the

basis of landholding size. The households are classified into different categories as

<0.5, 0.5-1, 1-2, 2-5, 5-10 and > 10 hectares.

Table 3.1 shows the number of households under different landholding size

classes of the different community development blocks of the district. From the table it

is seen that, in the 1-2 hectares size classes (marginal), the percentage of the household

(31.04 percent) is the highest in Sipajhar development block. Sub-marginal holdings

(0.5-1 hectares) constitute 30.06 percent and small holdings (2-5 hectares) constitute

13.40 per cent of the total surveyed households in this development block. In the size

class of <0.5 hectares, the percentage of household is 10.53 percent in Kharkhuwapara

village, 22.92 per cent in Duwaripara, 28 per cent in Mahtali, 50 per cent in Hirapara

and 25.64 per cent in Phuhuratali village. In the size class of 0.5-1 hectares, the

percentage of households is 21.05 in Kharkhuwapara, whereas the percentage of

households are 33.33, 36, 20.59 and 33.33 in Duwaripara, Mahtali, Hirapara and

Phuhuratali villages respectively. The percentage of household is 26.31 in

Kharkhuwapara, 33.33 per cent in Duwaripara, 20 per cent in Mahtali, 17.65 per cent in

Hirapara 41.02 per cent in Phuhuratali villages under the size class of 1-2 hectares

(marginal). In the size class of 2-5 hectares (small), the percentage of household is

42.10 in Kharkhuwapara, 10.42 per cent in Duwaripara, 16 percent in Mahtali and

11.76 percent in Hirapara villages of Sipajhar development block. It is observed that

the landholding structure of this development block is dominated by the marginal and

small holdings. Medium and larger farms are totally absent in all the villages of this

66

block. The landholdings are fragmented and scattered due to the increasing pressure of

agricultural population on arable land.

In Pub-Mangaldai development block, the percentage of household is 22.64 in

the<0.5 hectares size class, 31.80 per cent in the 0.5-1 hectares size class 28.03 percent

in the 1-2 hectares size class and 17.52 percent in the 2-5 hectares size class. In the size

class of 0.5-1 hectares, the percentages of households are highest in No.2 Mazgaon

village (39.76 percent), in Balabari village (26.92 percent) and Chereng-Chapari (45

percent). In the size class of 2-5 hectares, the households are totally absent in No.2

Mazgaon and Chereng Chapari. In Galaidingi village which is inhabited by the

Scheduled Tribes, the percentage of household is the highest (37.78 per cent) in the size

class of 1-2 hectares. In this village the people cultivate boro rice in a large area.

Dhariakhaiti is inhabited by the Muslims of immigrant origin and this village is located

in char area. So in this Chapari the percentage of households is the highest (29.73

percent) in the size class of <0.5 hectares (landless).

In the <0.5 hectares size class, the percentage of household is 4.76 in Paschim-

Mangaldai Development Block. In the 0.5-1 hectares size class, the percentage of

household is 28.25, 32.70 per cent are of the size ranging between 1-2 hectares and

14.28 percent are of the size ranging between 2 and 5 hectares in Pachim- Mangaldai

development block. Tamulipara village is inhabited by indigenous Hindu and in this

village the percentage of households are 14.81 per cent in the size class of <0.5

hectares; 25.92 per cent in the size class of 0.5-1 hectares; 29.63 per cent in the size

class of 1-2 hectares and 2-5 hectares. Gariapara village is inhabited by indigenous

Muslim and the percentage of households are 34.15 in the size class of <0.5 hectares;

31.70 per cent in the size class of 0.5-1 hectares and 34.15 percent in the size class of 1-

2 hectares of the total households. Bezpara is inhabited by scheduled tribes and in this

67

village the percentage of household is 21.70 in the size class of <0.5 hectares; 28.68

percent in the size class of 0.5-1 hectares; 30.23 per cent in the size class of 1-2

hectares and 19.38 per cent in the size class of 2-5 hectares of the total households.

Barkumarpara village is inhabited by the Scheduled Caste and in this village, the

percentage of households are 29.82 in the size class of <0.5 hectares; 31.58 per cent in

the size class of 0.5-1 hectares and 38.60 hectares in the size class of 1-2 hectares of the

total households. Banglaputa chapari is inhabited by the Muslims of immigrant origin.

Of the total households, 30 percent are of the size ranging between 1-2 hectares, 60 per

cent are of the size ranging between 2-5 hectares and only 5 per cent in the size classes

of <0.5 and 0.5-1 hectares in Banglaputa chapari. Moreover, the medium and large

farms are almost negligible in all the villages of Pachim-Mangaldai development block.

In the 2-5 hectares size classes (small), the percentage of the household (24.52

per cent) is the highest in Dalgaon- Sialmari Community development block. A sub-

Marginal holding is 24.10 per cent, a marginal holding is 21.77 per cent and only 5.71

per cent is medium holdings in this development block. In the <0.5 hectares size class,

the percentage of the households are 20.79 in Dhekerigaon, 13.13 per cent in

Ghiladhari, 21.24 per cent in Rangagara pathar and 73.33 percent in No.1 Kheteswar

villages of this development block. No.1 Kheteswar village is inhabited by Scheduled

Caste people. They have no any agricultural land. The main occupation of this village is

fishing and business. In the 0.5-1 hectares size class, the percentages of households are

23.76in Dhekerigaon, 18.18 percent in Ghiladhari, 25.66 percent in Rangagarapathar,

26.67 percent in No.1 Kheteswar and 27.06 percent in Ulubari villages of the total

household. In the size class of 1-2 hectares, the percentages of households are 30.69 in

Dhekerigaon, 16.16 percent in Ghiladhari village, 26.55 percent in Rangagarapathar

and 30.59 percent in Ulubari village of the total households. In the 2-5 hectares size

68

class, the percentage of households are 24.75 in Dhekerigaon, 37.37 percent in

Ghiladhari, 26.55 percent in Rangagarapathar and 28.23 percent in Ulubari villages of

the total households. The households are seen only in Ghiladhari and Ulubari villages

in the size class of 5-10 hectares (medium). It is observed that in Ulubari village the

percentage of households are highest in the size class of 1-2 hectares and 2-5 hectares

than the other villages of Dalgaon–Sialmari development block. It is due to the

increasing number of agricultural population contributed mainly by the immigrant

peasants.

In the <0.5 hectares size class, the percentage of the households of Bechimari community

development block is 19.35 whereas the percentage of households are 25.64, 28.44 and

26.57 in the size class of 0.5-1 hectares, 1-2 hectares and 2-5 hectares respectively. In

Baruapara villages, the percentage of household is 15.15 of the total household in the size

class <0.5 hectares. In this size class, the percentage of households are 28.22 in Nadirkash

village; 20 percent in Niz- Dalgaon village; 5 percent in No. 2 Chikanmati and only 2

percent in Dongpara village of the total households. In the 0.5-1 hectares size class, the

percentage of the households are 22.73 in Barlipara village, 27.61 percent in Nadirkash,

26.78 percent in Niz – Dalgaon, 21.74 Percent in No.2 Chikanmati and 23.08 percent in

Dongpara village of Bechimari community development block. The percentage of

households are 28.79 in Baruapara village, 21.47 percent in Nadirkash , 26.78 percent in

Niz – Dalgaon, 56.52 percent in No. 2 Chikanmati and 38.46 percent in Dongpara village

in the 1-2 hectares size class (Marginal). In 2-5 hectares (small) size class, the percentage

of households are 33.33 in Baruapara village, 22.79 percent in Nadirkash, 28.57 percent in

Niz – Dalgaon and 35.38 percent in Dongpara village of Bechimari community

development block. It is seen that the percentage of households are the highest in the size

class of 1-2 hectares and 2-5 in all the villages of this development block.

69

Table 3.1: Size of Landholding in Selected Villages of Different Community Development Blocks of Darrang District, 2010-11

(Figures in brackets indicate the percentage of household)

Name of

the Blocks

Name of the

surveyed villages

Total

No. of

House-

hold in

the

villages

Total

No. of

house-

hold

surveyed

No. of households under different size of land holdings

<0.5(hectare)

(Land less)

0.5-1 (hectare)

(Sub-marginal)

1-2 (hectare)

(Marginal)

2-5 (hectare)

(Small)

5-10 (hectare)

(Medium)

>10 (hectare)

(Large)

Sipajhar

1. Kharkhuwpara

2. Duwaripara

3. Mahtali

4. Hirapara

5. Phuhuratali

189

160

169

114

388

57

48

50

34

117

6 (10.53)

11 (22.92)

14 (28)

17 (50)

30 (25.64)

12 (21.05)

16 (33.33)

18 ( 36)

7 (20.59)

39 (33.33)

15 (26.31)

16 (33.33)

10 (20)

6 (17.65)

48 (41.02)

24 (42.10)

5 (10.42)

8 (16)

4 (11.76)

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

Total of the Block 306 78 (25.49) 92 (30.06) 95(31.04) 41 (13.40)

Pub-

Mangaldai

1. No. 2 Mazgaon

2. Balabari

3. Galaidingi

4. Cherang-

Chapari

5. Dhariakhaiti

275

346

300

67

247

83

104

90

20

74

27 (32.53)

28 (26.92)

-

7 (35)

22 (29.73)

33 (39.76)

28 (26.92)

27 ( 30)

9 (45)

21 (28.38)

23 (27.71)

26 (25)

34 (34.78)

4 (20)

17 (22.97)

-

22 (21.15)

29 (32.22)

-

14 (18.92)

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

Total of the Block 371 84 (22.64) 118 (31.80) 104 (28.03) 65 (17.52)

Pachim-

Mangaldai

1. Tamulipara

2. Gariapara

3. Bezpara

4. Barkumarpara

5. Banglaputta

Chapari

90

273

430

191

66

27

82

129

57

20

4 (14.81)

28 (34.15)

28 (21.70)

17 (29.82)

1 (5)

7 (25.92)

26 (31.70)

37 (28.68)

18 (31.58)

1 (5)

8 (29.63)

28 (34.15)

39 (30.23)

22 (38.60)

6 (30)

8 (29.63)

-

25 (19.38)

-

12 (60)

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

Total of the Block 315 78 (24.76) 89 (28.25) 103 (32.70) 45 (14.28)

70

Dalgaon

Sialmari

1. Dhekerigaon

2. Ghiladhari

3. Rangagara

Pathar

4. No.1 Kheteswar

5. Ulubari

336

329

375

249

282

101

99

113

75

85

21 (20.79)

13 (13.13)

24 (21.24)

55 (73.33)

-

24 (23.76)

18 (18.18)

29 (25.66)

20 (26.67)

23 (27.06)

31 (30.69)

16 (16.16)

30 (26.55)

-

26 (30.59)

25 (24.75)

37 (37.37)

30 (26.55)

-

24 (28.23)

-

15 (15.15)

-

-

12 (14.12)

-

-

-

-

-

Total of the Block 473 113 (23.89) 114 (24.10) 103 (21.77) 116 (24.52) 27 (5.71)

Bechimari

1. Baruapara

2. Nadirkash

3. Niz-Dalgaon

4. No.2 Chikanmati

5. Dongpara

220

544

372

78

217

66

163

112

23

65

10 (15.15)

46 (28.22)

20 (17.86)

5 (21.74)

2 (3.08)

15 (22.73)

45 (27.61)

30 (26.73)

5 (21.74)

15 (23.08)

19 (28.79)

35 (21.47)

30 (26.78)

13 (56.52)

25 (38.46)

22 (33.33)

37 (22.70)

32 (28.57)

-

23 (35.38)

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

Total of the Block 429 83 (19.35) 110 (25.64) 122 (28.44) 114 (26.57)

Kalai-gaon

1. Kamarpara

2. Bechimari

3. Kacharipara

4. Jabarikushi

5. Kawadanga

218

191

194

213

429

65

57

58

64

129

10 (15.38)

8 (14.03)

10 (17.24)

10 (15.62)

8 (6.20)

12 (18.46)

14 (24.56)

12 (20.69)

21 (32.81)

30 (23.25)

22 (33.85)

15 (26.31)

18 (81.03)

33 (51.56)

42 (32.56)

21 (32.31)

20 (35.09)

18 (31.03)

-

49 (37.98)

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

Total of the Block 373 46 (12.33) 89 (23.86) 130 (34.85) 108 (28.95)

Khairabari 1. Kaljuri 179 54 8 (14.81) 13 (24.07) 18 (33.33) 15 (27.78)

District (Total) 2321 490 (21.12) 625 (26.94) 675 (30) 504 (21.72)

Source: (a) Total No. of Households from Census Hand Book, Darrang, 2001

(b) Calculated on the basis of the primary data collected from the field, 2010-11

71

In the Kalaigaon development block, 12.33 Percentage in the <0.5 hectares size

class, 23.86 percent in the 0.5- hectares size class; 34.85 percent in the 1-2 hectares size

and 28.95 percent in the 2-5 hectares size class are found. The percentage of

households are 15.38, 14.03, 17.24, 15.62 and 6.20 of the total households in the <0.5

hectares size class in Kamarpara, Bechimari, Kacharipara, Jabarikushi and Kawadanga

villages respectively. In the 0.5-1 hectares size class, the percentage of households are

18.46 in Kamarpara, 24.56 percent in bechimari, 20.69 percent in Kacharipara, 32.81

percent in Jabarikushi and 23.25 percent in Kawadanga villages of Kalaigaon

development block. 33.85 Percentage of the households is found in Kamarpara village

in the 1-2 hectares size class. In this size class 26.31 percentages is found in Bechimari

village; 31.03 percentages is found in Kacharipara village, 51.56 percentage and 32.56

percentage are found in Jabarikushi and Kawadanga villages respectively. In the 2-5

hectares size class, the percentage of the household is the highest in Kawadanga

villages (37.98 percent). The percentage of households is 32.31 in Kamarpara, 35.09

percent in Bechimari and 31.03 percent in Kacharipara village in the 2-5 hectares size

class.

Only six villages of Khairabari community development block fall in the

present Darrang district. These villages are inhabited by the indigenous Hindu. So, only

one village is surveyed for this study. The name of the village is Kaljuri. The

percentage of households are 14.81 in the <0.5 hectares size class; 24.07 percent in the

0.5-1 hectares size class; 33.33 hectares in the 1-2 hectares size class and 27.78 percent

in 2-5 hectares size class of the total households in Kaljuri village of Khairabari

community development block.

From the above analysis it can be generalized that the marginal and small sized

landholdings are predominant in all the villages of the district, whereas large sized

72

landholdings are absent everywhere. Such a condition is a clear indication of extremely

heavy pressure of agricultural population on arable land. So, it may be said that

increase in small sized holdings and decrease in big sized holdings are detrimental to

agricultural development as the modern methods of agricultural operation cannot be

adopted in landholdings of economically non-feasible size. In spite of hard labour, the

farmers of the district are not able to break the vicious circle of poverty.

Landholding Structure

It has already been said that in 31 selected villages distributed in 7 community

development blocks, 2289 households are surveyed. The total landholding area covered

by these households is 2159.64 hectares and out of this area 1797.51 hectares

accounting for 83.23 per cent constitute operational area. The average size of total

landholdings is 0.94 hectares and that of operational holdings is 0.78 hectares only. The

total basti area is 362.13 hectares and of the total landholdings 16.77 percent are

covered by the basti area (Table 3.2). Basti area is the important component of land use

in the rural areas of Darrang where horticulture, pisciculture, bamboo and vegetables

are grown besides the houses of the families.

Table 3.2 indicates that there are notable variations in the distribution of all

categories of landholdings from different development blocks to blocks. The size of a

standard operational holding is fixed by socio-economic conditions in accordance with

the type of farming practised. In the different development blocks, a definite standard

size of farm cannot be maintained because of the increasing pressure of agricultural

population on arable land and the working of the law of inheritance. These two factors

are responsible for the splitting of large sized holdings into small and marginal sized. It

is found that in Sipajhar development block, the average size of operational holding is

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1.23 hectares and the average size of landholding is 1.56 hectares. The average size of

landholding is 0.76 hectares whereas the operational holding is 0.63 hectares in Pub-

Mangaldai development block. In Pachim-Mangaldai development block, the average

size of land holdings is 0.78 hectares and the average size of operational holdings is

0.66 hectares. In Dalgaon-Sialmari development block, the average size of landholding

is 0.88 hectares whereas the operational holding is 0.78 hectares. The average size of

operational holding is only 0.57 hectares and land holding is 0.65 hectares in Bechimari

development block. In Kalaigaon development blocks, the average size of holdings is

1.06 hectares and the operational holding is 0.87 hectares. In Khairabari development

block, the average size of holdings is 1.06 hectares and the average size of operational

holdings is 0.74 hectares. In Khairabari development block, the average size of

holdings is 1.06 hectares and the average percentage of basti area is 21.01 in Sipajhar,

16.69 percent in Pub- Mangaldai, 16.06 percent in Pachim- Mangaldai, 11.81 percent in

Dalgaon – Sialmari, 12.61 Percent in Bechimari, 18.37 per cent in Kalaigaon and 30.14

per cent in Khairabari development block. It is seen that the percentage of basti area is

74

Table 3.2: Landholding Structure in Selected Villages of Different Community

Development Blocks of Darrang District, 2010-11

(Area in hectares)

Source: Calculated on the Basis of the Primary Data Collected from the Field, 2010-11

highest in the case of the blocks where most of the people are indigenous and lowest in

the case of the blocks where immigrant origin farmers are inhabited. This is natural

because of the reasons that the immigrants are comparatively the new settlers and it is

more difficult to raise basti land in the low-lying chars where most of them live. The

immigrant people of the char villages plant plantain trees beside their houses. Due to

the absence of raised grounds, it is not possible for them to make spacious bastis.

On the other hand, the basti area of the household of the indigenous farmers is

much larger. Every household of the indigenous farmers has the tendency to grow a

basti accompanied by fruit trees and other trees with a pond or a small tank. In the

Kharkhowapara village of Sipajhar block and Kaljuri village of Khairabari

development block, for example all kinds of fruit trees, bamboo, vegetables and other

trees are ground besides the houses of the peasant families.

Name of

the Blocks

Total

No. of

villages

surveyed

Total No.

of

Household

surveyed

Total

operational

area

Average

size of

operational

area

Total

Basti

area

Basti

area as

% of

total

land

holdings

Total

land

holdings

area

Average

size of

total

land-

holdings

Sipajhar 5 306 377.6 1.23 100.47 21.01 478.07 1.56

Pub-

Mangaldai

5 371 235.2 0.63 47.13 16.69 282.33 0.76

Pachim-

Mangaldai

5 315 206.92 0.66 39.6 16.06 246.52 0.78

Dalgaon-

Sialmari

5 473 368.26 0.78 49.33 11.81 417.59 0.88

Bechimari 5 429 245.33 0.57 35.4 12.61 280.73 0.65

Kalaigaon 5 373 324.33 0.87 73 18.37 397.33 1.06

Khairabari 1 54 39.87 0.74 17.2 30.14 57.07 1.06

District

(Total)

31 2289 1797.51 0.78 362.13 16.77 2159.64 0.94

75

It is seen that the average size of land holdings in different development blocks

is relatively small as a result of the increasing number of agricultural population

contributed mainly by the immigrant origin Muslim farmers. The alarmingly small size

of landholdings on the average indicates clearly the prevalence of poverty among the

farmers in the district.

3.2.2 Labour Force

The availability of labour, its quantity and quality at the periods of demand

have great influence on the agricultural land use and decision making process of the

farmer. Labour is the most important factor of agricultural development in Darrang

district. In the district, there are various types of agricultural labourers i.e. unskilled,

illiterate and poor. But, gradually it is seen that Muslim of immigrant origin are going

to be skilled labourers.

From the table 3.3 it is seen that out of total number of workers in the different

community development blocks, four categories of workers are categorized i.e. (a)

cultivators, (b) agricultural labourers, (c) household industry workers and (d) other

workers. Out of the total number of workers, the percentage of cultivators in Sipajhar

development block is 58.5; in both Pub-Mangaldai and Pachim Mangaldai development

block is 53.0; in Dalgaon-Sialmari development block is 43.8; in Bechimari

development block is 40.6; in Kalaigaon development block is 62.7 and in Khairabari

development block is 62.4. On the other hand, the percentage of agricultural labourers

is the highest in Bechimari and Dalgaon-Sialmari development blocks which is 28.5

percent and 24.9 percent respectively. It is lowest in Khairabari development block

which is only 9.9 percent out of the total number of workers. In Sipajhar and Pachim-

Mangaldai development blocks, the percentage of agricultural labourers is 11 percent.

76

In Pub-Mangaldai and Kalaigaon development blocks, it is 17 percent out of the total

number of workers. Most of the people of the Bechimari and Dalgaon-Sialmari

development blocks are Muslims of immigrant origin. Even though they are illiterate

and poor, they are hard working and skilled labourers. They cultivate different types of

crops commercially. In these two development blocks, the pressure of population on

agricultural land is very high and the intensity of cropping is also highest and so the

very high proportion of agricultural labourers is seen in these blocks. But the other

development blocks of the district are inhabited by the indigenous Hindu people. They

cultivate crops for subsistence living only. Most of the workers employed in tertiary

Table 3.3: Distribution of Workers in Different Community Development Blocks

of Darrang District, 2001

(Figures in brackets indicate the percentage)

Name of

Block

Total

number of

workers

Category of workers

Cultivators Agricultural

labourers

Household

industry workers

Other

workers

Sipajhar 72,987

(36.9)

42,678

(58.5)

8,710

(11.9)

3,539

(4.8)

18,060

(24.7)

Pub

Mangaldai

41,343

(31.4)

21,927

(53.0)

7,083

(17.1)

764

(1.8)

11,569

(28.0)

Pachim

Mangaldai

32,120

(38.6)

17,030

(53.0)

3,544

(11.0)

1,095

(3.4)

10,451

(32.5)

Dalgaon –

Sialmari

36.310

(27.8)

15,918

(43.8)

9,051

(24.9)

790

(2.2)

10,551

(29.1)

Bechimari 34,098

(40.9)

13,839

(40.6)

8,714

(28.5)

672

(2.0)

10,873

(31.9)

Kalaigaon 12,235

(17.5)

7,679

(62.7)

2,102

(17.2)

218

(1.8)

2,236

(18.3)

Khairabari 2,526

(36.7)

1,577

(62.4)

250

(9.9)

174

(6.9)

525

(20.8)

District

Total

231619 120648 39454 7252 64265

Source: District Census Handbook, Darrang, 2001

77

occupation, particularly in services as well as the virtual absence of immigrant peasants

are some of the causes responsible for low percentage of agricultural labourers in the

other development blocks of the district. Otherwise, the district is industrially

backward, and so the percentage of industry workers is low in the different community

development blocks.

Agriculture is the mainstay of the economy of the people of this district. Even

those workers engaged in government offices, educational institutions and in

miscellaneous workers, have not left their attachment to agriculture. So, it may be said

that the district has no appreciable industrial activities. The percentage of other workers

is also high in Pachim-Mangaldai, Bechimari and Dalgaon-Sialmari development

blocks i.e. 32.5, 31.9 and 29.1 respectively out of the total number of workers. Thus, it

clearly indicates that the pattern of land use, topography, farming methods, intensity of

cropping etc. are determined by the availability of agricultural labourers of a region.

3.2.3 Land Revenue System

Darrang as a district of the day formed part of different kingdoms at different

periods of time and its real history as a geographical unit began in 1615 A.D. when Bali

Narayan alias Dharma Narayan, a descendant of Mahaveer Chila Rai was as the king of

Darrang by Ahom king Pratap Singha.

Land administration in the study area is different during different periods of

time. For the realization of revenue, the kings or the rulers adopted different land

revenue systems. When the district was ruled by the Kirat or the Bodo kings, there were

perhaps various principalities under the king headed by Bodo or non Bodo landlords.

Some rock inscriptions mention about officers concerned with land and land revenue

administrative like Chauroadharnika and Chota-bhata together. The duties of the latter

have not been defined anywhere. These two terms are also noticed in many records and

78

also by Bana, the Bodo king. This area was once ruled over by the Polas and during

18th

century various types of land included arable land (Kshetra), waste land (khila),

and inferior land (Apakrista bhumi). The capacity of the land is said to have been

assessed in terms of drone and pataka which are ancient terms of weights and

measurements noticed in the Kushana and Gupta inscriptions. Thus, we can ascertain

that in India and the North–East there were Choudhangs as land lords at that time

because Choudhary is a term derivative of Chow or Chou (tai word, meaning owner of

lord) and Dhara (a Sanskrit word meaning land or earth). This is possible because

Kanishka the great Kushan king introduced an administrative system in India by

borrowing from Nan Chow Kingdom which was then ruled over by the Tais and the

route over by the connecting Kanshka” scapital with Nan Chow was through Darrang

district, namely through the Karianpar duar and Udalguri leading to Chouna through

which road Hiwen Tsang made his passage from China to India.

The Kochs had a unique system of revenue administration of their own. Lands

were usually divided by the Koch Kings into two kinds: cultivable and uncultivable and

the latter included forests, marshes, roads, markets, swamps and other waste land called

Khas lands. Cultivable lands were again of two categories, namely, rented or Khalsa

and rent free or Khangi. Though king was the actual owner of the soil, but cultivators’

right over their hereditary possessions was never questioned by him. The states given to

the relatives of the king (Petbhat) were subject to be taken over by the king after the

guarantees’ death. The Jaigir land was allowed to be held by the state officers during

the period of their service only and was thus transferable. Available cultivable land

were distributed among the peasants and their records were kept by the concerning

officers without allowing them to exercise their hereditary rights over them. They were

to pay a fixed amount of revenue or a fraction of their produce to the royal treasury. In

79

any case; the king could occupy or bring under his control and any kind of land

according to the rules and custom of the kingdom prevalent during that period.

The Ahom system of land and revenue administration is new to this area. The

Royal Ahom Constitution provided that the land, soil and also the people living within

the geographical area of the royal occupation was the absolute property of the

Sovereign and the raiyats held the land under different conditions. The whole

population was classified into Khels consisting of 1000 to 5000 persons and each Khel

was sub-divided into Gots comprising of three or four Paiks or service-rendering male

citezens. All such citizens between the age group of 15 years and 50 years was a Paik

and had to render service to the state throughout the year. In return every member of

the Got was allowed two puras of paddy land or Guamati free of rent. The levy of the

first man in a Got was known as a Mul of the second, a Dewal and the third, a Tewal.

When the Mul was inactive service, the other two remained ready in their respective

head quarters for rendering State service at any time required and cultivated not only

their own shares but of the Mul also. Every paik was allowed a plot of one Halisa of

land for his house and garden for which he paid one rupee per year as house tax or hoe-

tax. If a paik cultivated paddy land in excess of his two puras, he had to pay an

additional land tax of rupee one per pura. The non cultivating paiks had to pay a higher

rate of tax depending upon the nature of the trade and profession and the hill people had

to pay a nominal hoe-tax or house tax as a token of their being citizens of state. David

Scott commended that during the Ahom rule there was no division of land in Assam

amongst a comparatively small number of individuals such as seen in feudal countries

in Europe and in Bengal, and the cultivated soil may be considered as the property of

the Paiks or peasents owing to service to the State to whom it was allotted.

80

After 1615 A.D. the subjugated Koch Kings of Darrang are believed to have

patterned their revenue administration after that of the Ahom.

A new method for collection of revenues in Darrang was adopted during the

reign of Rudra Singh’s successor Siva Singha. The higher rates of assessment which

these successive surveys and settlement operations introduced told very heavy upon the

taxpaying power of the poor subjects of Darrang. The Darrang districts Gazettear in

1685, some areas of Darrang were surveyed under the orders of Ahom king Gadadhar

Singha.

The types of tenure prevalent in Darrang during that period were Khiraj and

Lakhiraj which included Brahmottar, Debottar and Dharmottar lands. For the purpose

of revenue administration various categories of officers such as Kakati, Barua, Saikia,

Hazarika, Rajkhowa, Saharia, Phukan etc. were appointed. The Darrang king had to

place 600 paiks under the disposal of the Barohukan, the Ahom viceroy of Western

Assam. The ‘Posa’ system was also introduced in order to prevent frequent inroads of

the Bhutias into the Khaling duar, Buriguma duar and Kariapar duar. Accoding to this

system, paiks of the duar areas had to pay annually a fixed quota of goods in kind to

each of the hill-tribes for which remission of revenue to the Ahom rulers was granted to

these paiks in proportion to the amount of possa. Later on these duars were handed over

to the Bhutias according to a treaty concluded between the Bhutan Government and the

Ahom King. Other taxes levied by the Ahoms were Kar-Katal, Pad, Panchak, Baith,

Bepar, Chor, Sinla, Jalkar, Jawkhar, Dhumas, Ghamesa, Maresha, Dan, Ghat, Khut,

Danda, Bandha, Hat, Faat, Choki etc.

After the British came the territory from Barnadi in the west to Biswanath in the

east was tagged with Lower Assam and was administered from Gauhati till 1833, when

it was separated and constituted into a district known as Darrang with head quarters at

81

Mangaldai. However, the head quarters of the district was shifted from Mangaldai to

Tezpur in 1835 due to frequent floods. The Darrang Raja family was let to enjoy a

special class of Niz-Khiraj estates and ex-king of Darrang, Dharjya Narayan was paid a

penson of Rs. 360/= per years. The only important alteration adopted was the

imposition of a pol-tax of three rupees per paik in lieu of the old liability to personal

service for three or four months in the year. This was so, because the Britishers were

interested in land revenue only and in order that revenues were nicely and highly

collected, the whole area of a district was divided into Mouza or Mahal and the dues

realisable from all persons resident in a given mouza was collected by the officer–in–

charge of it who were known as Mauzader or Patgiri or Choudhuriy, Baishya, Kakati.

The agricultural lands were divided into Basti, Rupit, Bao-Tali and Faringati.

The Assam Land and Revenue Regulation that was enacted in 1886 covered

Darrang district too and it is still in force. This Regulation granted legal sanction to the

existing settlement rules issued in 1870. All owners of land were divided into three

classes, viz (1) Proprietors including the owners of revenue free estates, fee–simple

estates and permanently settled estates, (2) Landholders including the settlement

holders of land held directly from the Government under lease for a period excluding

ten years or who had held land for ten years continuously before the regulation came

into force and (3) settlement holders other than land holders including persons holding

land directly from the Government under annual leases, the terms of which is,

ordinarily issued when the land has been taken up for dwelling houses or for permanent

cultivation. Such lease is valid from one land settlement operation to the next one. On

the other hand, an annual lease is granted for a year only and it confers no rights of

inheritance, transfer and sub-letting.

82

The Assam State Acquision Zamidaries Act., 1957 was enacted which also

covered Darrang district to completely abolish the Zamindari System in permanently

settle portions of the state and to bring the tenants directly under the government. Up to

November 1976, all the proprietory rights and the rights of the tenure holders expecting

a few minor tenures have been acquired covering an area of 6.77 lakh hectares.

By another Act., Entitled, “The Assam Acquisition” of lands belonging to

Religious and Charitable Institution of Public Nature Act. 1959 an area of 0.44 lakh

hectares belonging to 164 institution have been acquired. So far and the tenants have

come directly under the institutions with the status of a land holder as in the temporally

settle areas. In the district of Darrang, Raiyatwari System of land tenure has been

prevailing for quite some time. The main advantages of this system are that-(1) there is

no sub-institution and the cultivator is in direct relation with the Government, (ii) there

are no parasitic intermediaries. (iii) The actual tillers of the soil cannot be ejected

easily.

But certain defects of this system are observed such as (i) the land in this areas

has passed often into the hands of non-agriculturists and rich agriculturists, the number

of landless labourers has increased and the size of holdings has decreased. (ii) it is

defective in the method of assessment of land revenue which gives power to the

settlement Officer”, “Kanango” (a junior Revenue Officer) and Mandal” (surveyor),

whose estimates are based on more guess work (iii) the individual assessment has

destroyed the collective basis of village life and (iv) the money Landers become very

prominent in the Raiyatwari areas with their vested financial support to the small land

holders. As a result, a new class of land lord begins to raise in these areas dispossessive

the actual tillers of the soil of their proprietorship.

83

The tenant who cultivates land on lease which is generally annual, is not sure

how long the land would remain in his possessions as the land lord has the power to

resume that land after the end of the year. Thus, the tenant has no permanent interest in

the land. In many cases, land is leased out on the share – cropping basis. Both the legal

forms of land ownership introduced by the British Zamindari and Raiyatwari are found

to be defective for agricultural development and removal of socio- economic injustice.

After independence of the country, the revenue collection policy was adopted to

abolish the Zamindari System but the Raiyatwari System was retained. The ideology of

the Indian Democratic Govt. is to create a class of small farmer proprietors in the field

of agriculture which is possible only through the Raiyatwari System of land tenure. So

in the district of Darrang increasingly larger areas have been passing under open

tenancy, while a substantial proportion of area has been increasingly utilized under

share-cropping system.

For the convenience of revenue collection, the district of Darrang has been

divided into 18 Mauzas comprising a mauzadar in each mauza. These 18 mauzas are-:

(1) Lakrai Mauza, (2) Hindughopa, (3) Sipajhar, (4) Bonmajha, (5) Dipila, (6)

Rainakuchi, (7) Sarabari (8) Chinakona, (9) Kalaigaon, (10) Rangamati, (11) Chapai,

(12) Dahi, (13) Shyamabari, (14) Kharupetia, (15) Pub-Sialmari, (16) Pachim-Sialmari,

(17) Pub-Dalgaon and (18) Pachim-Dalgaon.

3.2.4 Mechanization

Mechanization is also an important socio-economic factor affecting agricultural

development of the district Darrang. The technological changes including the use of

modern hand tools, animals drawn implements, tractors, thrashers and more economic

patterns of farm management play a vital role in the selection of crops grown and

decision-making at the farm level. These changes help in improving the crop yields.

84

For the development of agriculture in the district of Darrang, different kinds of

agricultural machinery have been used by the farmers of the district. The implements

have been provided by the Government to the farmers at free of cost and some are

given at subsidy rates. Some farmers might purchase agricultural implements directly

without the knowledge of the blocks and the Agro-Industries Department. Iron-based

plough and power tiller are used more by the Muslim farmers of immigrant origin. The

position of Dalgaon-Sialmari and Bechimari development blocks will be the highest in

the use of agricultural implements and machineries because the land and soil of these

two blocks are comparatively suitable for the use of the machinery and the farmers are

also eager to use them more than the farmers of other development blocks.

3.2.5 Transportation Facilities

The transportation system exercises tremendous influence over the structure of

economy and socio-economic development process in a region. Transport is one of the

most important components of infrastructure for the development of agriculture. This is

not only necessary for the movement of agricultural products but also for the supply of

fertilizers, machineries, seeds and other requirements of the farmers. Efficient transport

system can save time when grains and other crops are being moved from the farmer’s

home to the market. Water transport is not well developed in the district and railway

system is totally absent in the district. There is insignificant effect of the water

transportation in the region. Water transport is used only to cross the Brahmaputra with

small portion of a agricultural produce. In summer when the drainages are full of water

and the char areas of the Brahmaputra are inundated, boats are used for the movement

of all kinds of goods, including agricultural produce by the farmers living in the char

areas. In the district the most important system of transportation is the roads of different

kinds namely matelled roads, gravel roads, katcha roads, cart tract and footpaths. Main

85

roads are constructed by the P.W.D. and the small roads particularly the village roads

are built by the panchayats. All the roads and paths are needed for the movement of

farmer’s agricultural produce.

The district has a total road length of 1659 km. The National Highway-52

passing through the east-west direction covers a total length of 79 km. in the district

(Fig. 3.2). The road distance from Tezpur to Baihata Chariali is 146 km and Baihata to

Guwahati is 35 km. The road distance from Mangaldai to Guwahati is 68 km. The

feeder roads coming out from this National Highway touch the floodplain zone in the

south and built-up zone in the north. There is high spatial variation of roads within the

region. Such variations are quite apparent when road density (road length per 100 km2)

and road kilometer (road length per 1000 population) are taken into consideration. The

physiography, drainage, soil condition and natural hazards like floods, bank erosion

and government attitude and the nature of the demand of the people are responsible for

high variations of road network development in the different development blocks of the

district.

Table 3.4: Block Level Distribution of Road Density, Darrang District, 2010-11

Blocks Area (km2) Metalled road (km) Density (km/100

2)

Sipajhar 483.71 334.49 69

Pub-Mangaldai 226.41 141.00 62

Pachim-Mangaldai 179.54 210.00 116

Dalgaon-Sialmari 208.77 120.68 57

Bechimari 178.16 124.18 69

Kalaigaon 128.73 262.80 204

Khairabari 15.18 12.00 79 Source: P.W.D. Offices, Mangaldai

Table 3.5: Block Level Category of Road Density

Category Road density (km/1002) Name of the Blocks

High Above 200 Kalaigaon

Moderate 100 – 200 Pachim- Mangaldai

Low Below 100 Sipajhar, Pub-Mangaldai,

Dalgaon-Sialmari,

Bechimari, Khairabari Source: Classification from the table 3.4

86

It is seen that the highest density is observed in Kalaigaon development block

(204 km/1002 km) and moderate density is observed in Pachim-Mangaldai

development block (116 km/100km2). Kalaigaon development block is located in the

built-up zone and roads are stable here. In Pachim Mangaldai development block,

which is located in the middle part of the district the roads are stable and convenient.

Low density (Below 100 km/100 km2) is found to be characterized by as many as five

development blocks (Table 3.5 and fig 3.1). These blocks are partly located in the built-

up zone and partly in the chronically flood affected zone. However, the blocks that are

located in the chronically flood affected plain zone have the low density because of

recurring floods, river erosion and sandy soil conditions. The strikingly low density of

roads in the district confirms that a high percentage of population and a large area

suffer from adequate road facilities.

87

88

89

3.2.6 Marketing Facilities

Market places are the fundamental focal points of socio-economic life (Ghosal,

1972). Marketing is one of the stimulating factors for the development of agriculture in

any region. Of course, extension of market facilities are connected with sufficient

transport networks in a region. So marketing, transport systems, fertilizers, irrigation

etc. all lead to the intensification of crops and rapid changes in the cropping pattern.

Commercial crops like potato, jute, vegetables can be produced if good marketing and

transport facilities are available. The high yielding varieties fetch better income to the

peasants only if a good market for the commodity is available within the

neighbourhood of the place of production or the produce can be transported with ease

and with less transportation charges in the big towns and places of demand. Many a

times due to the non-availability of marketing, cold storage and ware-housing facilities,

the production is damaged. This may discourage the peasants to adopt high yielding

varieties.

In the Darrang district, marketing facility was not good before the formation of

the different development blocks. In the different development blocks weekly, bi-

weekly and daily markets are seen. The number of markets increased as the Anchalik

Panchayats sought extra incomes to meet their various expenses. So bazars and markets

have grown up at first on competition basis. Later on, all the cultivators in collaboration

with the other enlightened persons started daily markets generally in the semi-urban

areas and at the road crossing spots where small shops had already grown up.

The table 3.6 shows the spatial distribution of markets in the different

development blocks of the district in 2009-10. The number of market is highest i.e. 26

in Sipajhar development block. There are 29 weekly, 4 bi-weekly and 25 daily markets

in the district in 2009-10. In Sipajhar development block, there are 18 weekly, 2 bi-

90

weekly and 6 daily markets. The number of weekly markets in Pub-Mangaldai

development block is 1 and daily market is 5. In Pachim-Mangaldai development block

only 5 weekly markets are seen. In Dalgaon-Sialmari development block, the number

of markets is 6; which is daily markets. The number of weekly market is 1, bi-weekly is

1 and daily market is 7 in Bechimari development block. The number of weekly market

is highest in Kalaigaon development block and in Khairabari development block only 1

weekly market is seen. The Balugaon and Bechimari markets are the two leading

markets in Dalgaon-Sialmari and Bechimari development blocks respectively. The

farmers sell their vegetables potato, jute and other crops in these two markets which sit

weekly as well as daily. In the weekly market the farmers sell their crops, vegetables,

poultry, cows and goats and other commodities. But the daily markets are meant for

buying and selling of vegetables only. As these two development blocks are famous for

production of vegetables, there is growing demand for daily markets where the farmers

can sell their vegetables daily. Subsequently the weekly markets are converted into

daily markets. The farmers bring their commodities to the market in thelas, bullock

carts and in light vehicles. There are local purchasers as well as those who come from

other districts. They buy the vegetables and sent them to the different places for sale.

For example, a large quantity of vegetables from the two blocks are exported to various

places of both upper and lower Assam like Dibrugarh, Tinsukia, Dhemaji, Lakhimpur,

Jorhat, Guwahati and other places.

91

Table 3.6: Spatial Distribution of Markets of Darrang District, 2009-10

Name of the Blocks Distribution of Markets

Weekly Bi-weekly Daily Total

1.Sipajhar 18 2 6 26

2.Pub-Mangaldai 1 -- 5 6

3.Pachim-Mangaldai 5 -- -- 5

4.Dalgaon-Sialmari -- -- 6 6

5.Bechimari 1 1 7 9

6.Kalaigaon 3 1 1 5

7.Khairabari 1 -- -- --

Source: Seven Community Development Block offices, Darrang

The markets of Sipajhar development block are famous for winter rice, different

types of vegetables and clothes and other commodities. The markets of Pub-Mangaldai

and Pachim-Mangaldai development blocks are famous for different types of crops and

the goods made of bamboo and cane. The weekly markets of Kalaigaon development

block are famous for different types of rice, vegetables, poultry, cows, goats and other

commodities.

Although the road communication is improving, yet the transportation system is

not very favourable. The buses and trucks do not have access to all the marketing

places. For this constraint, agricultural commodities may not be brought to all the

markets or cannot be sent to other places easily. So one has go to distant markets for

the transaction of his agricultural goods. Bullocks and buffaloes driven carts are still

used to carry the agricultural produce to the markets. However, this system of transport

has been gradually decreasing and in its place, thelas are used to a large extent. Bazar

buses and trucks are used in limited bazaar of importance. Mini trucks and buses are

used where big buses and trucks cannot ply. The road communication system from the

few big market places in the district to those outside is now satisfactory. Trucks are

regularly plying from the market places like Kharupetia, Bechimari, Balugaon, Kopati,

92

Lalpool, Tangni, Kalaigaon and Bhakatpara to other big market places outside the

district. Agricultural produce of the char areas are sold in the local markets of the char

areas, in the markets of nearby built-up area, in the market places of the southern bank

of the Brahmaputra, like Chandrapur, Kajali, Panikhaity, Tatimari and in the Guwahati

city through water transport.

Reference:

Das, M. M. (1984): Peasant Agriculture in Assam: A Structural Analysis, Inter –

India publications, New Delhi.

Das, M. M. (1995) : “Land Holding Structure”. A problem in Peasant Agriculture in

Assam, Konark Publishers Pvt. Ltd.

District Census Hand Book, 1991

District Census Hand Book, 2001

Gangopadhyay, D. K. (1990): Revenue Administration in Assam, Indian Administrative

Service, Government of Assam

Goswami, D.N. and Das, M.M.(1999): “Peasant’s Response to Agricultural Innovation

in a Backward Area of Assam”, Journal of Geography, vol.

Gogoi,J., (2002) ; Agrarian System of Mediaval Assam, Concept Publishing Company,

New Delhi.

Hussain, M, (1997) Systematic Agricultural Geography, Rewat Publications, Jaipur and

New Delhi. pp – 122-132

93

Konwar, C., (2002) : Socio-Economic Problems of Agricultural development in

Morigaon Sub-Division, M.Phil Dissertation, Gauhaty University.

Negi, B.S., (2007): Agricultural Geography, Kedar Nath Ram Nath Published.

Taher, M.(1976): “Geo-Economic Basis of Population Distribution in Mangaldai Sub-

division. Assam”, The North Eastern Geographer, Vol. VIII,