Chapter II Trajectory of Revisits of The...
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Chapter II
Trajectory of Revisits of The Mahabharata
Introduction
The previous chapter examined the revisits of the epic by Bhasa (fourth
century BC). This chapter traces the trajectory of the revisits of The Mahabharata
from Bhasa’s period to contemporary times, in order to understand the patterns of
changes in genres and shifts in themes. If Bhasa’s revisits are at one end of a
spectrum, the contemporary revisits occupy the other end. The present analysis
provides a snapshot of this wide spectrum, indicating the evolution of the preferred
genres, themes, and languages. Authors of every era revisit the epic according to the
values of their times and their personal preferences, and so foreground and
popularise certain episodes and heroes. Royal patronage and regional sensibilities
are other factors that influence the content and the manner of the revisits.
In presenting a map of the revisits of The Mahabharata, it is important to
classify periods and indicate their dates. Table 2 lists this information gathered from
various sources including anthologies commissioned by Sahitya Akademi (T. R. S.
Sharma, Ayyappa Paniker, K. M. George, Pusalker, R. S. Sharma); the range of
dates given are approximate since there is considerable overlap and uncertainty in
fixing the dates. A unique categorisation of the periods is yet to emerge despite the
initiatives of Sahitya Akademi1. Table 2 also lists some representative literary works
of the periods.
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Table 2
Classification of Periods of Indian Literature
Name of the Period Dates Some Important Literary works
Vedic 1000 BC
400 BC
Evolution of the Vedas
Compilation of Epics and Puranas
Bhasa’s Plays
Classical 400 BC
AD 1100
Kalidasa—Abijnana Sakuntala
Bharavi – Kirata Arjuniam
Kshemendra-- Chitrabharata
Medieval AD 1100
AD 1800
Bhakthi literature a
Translations and Transcreationsb of Epics
Emergence of Vernacular Writings
Pre- and Post-Independence
AD 1800
Till date
Vernacular Revisits
English Translations & Writings
a Bhakti literature spans the period AD 600-1800, overlapping the Classical and the Medieval.
b The term ‘transcreation,’ though is of 20th Century origin.
Revisits in the Classical Period (400 BC-AD 1100)
The study of Bhasa’s revisits of The Mahabharata revealed the influence of
the social and cultural context on his works. In the Classical period too, these factors
had an impact on the intellectuals and their literary output. At the social level,
reforms in religious tenets and practices manifested in reformist movements like
Buddhism, Jainism and the Bhagavata tradition. Establishment of powerful
monarchies and their expansionist tendencies shaped the political system. The ruling
class played a significant role in shaping the society as a whole. They traced their
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genealogy to epic heroes in order to establish their claim to kingship and fashioned
themselves and their actions after them. They influenced the culture and art forms by
their support and patronage2. The writers on their part, metaphorically referred to the
feats of the rulers in their revisits. As a result, the intellectuals, by compulsion or
inducements, used the literary medium to depict the contemporary social scene,
while extolling the virtues of their patrons. To their credit, it must be mentioned that
they also documented the decay in value systems. They analysed the changes and
made a point of creating new social paradigms. In their endeavours, they had to
adopt and modify genres for appropriate literary expression. While articulating their
views on the society, authors employed stylistic innovations in order to reach across
to various sections of the society.
During the Classical period that followed the epic, Sanskrit language
dominated the literary scene. The history of Sanskrit literature of the classical period
chronicles the tradition of revisits of the epics. Though there are exemplary revisits
of The Ramayana, like Raghuvamsam, and Uttara Ramayanam, this study focusses
on the revisits of The Mahabharata. Unlike The Ramayana, which foregrounds a
single hero, The Mahabharata is woven around the lives of many heroes. The epic
offers means to:
i) express cultural diversity
ii) mirror socio political environs and
iii) provide perspective to match the author’s worldview
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The study demonstrates that the cultural diversity of the period and the complex
socio political environments are best mirrored in the revisits of The Mahabharata.
Socio-Politico- Cultural Scene
The Classical period witnessed the growth of monarchy as a dominant
political system. It also registered many invasions from foreigners. It is a period
marked by strong and well-administered empires such as Mauryan, Gupta and
Sunga. The royals, on their part, patronised various art forms, especially literature.
During the period of Asoka, many Buddhist missionaries travelled to far off places
including Central Asia, Southeast Asia, Burma and Ceylon. Chinese travellers used
the silk route for trade with Indian empires. These travels provided an opportunity
for exchange of ideas and the spread of epics. The period of Guptas' reign is
regarded as the golden period for the development of arts, crafts and literature. They
commissioned famous temples with remarkable sculptures. Chanakya’s Artha
Sastra, a seminal work on governance, provides details of the social, political and
economic life of that period. This period witnessed the blossoming of all genres of
Sanskrit literature, including drama. The royals who wished to fashion their reign
after the epic rulers, patronised these revisits (Sharma R. S. 173).
Prevalent Literary Form
In the history of Indian literature, Sanskrit occupies a unique and prime
place. The Vedas were passed on from generation to generation, thus establishing an
oral tradition. The Vedas are narratives interspersed with dialogues, in the form of
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questions and answers. They contain musical recitations (chandas), episodes
(upakhyanas), stories about lineages and moral instructions. The oral tradition of
vedic recitation helped their subsequent metamorphosis into epics. The epic poetry
of The Ramayana and The Mahabharata, followed the course of oral tradition
initially, before evolving into written texts. Didactic discourses like the Bhagavad
Gita were embedded in them. These served as vehicles of prescriptive principles
exhorting people to follow their ordained duties. The incidents described in the epics
had the potential for dramatic representation. Innovative writers like Bhasa,
Kalidasa, and Battanarayana tapped this potential to create a radically new genre of
drama. This genre owes its popularity to its visual appeal, as well as the episodic
structure. The influence of epics on the cultural and social lives forms the
substratum of our collective cultural consciousness. Sanskrit, the spoken language of
the period, was the language of the Vedas and the epics. In his Ashtadhyayi Panini
refers to the use of Sanskrit in many literary compositions and religious works.
Eminent scholars like V. Varadachari, M. Krishnamachariar, C. Kunhan Raja and
Krishna Chaitanya have examined the history of Sanskrit literature right from the
beginning of the Vedic period. They serve as reference source for our analysis of
Sanskrit literary works, in the Classical as well as the Medieval periods. Before
analysing the revisits of the epic in the Classical period, the revisits in the Classical
period are compiled and tabulated in Table 3.
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Table 3
Sanskrit Revisits in the Classical Period
Name of the Work Author Genre Type, Hero, Source 1st Century BC Abijnana Sakuntala Kalidasa Drama Episode, Sakuntala. Adi
Parva Vikrama Urvasiyam Kalidasa Drama Forefather of the Kuru clan 6th Century BC Kiratarjuniya Bharavi Poetry Episode, Arjuna. Vana Parva 7th Century BC Venisamhara Bhatta Narayana Drama Episode, Bhima. Sabha
Parva Sisupalavadha Magha Poetry Episode, Krishna. Sabha
Parva 8th Century BC Subhadra-Dhananjaya
Kulasekara Varman
Drama Episode, Arjuna. Sabha Parva
Tapati Samvarana Kulasekara Varman
Drama Episode, Samvarana. Adi Parva
10th Century BC Keechaka Vada Niti Varman Poetry Episode, Bhima
Virata Parva Prachanda Pandava Rajasekhara Drama Episode,
Sabha Parava Naishadananda Kshemiswara Drama Episode, Nala, Vana Parva Nalachampu Trivikrama
Bhatta Champu3 (a mix of Prose and poetry)
Episode, Nala, Vana Parva
11th Century BC Bharatamanjari Kshemindra Poetry Abridged version of The
Mahabharata Chitrabharata Kshemindra Poetry A story from The
Mahabharata (lost ) Dhananjayavyayoga Kanchana
Pandita Drama Episode, Arjuna. Virata
Parava
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Kalidasa (~50 BC) is a well known poet of Sanskrit literary tradition. His
Abhijnana Sakuntala is a resonance of a minor episode in the Adi Parva of The
Mahabharata. To suit the changing needs of his society, Kalidasa has chosen the
dramatic form as it creates the necessary distance from the epic. Unlike Bhasa,
Kalidasa prefers a more ornate language. He also effects changes in the story of
Sakuntala to align it with the prevalent values in the society. Sakuntala of the epic
was a bold woman who makes a choice and is not afraid of the consequences. She
openly questions Dushyanta’s credibility in his court. However, Kalidasa has
transformed her into a soft spoken woman. He has introduced incidents like the ring
and the curse to spare Dushyanta of a negative portrayal. He employs these
strategies to uphold the honour of a king, lest it casts a dark shadow on his character.
Thus, Kalidasa changes the portrayal of the main characters by introducing new
incidents. The treatment of the theme, the hero and the strategies reflect the
influence of Bhasa. The social scene was the stimulus, the epic stories were the
illuminating pathways, and the monarchy of the period was the substantive support
base for the seminal works of Bhasa and Kalidasa. The literary works of Bhasa and
Kalidasa reveal their role as agents of social change.
This period saw other authors like Bhattanarayana (~AD 650), who revisited
the epic, in the popular genre of drama. His Venisamhara alludes to the incident of
Draupadi’s humiliation. He projects Bhima as an invincible hero, and presents
Duryodhana as a vicious and mean antagonist. He has introduced new incidents and
deviations from the epic story to effect character transformation. In his play Bala
Bharata, Rajasekara (10th Century AD) employs new situations and expressions.
The influence of Bhasa, especially the strategies he employs in his revisits, is
discernible in these works.
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Bharavi (6th Century AD) introduces an additional character, Kumara, the
son of Lord Siva, in his poem Kirata Arjuniyam, to enhance the heroic capability of
Arjuna. In his classic poem Sisupalavada, which earned him the epithet ‘Ghanta–
Magha,’ Magha (7th Century AD) has deified Krishna. Nitivarman (10th Century
AD) depicts Keecaka in a better light in his poem Keecaka Vada. The poem has won
him accolades for the skill in verbal usage and for evoking apt sentiments (rasas).
Trivikrama Bhatta adopted a new genre, Champu3, which is a mix of prose and
poetry, in his Nala Champu, probably for the first time in Sanskrit. Champu appears
to have been used extensively in Prakrit works of Jain and Buddhist poets of those
periods.
During the reign of Asoka, it was customary to inscribe in stone, royal edicts
using Prakrit and Pali, the common spoken languages of the people and not
exclusively in the royal language namely Sanskrit. The spread of the Magadha
Empire across the Indian subcontinent facilitated the development of the regional
dialects and vernacular languages (Majumdar et al 99). The mutual influence of
Sanskrit enabled the dissemination of the epic at one level while strengthening the
vocabulary of the growing vernacular languages at another.
In this period, Bharata wrote a prescriptive treatise, Natyasastra. Likewise,
Panini wrote Ashtadhyayi, and Dhandin wrote Kavyadarsana. Several seminal
works on literary criticism like Dasarupaka (Dhananjaya), Dhvaniyaloka
(Anandavardhana) were also products of this period. Great philosophers like
Sankara, Ramanuja and Madhwa quoted extensively from The Mahabharata to
expound their respective religious doctrines and spiritual philosophy. In fact, the
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Classical period witnessed a change from the oral to the written tradition. The oral
tradition continued its authority on literature, albeit with decreasing vigour. Many a
critic terms the Indian literary scene organic because of this continuing influence.
The study examines the emerging pattern in the revisits of the epic during the
Classical period. At one level, the authors adopt novel strategies to effect changes in
their characters. At another level, their work forms the basis of generic conventions
and unique innovations. The choice of the episode is evidently based on action-
oriented heroic exploits. It is evident that the revisits of the epic offer different
perceptions of the epic and its characters. The dramatic form enables the episodic
form of revisits and offers freedom and scope to transform the characters of the epic
within certain broad conventions. The characters are reinterpreted in consonance
with the prevalent values while retaining their essential qualities. The authors adopt
various strategies to effect character transformation and in turn present a new
perspective on the epic. These strategies are very similar to those employed by
Bhasa. This proves that creative articulations of a particular period either endorse or
contest the epic in varying degrees. Thapar in her analysis of Sakuntala states that,
“Each new treatment provides an aspect which either illuminates the text or is a
reflection of the historical moment when its particular perspective came into being”
(Thapar Sakuntala 6). Thus Sanskrit literature, especially the revisits, undergoes a
gradual change from the sacred to the secular, as it shares a common oral tradition
with folklore. This has influenced the style of literary forms, from the ornate to the
simple. The present study reveals the emergence of a hero-centric dramatic form of
revisits.
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Revisits in the Medieval Period (AD 1100-1800)
The Medieval period witnessed foreign invasions and brought about lifestyle
changes. The invasions also prompted migration of the population. Royal patronage
enabled supra regional dissemination of the epic (Pollock 232). This spurred the
growth of the vernacular, which in turn, dominated the social and literary spheres.
The symbiotic relationship between Sanskrit and vernacular languages helped in the
dissemination of the epic and enriched the vernacular. Recreations of The
Mahabharata in regional languages have been a strong influence on local cultures.
The period saw an upsurge of religious faith and a spread of the Bhakti movement.
The poet saints of the period were responsible for the ‘resurgence of faith in a new
idiom.’ They revisited the epics to spread their religious message in Sanskrit as well
as regional languages. They adopted folk styles for communicating with the masses.
Other poets of this period too emulated these styles. Thus there was a continuous
interpenetration of folk style and the classical, each influencing the other and
contributing significantly to the development of the literature of the region as well as
the regional languages (Paniker Medieval Literature, xxiii). Concurrently, Sanskrit
revisits continued to flourish. This analysis points to the trajectory of writers’
preferred choice of themes as well as genres. For instance, the stories of Sakuntala,
Nala-Damayanti, Satyavan-Savitri, the exploits of Bhima and Arjuna and the vow of
Draupadi find resonance in a large segment of literature. Eminent poets like Pampa
(Kannada), Gnaneswar (Marathi), Shailabhadra Suri (Gujarati), Sarala Das (Odia),
Ezhuthachan (Malayalam), Nannaya (Telugu), Villiputhurar (Tamil) among others
transcreate The Mahabharata in part or in its entirety. They introduce new metrical
forms to suit their languages and enrich them in turn. Table 4 is a compendium of
revisits in Sanskrit in the Medieval period.
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Table 4
Sanskrit Revisits in the Medieval Period
Name of the Work Author Genre Type,Hero, Source 12th Century Naishadiya Charitha Sriharsha Poetry Nala, Vana Parva NalaVilasa Ramachandra Drama Nala, Vana Parva Nirbhaya Bhima Ramachandra Drama Episode, Bhima Harakeli nataka Vigraha Rajadeva
Visaladeva Drama Arjuna, Vana Parva
Samudra Manthana, Vatsaraja Drama Episode, Adi Parva Tripuradaha Vatsaraja Drama Epoisode, Siva Karna
Parva Sharmishtha-Yayati Krishna Kavia Drama Yayati, Adi Parva Draupadi Svayamvara, Vijayapala Drama Episode, Draupadi
Sabha Parva Srikantta Charitam Mankhaka Poetry Siva, Karna Parva 13th Century Kiratarjunia, Vatsaraja Drama Episode, Arjuna, Vana
Parva Sahrudayananda Krishnananda
Mahapatra of Puri Poetry Episode, Nala, Vana
Parva Bala Bharatha Amara Chandra
Suri Poetry Enire epic
Pandava Charita Devaprabha Suri Poetry Pandavas, Entire epic Nara Narayana Ananda Vastupala Poetry Episode, Arjuna. Sabha
Parva 14th Century Bala Bharatha, Agastya Poetry Entire Epic Nala Kirti Kaumudi Agastya Poetry Nala Episode, Vana
Parva Yadavabhyudayam Venkatanatha Poetry Episodes, Krishna Partha parakrama Prahladana Deva Play Episode, Arjuna. Vana
Parva Saugandhikaharana Vishwanatha Play Episode, Bhima. Vana
Parva Pandava Charita Devaprabha Suri Poetry in 18 cantos Entire epic 15th Century Nalabhyudaya Vamana Bhatta
Bana Poetry in 8 cantos Episode, Vana Parva
Yudhishthira Vijaya Vasudeva Poetry Epic complete Nalodhaya Vasudeva Poetry Episode, Nala, Vana
Parva
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Table 4 (Continued)
Name of the Work Author Genre Type, Hero, Source
16th Century
Bharatachampu Anantabhatta Poetry Prose mixed (Champu)
Entire epic
Bhaimini parinaya Srinivasa Dikashita
Play Episode, Nala, Vana Parva
Pandavabhyudhaya Vyasa Sriramadeva
Play Story of Pandavas
Subhadraharanamadhava Anon Play Episode, Arjuna,
17th Century
Subhadra Dhananjya Gururama Play Episode, Arjuna
Panchali Swayamvara Narayana Bhatta Poetry Prose mixed (Champu)
Episode, Draupadi
Bharatha Champu Raja Chudamani Dikshita
Champu Entire epic
Draupathi Parinaya Champu
Chakra Kavi Poetry (Champu) Episode, Draupadi
Nala Charita
Neelakantha Dikshita
Play Episode, Nala, Vana Parva
Subhadra Parinay Nalla Kavi Play Episode, Arjuna, Subhadra
Kalyana Saughandhika Neelakhantha Dikshita
Play Episode, Bhima and Hanuman
a dates uncertain '
Table 4 clearly demonstrates the rich literary output as well as the exceptional
growth of Indian literature in the Medieval Period. It contests the conventional
notion that the Medieval Period is a dark age. The period, in fact, witnessed a rich
literary growth in regional languages too, as discussed in the following section.
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Development of Indian Languages and Their Literatures
With the influx of migratory population, the innumerable communities and
tribes living in India, present a fascinating yet bewildering picture of the
development of different languages and local customs. In ancient India, Sanskrit
occupied the most revered place as most of the literature was in that language. The
migration of a small but dynamic group of erudite scholars, well versed in the epics
and Sanskrit Literature, from one area to another acted as a catalyst in influencing
the local languages (Paniker Medieval Literature Vol.1 xxvi). The epics remain
timelessly present, as a source of inspiration or guidance for the writers as well as
for the people. The basic theories underlying Sanskrit literature are explored in the
emerging languages and new insights are found. The local idioms and customs are
represented through the framework of the epics. At one level the spread of Sanskrit
Literature stimulated the emergence of new genres and styles in the regional
languages. At another level, traditional values and cultural mores of the epic
permeated into the growing regional societies and cultures. The active dialogue
between the society and the language of that particular society gave an
unprecedented impetus to the development of literature in each language. In due
course of time, this pre-eminent position of the language and literature slowly but
steadily declined and gave way to derived languages such as Urdu, Prakrit and
Hindi. A variety of reasons are attributed to this phenomenon. External invasions
and cultural intrusions partly contributed to this. Besides, the language itself became
stagnant and sterile. Religious decline and revisionist movements also gave a natural
impetus for the literary activities in the languages of the masses. This period saw the
evolution of new languages by conscious acquisition of elegant expressions and
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thoughts expressed in the epic. During this period there were at least five major
forms of Prakrit, namely Ardha-Magadhi, Saurseni, Maharastri, Magadhi and
Paisaci. Besides Sanskrit, Buddhists and Jains used Pali and Ardha-Magadhi
profusely as literary languages (Maheswari 3). The epics played an important role as
a common resource text in the evolution of new languages.
The development of the Tamil language in the South took place
simultaneously with that of Sanskrit in the North. The Sangam Literature is the
treasure trove of Tamil culture and literature ( 3rd century BC-4th century AD). That
the stories from the epics are mentioned in Sangam literature is evidence to the
awareness of epics during those periods. The earliest translation of The
Mahabharata is by Perumtevanar who wrote prefatory prayer poems for some of the
anthologies in the Sangam classics (Meenakshisundaran 158). Unfortunately his
major work, the Bharatham, is lost. However some of the verses of his work are
quoted in Tholkappiyam (a treatise on grammar), and Yappirunkalam.
Perumtevanar’s Bharatham is set in Agaval4 metre, in the form of a narrative
interspersed with poetry. The impact of Tamil on the development of South Indian
Languages in the Medieval period has been widely acknowledged.
The Sanskrit epics extended their influence in all corners of India and
supported the regional development of languages, during the Medieval period. This
study points to the fact that in this period, because of developments in Sanskrit, the
local languages grew in stature. The Medieval period therefore saw the growth of
vernacular languages rather than their decay, even though the pace of developments
of each of the languages may have varied considerably (Paniker Medieval Literature
Vol.1 xxiv-xxvi). Nevertheless, there has been substantive literary output, judging by
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the number of revisits. Tables 5−8 list the revisits of The Mahabharata during the
Medieval period in various Indian languages.
Table 5
Revisits of The Mahabharata in Indian Languages: 9th —14th Centuries AD
Language Name of the Work Author Genre Type, Hero, Source
9th Century
Tamil Mahabharatam Anon (most part missing, known through references)
Prose-Poetry
Entire epic, mix of genre and mix of language
10th Century
Kannada Vikramarjuna Vijaya
Pampa Poetry Entire epic
Kannada Gada Yuddha (Sahasa Bhima Vijayam)
Ranna Poetry Champu
Episode, Bhima
11th Century
Telugu Andhra Mahabharatam
Nannaya Poetry Two Parvas of the epic.
13thCentury
Telugu Andhra Mahabharatam
Tikkanna and Errana
Poetry Continuing from Nannaya
Marathi Gnaswari Sant Gnaneswar Poetry Primarily Bhagavad Gita
Assamese Bhabruvahana Yuddha
Vipra Harivara Episode, Arjuna, Aswameda Parva
Assamese Jayadratha Vadha Kaviratna Saraswati
Poetry Episode, Arjuna, Drona Parva
14th Century
Gujarati Pancha Pandava Raso
Sailabhadra Suri Poetry Virata Parva
Malyalam Bharata Mala Sankara Paniker Poetry Complete epic
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Table 6
Revisits of The Mahabharata in Indian Languages: 15th Century AD
Language Name of the Work Author Genre Type,Hero,
Source Malayalam Mahabharata Rama Paniker Poetry Complete epic
Malayalam Bhagavad Gita Madhava panikkar
Poetry Episode
Malayalam Bharata ghatha Cheruseri Poetry Entire epic Malayalam Bharata Pattu Ayyana Pillai Poetry Entire Epic Odia Mahabharata Sarla Das Poetry Entire Epic Bengali Rajasuya Yajna Madhava Deva Poetry Episode, Sabha
Parva Assamese Sathyakhi
Pravesa Rudra Kandali Poetry Krishna
Gujarati Virata Parva Shaili Suri Poetry Virata Parva Gujarati Purushottama
Pancha Pandava Phaghu
Anon Poetry Episode; Pandavas
Gujarati Nalopakhyan Bhalan Poetry Episode Nala, Vana parva
Gujarati Pandavono Paraba
Imam Shah Poetry Episode
Rajastani Katha Ahmani Belji Poetry Episode; Abhimanyu, Drona Parva,
Kannada Jaimini Bharata (Trns)
Lakshmi Sa Poetic Episode, Aswamaedha yajna
Kannada Nala Chartitre Kanaka dasa Poetry Episode, Nala, Vana parva
Telugu Jaimini Bharata (Trns)
Pillalamarri Pinaveerabhadhra Kavi
Poetry Episode, Aswamaedha yajna
Telugu Planati Bharatamu
Srinathudu Poetry Episode, about the war
Telugu Bala Bharatam Talappakka Pedda Tirumalacharyudu
Poetry Parts of the epic
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Table 7
Revisits of The Mahabharata in Indian Languages: 16th Century
Language Name of the
Work Author Genre
Type, Hero, Source
Kannada Bharata Katha Manjari/ Gadugina Bharata
Kumara Vyasa Poetry Entire Epic
Kannada Mahabharata Thimmanna Poetry Entire Epic
Assamese Mahabharata Rama Saraswati Poetry Entire Epic
Assamese Virata parva Kamsaari Poetry Virata Parva
Assamese Santhi Parva Lakshminath Poetry Santhi Parva
Assamese Salya Parva Damodar Das Poetry Salya Parva
Assamese Sthuthi Parva Jainarain Poetry Sthuthi Parva
Assamese Aswamedha parva Gana Das, Sudhiri Bhavani Das
Poetry Aswamedha Parva
Bengali Jaimini Mahabharata
Srikara Nadvi Poetry Entire epic
Gujarati Mahabharata Nakar Poetry Entire epic
Gujarati Mahabharata Vishnu Das Poetry 15 Parvas
Gujarati Rajasuya yajna Shedhadji Poetry Episode
Rajastani Katha Bhim-Dussasani
Kesodas Godhara
Poetry Episode
Rajastani Katha Surgarohani Kesodas Godhara
Poetry Episode; Swargharohana Parva
Rajastani Katha Bahsowani Kesodas Godhara
Poetry Episode
Telugu Mahabharata Battepati Thimmayya, Bala Saraswati, and Atmakuri Somanna
Poetry Epic
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Table 7 (Continued)
Language Name of the
Work Author Genre
Type, Hero, Source
Telugu Raghava Pandaveeyamu
Pingali Surana Poetry Slesha kavya
Both epics in one work
Telugu Yayati Charitramu Ponnikanti Telahanais
Poetry (kavya)
Episode, Yayati, Adi Parva
Telugu Tapathi Samvaranopanamu
Addanki Gangadharudu
Poetry Prabhandam
Episode, Samavara, Adi Parva
Tamil Nalavenba Pukzhendi Pulavar
Poetry Episode, Nala, Vana Parva
Tamil Pavazhakkodi Malai
Pukzhendi Pulavar
Poetry (Folk Song and Ballet)
Innovative Episodes, Arjuna
Tamil Alli Arasani Malai Pukzhendi Pulavar
Poetry,Folk Song, Ballet
Innovative Episodes, Arjuna
Tamil Naidatham Athiveera Rama Pandian
Poetry (Virutham)
Episode; Nala, Vana Parva
Malayalam Mahabharatam Ezhuthachan Poetry (Kilipattu)
Entire Epic
Marathi Mahabharata Vishnudas Nama
Poetry 19 Parvas of the epic
Marathi Mahabharata Mukhteswar Poetry 5 Parvas available
Odia Sakuntala Chautisa
Raghu Arakhitha
Poetry Episode; Sakuntala, Adi Parva
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Table 8
Revisits of The Mahabharata in Indian Languages: 17th and 18th centuries
Language Name of the Work Author Genre Type, Hero,
Source 17th Century Bengali Mahabharata Kansh Ram
Das Poetry Entire
Epic Gujarati Bhagavad Gita Narahari Poetry Episode Gujarati Nalakhyana Premanand Poetry Episode Telugu Mahabharata Kaluve
Veera Raju Prose Entire
Epic Telugu Draupadi Kalyanamu Shaji Poetry(folk) Tamil Bharatam Villiputhurar Poetry (Viruttam) Entire
Epic Malayalam Bakavadam Kottayam
Thampuran Drama Episodic,
Bhima Malayalam Kalyana Saugandhikam Kottayam
Thampuran Drama Episodic,
Bhima Malayalam Kirmeerevadam Kottayam
Thampuran Drama Episodic,
Bhima Malayalam Nivatakavaca
Kalakeyavadam Kottayam Thampuran
Drama Episodic, Arjuna
Malayalam Nala Charitram Ramapurathu Varier
Ballad Episodic, Nala
Malayalam Sabha Pravesam Kunjan Nambiar
Poetry (Thullal) Episode
Malayalam Kalyana Saughandikam Kunjan Nambiar
Poetry (Thullal) Episode
Malayalam Panchendropakhyana Kunjan Nambiar
Poetry (Thullal) Episode
Malayalam Nala charitam Unnai Varier Poetry (Traditional) Episode, Kathakali
Malayalam Subhadraharanam Karthigai Thirunal
Poetry (Traditional) Arjuna, Kathakali
Malayalam Bakavadam Karthigai Thirunal
Poetry (Traditional) Bhima, Kathakali
Malayalam Pancaliswayamvaram Karthigai Thirunal
Poetry (Traditional) Arjuna, Kathakali
Malayalam Kalyana Saughandikam Karthigai Thirunal
Poetry (Traditional) Bhima, Kathakali
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Table 8 (Continued)
Language Name of the Work Author Genre Type, Hero, Source
Odiya Kapatapasha Bhima Dhibar Poetry Draupadi Odiya Subhadra Parinaya Upendra Banja Poetry Arjuna 18th Century Bengali Mahabharata Kavichandra
Chakravarty Poetry Entire Epic
Mahabharata Vidyasagar Poetry Parts of the epic Gujarati Aswameda Dhiro Poetry Episode Gujarati Draupadi Vastraharan Dhiro Poetry Draupadi Gujarati Rajasuya and
Aswameda Giridhar Poetry Episodes
Telugu Vijaya Vilasamu Cheemakura Venkata Kavi
Poetry (Vilasa Kavya)
Episodes, Arjuna
Malayalam Keecakavadam Irayaman Thampi
Poetry Episode, Bhima
Marathi Arya Bharat Moropanth Poetry Entire Epic
Revisits in Indian Languages
Initially the expressive capability of the Indian languages was limited by their
vocabulary; but assimilation of expressions and ideas from Sanskrit Literature
helped in their development. It is acknowledged that the literary inspiration of the
epics was at the core of these developments. Translation, transcreation and
transliteration of the epics formed the major portion of the literatures in the new
languages. While these revisits of The Mahabharata strengthened these languages,
they gave new relevance and new perspectives to this ancient epic (Pollock 363).
The symbiotic existence of the past interpreted by the present offered a different
frame of reference relevant to a particular language and its culture. Ayyappa Paniker
in his introduction to Medieval Indian Literature opines that, “the past was
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interpreted by the present, and the present was supported and sustained by the past in
these recreated works. Kampan in Tamil, Krittivasa Ojha in Bengali, Sarla Das in
Odiya, Ezhuthachan in Malayalam, Tulsi Das in Hindi, Nannaya in Telugu: the
names of these rejuvenators are legion” (Paniker Medieval Literature Vol. I xxvi).
Scholars in these languages hold the view that the versions of the epics by these
father figures are classics of the new literature and not just literal translations. These
eminent writers also introduced different metrical forms to suit the new language
and added to its richness. This led to further revisits of the epics in these languages,
employing some of the new metrical styles like Doha, Abhang and Kirtan. As a
result, one finds an uninterrupted tradition of revisits of the epics in different genres
and languages till today. This is evident from the examples in subsequent sections.
Stylistic Innovations
The stylistic innovations5 adopted by eminent poets of various languages
inform the revisits in the regional languages. Nannaya’s Telugu Mahabharata is
known as Kavya Ithihasa, a mixture of prose and poetry, in line with Champu form
of Sanskrit (Rao T.R. 28). The later day writers adopt this literary style, as it is most
suitable for their language. Raghava Pandaveeyamu (Telugu) by Pingali Surana is a
famous Sleshakavya of this period. He combined the story of The Ramayana and
The Mahabharata into one Kavya. By syntactic separation of words, it is possible to
read the work as either The Ramayana or The Mahabharata. He mentions six kinds
of puns employed by him in this work (Rao S.V.S.N. 6-7).
The Niranam poets, Madhava Paniker, Shankara Paniker and Rama Paniker
evolved diction almost completely independent of Tamil and by assimilation of
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Sanskrit vocabulary into Malayalam language. The metre they used is called
Tarangini, an appropriate name because it flows forward dancing in a wave like
movement. Rama Paniker wrote the epic in poetical form (viruttam) and brought
about structural changes in the language. He adopted and assimilated the changes of
linguistic style of Manipravala5 into poetic form. Cherusseri’s translation of the epic
known as Bharata Katha is composed in a flexible metre called Manjari, which is
remarkably musical. This metre has its origin in folk songs and ballads and hence
his work is very popular among all walks of people. Ezuthachan, the leading light of
Malayalam poetry, wrote the epic in 25000 lines in the form of verses, wherein he
introduced the genre of Kilipattu5 (Chaitanya Malayalam Literature 76-83).
Shailbhadra Suri of Gujarat has translated the Virata Parva from original
version of Vyasa. This is a long mythological narrative poem employing a Sanskrit
syllabic metre, which is considered a rare feature in Maru-Gujjar poetical
compositions (Maheswari 31, Das 191). Purushottam Panca Pandava Phaghu by an
unknown author describes the assembly of the Pandavas and the Yadavas at Kulu
for indulging in spring sports. Phagu5 is a form of poem in Gujarati and it describes
the spring season beautifully. Bhalan is a famous fifteenth century Gujarati poet and
is considered the father of akhyan form of poetry. He occupies a pre-eminent place
as a translator-poet and has produced several popular works such as Nalopakyan
(Jhaveri 21). He modified the Sanskrit form of akhyana to suit the Gujarati
language5.
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Kumara Vyasa is a poet who made complete use of the freedom lent to
Kannada language by the linguistic evolution of the vacanas. His transcreation of
the epic is known as Karnataka Bharata Kathamanjari (Mugali 70).
Rama Saraswathi is well known for his Bada Kavyas in Assamese, which
describes the superhuman feats of the Pandavas in destroying various Asuras.
Pukalenti Pulavar’s Nalavenba is a popular work in Tamil. It describes the
story of Nala-Damayanti from the epic in venba metre, a simple and musical style.
His mastery over the venba metre is extolled by scholars. Villiputhurar wrote
Bharatham in viruttam form of verses in Tamil during the seventeenth century. This
is a popular revisit of the Mahabharata in Tamil and continues to be an important
work. It consists of 4300 verses in a smooth, flowing style, reflecting the mood of
the narrative. The author employs a strident style while describing the war scenes
and a slow style to express melancholy or grief. The author succeeds in depicting the
whole of the epic by including all the important and interesting incidents of the epic.
He has achieved a highly musical and rhythmic symmetry in his poems through
adoption of suitable words from Sanskrit (Varadarajan 194-199).
The analysis shows that eminent authors of the Medieval period employed
various metrical styles for their revisits. They adopted, and frequently innovated,
new styles to facilitate their revisits in their respective languages. Their linguistic
skills and aesthetic sensibilities came to the fore through these revisits.
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Important Revisits
It was the royals who commissioned the translation and transliteration of the
epic in their respective languages. This privileged the eminent writers of the period
to produce remarkable revisits. By absorbing local customs and traditions, they
devised interesting deviations of the epic incidents, as is demonstrated in the
following.
i) Sarla Das (15th century AD), a famous Odia poet, recreates the epic in
Odia using the local idioms of language and topography of Odisha. He
consciously subverts the epic story at many levels and at many
surfaces. They can be recognised in the religious, socio-cultural,
ethical-intellectual-philosophical, structural and lingiuistic patterns
(Das S. 55). The poet identifies Lord Krishna and Lord Jagannath of
Puri as one and the same. He represents the cosmic form of the lord in
two distinct ways. On the occasion of Krishna’s diplomatic mission to
the Kaurava court, the author presents Krishna’s various incarnations,
and his compassion for Duryodhana. In the second instance of a
hesitant Arjuna in the battlefield, the author provides a unique
interpretation of Krishna’s cosmic form (Naba Gunjara form), to
illustrate that he is manifest in all beings. His portrayal highlights the
moods and sentiments of the peasant folk of Odisha. He provides space
for the common folk to identify themselves and relate to the characters
of the epic effectively. His work is so popular that it has been
translated in English and many other Indian languages (Mansinha 50-
69, Mohanty J. M. 15-35).
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ii) In the Kannada work, Bharata Katha Manjari/ Gadugina Bharata,
Kumara Vyasa (16th century AD) has created a text which examines
the characters and situations of the epic on the basis of devotion to the
Lord. Using his own experiences in life, he examines the outlook of
Bhakti in the context of ever-changing dynamics of human
relationships, and in turn, their relationship to God. His depiction of
Karna is in consonance with that in Vyasa’s original, rather than that of
Bhasa’s idealised Karna. Through a simple gesture, metaphor or
simile, Kumara Vyasa encapsulates the feelings and the motifs of
human nature in a realistic manner (Mugali 70-72). With great felicity,
he changes the mode of narrative according to the situation. For
example, he adopts narrative style for rendering Sabha Parva, but
dramatises Udyoga Parva.
iii) Poet Rama Saraswati (16th century AD), in collaboration with his
contemporaries, translated all the parvas except Stree and Anusasana
in to Assamese (Barua 54-57). The Assamese Mahabharata is not a
literal translation of the epic. The discourses are either subverted or
altered to enable the local people to relate to the epic effectively. It
represents the life and culture, the flora and fauna, the metaphors and
similes of the contemporary rural life of Assam. The poets, Kamsari
and Lakshminath, use words of diverse origin, which have tremendous
influence on the development of the language. Even contemporary
writers draw inspiration from these retellings. Bhima Charitra is a
popular revisit (Adi Parva), where Bhima is portrayed as a strong
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farmer, helping out the family of the poverty stricken lord Siva, his
wife Parvati and their two sons. The retellings convey the message of
the ultimate triumph of good over evil to the reader. The deification of
Krishna is more pronounced in these texts. The poets reiterate the
tenets of Vaishnavism and promote Bhakti movement through their
works (Lekharu 233).
iv) Ezuthachan (16th century AD), has conveyed the grandeur, sublimity,
message and essence of the epic with all the sub-stories and important
incidents in his Malayalam Poetry. Alliteration and other rhymes are
used profusely for creating the right mood and enhance the emotional
effect. He uses a bird- a parrot, as the narrator. It can also be
considered as a symbolic representation of the poet’s own creativity.
He entreats the bird to retell the eternal story of the epic. The poet
invokes the blessings of God in the beginning of every Parva. He has
desisted from translating even a single passage from the Bhagavad
Gita, and provides a simple summary (Nair P. K. 68). The author
considers the literary nature of this work and omits any reference to
religious discourse.
v) Kottayam Tampuran (17th century AD) belonged to the royal family of
Kerala. He authored four plays based on the epic, such as,
Bakavadham, Kalyana Saugandhikam, Kirmeera Vadham, and
Nivatakavacha Kalakeya Vadham. His plays strictly adhere to the
Kathakali conventions and hence are highly effective. Tampuran has
taken liberties with the original story and introduces certain elements
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into the plot to reflect the nature of the Kathakali performance (Nair
P. K. 88). His contributions in the complicated manipravala style
reveal his mastery over languages.
vi) Mukteswar (16th century AD) the grand son of Eknath composed The
Mahabharata in Marathi. This is considered as a seminal work, but at
present only five parvas of the Marathi version are available. Using the
imaginative and rich style of poetry, the author combines all the rasas
with equal skill. His Pandavas fight even against the Muslim and the
European invaders. His composition reflects the contemporary life of
his times. Arya Bharat by Moropant is another great work in Marathi.
It condenses the Sanskrit epic into seventeen thousand verses and also
adds several innovative stories. It presents a new interpretation to some
of the characters. Moropant has given the Marathi language a new
stature and dignity. He wrote most of his verses in the metre arya
(Deshpande and Rajadhyaksha 21, 36).
vii) Premanand (17th Century) (Gujarati) has written numerous plays and
composed several poems based on The Mahabharata. He is considered
the greatest poet who nurtured the Akhyan form of poetry. He was a
story teller (Kathakar) by profession. The political instability of his
times had a direct impact on his works. People of Gujarat consider his
works sacred scriptures even today. Nalakyana is the best among his
works. He has invented many incidents and by his unusual power of
narration and description invested his works with rare charm. He is
very popular among the masses as he is at his best in the portrayal of
the sentiment of humour (Jhaveri 44).
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Influence of Folk Traditions
While famous poets chose to revisit the epic in the classical tradition, some
poets like Srinathudu attempted to infuse folk tradition in their revisits as the strong
oral tradition of the epic continues its influence on the people. Srinathudu (AD
1365-1445) belonged to the age of transition from simple translations to independent
compositions in the Telugu language. For his outstanding works, he earned the
epithet of Kavya Sarvabhauma. He composed Palanati Bharathamu in the folk
form. He allegorically uses the frame work of The Mahabharata war to depict the
contest for supremacy between Saivaites and Vaishnavaites of those times. The
author effectively utilises the scope of the epic for chronicling the local culture and
history (Rao T. R. 64).
Pukalenti Pulavar (Tamil 16th century AD) wrote Pavalakodi Malai and
Alliarasani Malai, describing the exploits of Arjuna when he visited South India.
These folk songs or ballads are still popular in the villages of Tamil Nadu. The
Marathi kings of Tanjore followed their Nayaka kings in patronising Telugu
literature. Shaji wrote Draupadi Kalyanamu in the folk style of popular Yaksha
ganam. It is a narrative interspersed with song and dialogue. It can be considered an
opera, where lyrics take precedence over rhythm (Varadarajan 198).
Ramapurathu Varier (Malayalam 17th century AD) composed
Nalacharithram. This is a musical narrative specially created for a form of folk
dance called Kaikottikali. Kunchan Nambiar is distinguished for his contribution to
the art form of Thullal. In this solo dance form performed during the day, the dancer
narrates the story with appropriate gestures. Kartika Thirunal, the founder of
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Kottaram Kathakali Yogam, made the art form Kathakali popular in
Padmanabhaswamy temple at Tiruvananthapuram. He also wrote several works for
Kathakali exposition like Subadraharanam, Bakavadham, Pancali Swayamvaram,
and Kalyana Saugandikam (Nair P. K. 104-108).
The works of Sarla Das in Odia, Rama Saraswati in Assamese, and
Mukteswar in Marathi clearly demonstrate the influence of local folk traditions. The
poets introduce local folk metres and musicality in their compositions. They employ
local idioms, and the structure of the local literature. The innovations enrich the
language of the revisits. The influence of local and folk traditions establishes easy
communication and extensive spatial reach of the epic.
An examination of the evolution of the revisits across the Indian
subcontinent points to certain distinct regional preferences. In the northern hilly
regions, the continuing folk tradition emphasises the exploits of the Kauravas and
the Pandavas. Duryodhana is deified and celebrated as a symbol of the warrior clan
(Saklani 293). In the eastern regions, Krishna and Arjuna are the protagonists of
many revisits. Draupadi is deified in Tamil Nadu, where many temples are devoted
to Pandavas and Draupadi. In Kerala and Central India, Bhima is perhaps the most
popular character (Rukmini Folk Traditions 188-192). In the western and river
plains of the north, exploits of Krishna emerge as a dominant theme. It is evident
that the revisits are shaped by the interpenetrating influence of the epic, the local
culture and folk tradition.
The epic remains a constant source of imagination for the compositions and
performances in music and dance. Several musical compositions and operas depict
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the epic heroes in the context of the exploits of gods, especially Rama and Krishna.
The references to epic characters are found in the compositions of Purandaradasa
(Kannada) and Annamaiya (Telugu), for example.
The analyses of the revisits over two millennia reveal the part played by the
epic in developing literature in Indian languages and its impact on our collective
cultural consciousness from time immemorial. The continuing parallel stream of
oral traditions is reflected in the form of folk-songs and folk-theatre. Every
language, in its own way, has incorporated the local idioms of the description and
imagery from the particular region, like the river, the sea, the mountains, the plains
as well as customs to achieve a resonance with the readers. The perpetual changes
effected by the folk songs and theatres to reflect the performance exigencies on a
particular occasion add to the oral tradition. Each piece of literature shares the
common heritage of The Mahabharata at one level, but retains its individuality and
distinctiveness in revisits at the other.
There is a regional distinctiveness in the evolution of languages according to
their geographical location and the dialect from which they evolved. Tamil and
Malayalam form a sub-group. Telugu and Kannada form another. Bengali, Oriya,
Assamese and Mythili form yet another group. Hindi, Rajasthani and Gujarati form
a distinct group (Devy In Another Tongue. 153). Many distinguished writers,
because of their linguistic felicity, have left their imprint in more than one language6
(Devy Heroes 150). As a consequence, new styles like Champu, Akhyan, and
couplets appear in various languages. This reveals the mutual influence between
Sanskrit and other regional languages. These add to the richness and variety of
Indian literature. The developments of languages were seldom temporally aligned.
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Nor were they similar in the use of various genres during their development. Some
had more impetus for poetry, some for prose or drama. All these factors account for
the differences one finds in the translations or retellings of the epic. The explosive
growth of subversions and interpretations reflects the increase in the number of
revisits in a variety of genres over a vast period of time. Every revisit presents a new
perspective on the epic in relation to its cultural context. This offers an interesting
insight into the revisits themselves. At one level these revisits seem to effect a
homogeneous Indian tradition and culture but at another level they retain their
individual differences and preferences.
Reflections on the Culture
A dynamic text like The Mahabharata has been considered a treasure trove
of Indian culture. It highlights simultaneously the ethics and morality of the
individual and of the society. Social welfare and unity of thought and action as well
as the basic tenets of tolerance and cooperation are codified and highlighted. Perhaps
an important and constant refrain is of truth, self control, generosity, and non
violence. Virtues are placed on a higher pedestal than caste and family. Interestingly
however, the core philosophical teaching of The Mahabharata namely Bhagavad
Gita, is a text that has survived the times, and has been interpreted ad infinitum for
resolution of the confused mind torn between conflicting situations. Also it is clear
that The Mahabharata and its teachings have found such varied interpretations as to
support opposing philosophical concepts as non violence and violence and war for a
righteous cause (Nehru 109). Perhaps another doctrine of The Mahabharata is the
clear denunciation of materialism. It is easy to regard the epic as a vivid description
of a civil war in an ancient society. In actual fact, it is a vast and encyclopaedic
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account of the political and social institutions of that time (Nehru 106). It is in
addition a commentary of the intrusion and intermingling of cultures, expressed in
real time and available to us as history morphed into myth. In the Medieval period,
the enslaved and divided society kept their cultural past alive by revisits of the epic.
The focus of the revisits then was on translation and transliteration of the epic into
various regional languages. This period witnessed more episodic revisits in the form
of poetry and drama. Later, as the concepts of freedom and democracy gained
ground, Indian writers found expressions of their ideas through distinct revisits of
the epic. What is common however is that the writers altered/transformed the
representation of the hero by i) foregrounding his family life, and ii) projecting the
individual interests of the protagonist over those of a community/nation.
Religious reform movements such as Buddhism, Jainism and the Bhakti
movement had singular impact on the development of regional languages. The
revisits with religious overtones reaffirm faith and instil the glory of a shared
cultural past and a hope for better future. The reformists like the Jain poet
Sailabhadra Suri give a different slant in their revisits, by which they gloss over
uncomfortable incidents like polyandry. Interestingly, while they articulate the
different silences of the epic, they also introduce their own silences by glossing over
unacceptable traits. They also demythify their characters; they tend to portray
Krishna as a human hero than as divine. In fact, all of them prefer to depict a single
protagonist as representing a community rather than highlighting a group or a clan.
Other writers like Rama Saraswati project the epic heroes as human, placing them in
everyday domestic situations, adding local traditions in their revisits. Thus these
authors adopt strategies similar to those adopted by Bhasa for transforming their
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heroes to project the prevalent values of their times. Revisits project altered values
of the epic, but do not interrogate its special place in the Indian literary tradition as
Dharmasastra.
Revisits in the Pre- and Post Independence Era (AD 1800-- )
The Pre- and Post- Independence era witnessed several reformist as well as
nationalist movements. India had a continuous tradition of trade and commercial ties
with countries in the east and the west. The economic exchanges with the British
eventually led to political colonialism. The socio political events influenced our
writers and their writings. English-educated Indians were drawn towards progressive
ideas and advanced social paradigms. Famous among those were Raja Ram Mohan
Roy, who started the Brahmo Samaj movement to rid the masses of superstitious
beliefs through the western system of education (Raychoudhary S. C. 126). The
movement, which started in Bengal, spread to various parts of our country. It
instilled a sense of nationhood in an otherwise feudalistic society. If the Bhakti
movement of the previous era promoted the individual’s salvation as a defining goal,
the reformist movements of this period attempted to sow the seeds of welfare of the
society as a unit. These political concepts found active supporters, like Swami
Vivekananda who could foresee the potential degradation if one were to accept in
entirety the external models of social growth, especially that of the British. For him,
every individual in the society was potentially divine and social change can be
brought about by educating him/her in our rich cultural past. Progressive literary
movements foregrounded the social paradigms and the spirit of nationhood among
people. It spread the ideas of liberty, fraternity and equality and other advanced
ideas that had taken root elsewhere in the world. It was during this era that
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Sukthankar, Bhandarkar and other eminent scholars took up the monumental task of
compiling and organising the various recensions of The Mahabharata into critical
editions, which serve as reference texts for scholars (Sarkar 342).
Revisits and the Social Scene7
Initially, the British established their ruling base in the state of Bengal. They
had a strong influence on the social and cultural lives of the people of the region
(Raychoudhary S. C. 210). Toru Dutt has written ballads on The Mahabharata
characters Savitri and Ekalavya in English. She portrays Savitri as an independent
and intelligent woman with modern value systems. Through Ekalavya’s character,
she comments on the need for education and caste inequality. Her revisits are good
examples of a) the influence of western education on the author, b) appropriateness
of theme and genre of the revisit and c) expression of the suppressed anger of a
neglected section seeking an egalitarian society (Naik M. K. 39).
As English education spread across the country, so did the infllence of
European literature on writers of the different parts of the country. They began
expressing the need for social change as is evident from the works of writers of
different languages. In this period, writers from Kerala were experimenting with
new styles with a blend of English poetical patterns, and Sanskrit metric patterns in
their language. The British Romantic Movement held sway over several writers in
this period (Nair P. K. 199). A well known poet, Vallathol wrote Acchanum
Makalum (Malayalam) a short poem on Sakuntala. He innovates a scene where
Sakuntala talks about her new born son, and her lover (Dushyanta) to her father
(Sage Viswamitra), both of whom had abandoned her. Through the revisit, the
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author expresses the spirit of women’s self assertion and liberty (Nair P. K. 210).
The author’s view that the “here and now” is preferable to the “ hereafter or
heaven” reflects the attitude of the society. Ullur Parameswara Iyer, another
contemporary of Vallathol, wrote Karnabhushanam, which is a poignant portrayal
of the relationship between Karna and his father Sun God. In the revisit, the author
highlights Karna’s steadfastness and charity in the face of ostracism of the society
(Nair P. K. 220). Vallathol, Ullur and Asan were contemporary writers who came
from different social strata, but served the cause of social transformation8.
In the poem Manakho (Rajasthani), Giridhari Sinha Padihar depicts
Subhadra confronting her brother Krishna and asking him to pardon and save
Cetan, a minor character who insults a sage and incurs Krishna’s wrath (Maheswari
218). This indicates the need for inclusive principles of society at large.
A Gujarati poet Manishankar Bhatt, in his Vasanta Vijaya, describes the
tragedy that was Pandu’s lot in life. The poet puts forward the idea of self-control as
an essential virtue through his poem. Yayati written by V. S. Khandekar (1958) is a
novel that contrasts the idealism of the hero with that of the crass materialism of the
middleclass. It provides a commentary on modern man’s hedonistic pursuits against
the backdrop of the epic story. The novel revolves around four main characters
Yayati, Devayani, Sharmishtha and Kaca, who represent different faces of love. The
author’s view on love is depicted by the later life of Kaca in the fiction (George 718-
19). These works illustrate the point that social values influence literature
significantly. Through their works the writers express their wish for the betterment
of the common man. The literature of a particular period is conditioned by the
prevalent values and the authors’ engagement with the sympathies of the society as a
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whole. Almost all writers of this period wrote about national independence and
individual freedom. The Independence movement was not merely a struggle for
freedom; it was an emotional experience for all Indians of the period. All linguistic
and regional boundaries were subsumed in one grand national fervour of freedom.
Revisits and the Political Scene
Subramania Bharatiar, the renowned nationalist poet of the twentieth
century, wrote many poems to awaken the spirit of freedom, and to recognise an
Indian identity. His Pancali Sabadam is an allegorical poem with Draupadi as the
protagonist. He saw the unique similarity between her and Mother India (Bharata
Mata), both in their respective grief and their struggle for freedom. In order to
invoke a nationalist sentiment among the people, the poet has improvised a style of
free verse by blending the oral folk tradition with classical poetic tradition. This
composition is famous for its thinly veiled, but powerful dialogues which establish
an immediate rapport with the audience (Nandakumar Bharathi 40-49).
In the Post-Independence era, the socio-political climate was one of idealistic
nationalism. The fledgling democracy, under the guidance of many statesmen—
philosophers like Nehru, was nurtured carefully based on socialistic ideals of
welfare state. After Independence, reconstruction of the nation became the priority
of the leaders. Through five year plans, the green revolution and similar constructive
policies they sought to create a self-reliant and egalitarian society. Movements like
Bhoodhan of Vinobha Bhave, Chipko of Bahuguna sensitised people to their role as
citizens. The country faced invasions from neighbours during this period. Since the
idealistic egalitarian state was the vision of our great leaders, revisits of the epic the
Ramayana were considerably more. Later the emergency period (1975-77), induced
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several changes in the socio-political scene. The ruling class violated individual’s
freedom by acts such as mid-night arrests of opposition leaders, denial of
fundamental freedom, press censorship, and curtailment of individual liberty. At this
time, Jaya Prakash Narayan spearheaded a movement under the banner of Citizens
for Democracy to question the autocratic behaviour of the state. Responding to
these situations, many writers expressed their views on the conflict between
individual aspirations and societal norms and highlighted the need for individual
liberty (Tharoor Millennium, 203). There appeared a perceptible change in the
mood of the society; those who fought united for national freedom, now
wholeheartedly endorsed individual freedom. The litterateurs of this period
intuitively found in The Mahabharata a framing device to capture this momentous
spirit of the people. Consequently there was a surge in the revisits of the epic in
many languages.
Later with the economic liberalisation and globalisation, the focus of Indian
democracy shifted from the principles of a socialistic welfare state (Guha 694). The
economic colonisation in the form of multinational companies entering the Indian
market produced its own repercussions on the Indian society. This allowed free
enterprise and insatiable consumerism among certain sections of the society.
Technological advances in certain sectors took the country from being a developing
nation to becoming an economic power. The downside of this development was the
stark disparities in the economic and power structures. This created a sense of
discontent among the disadvantaged sections, which led to further fragmentation of
society (Guha 698). Arguably, writers of every region represented either sectarian
aspirations of the affected people or the interests of a particular region affected by
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economic reforms. They projected their protagonists as representatives of the
neglected or disadvantaged sections of the society rather than that of the entire
society. The Mahabharata has become a site for the writers to problematise a whole
range of issues such as gender bias, social hierarchy, and the rights of tribals based
on eco centricism. In this context the interest of the littérateurs in translations and
cultural studies increased considerably. Many of the revisits of the epic in regional
languages are translated into other Indian languages as well as English. Through
their revisits of The Mahabharata, writers like Shashi Tharoor, Mahasweta Devi,
comment on the prevalent socio-political scene. Tharoor’s The Great Indian Novel
deals with the realities of the socio-political upheavals during the pre and post
Independence era with special reference to the emergency period. He reworks the
main characters of the epic as symbols representing the political personalities of this
period. The author depends on the readers’ familiarity with the epic story and
characters as well as the socio-political intrigues during the birth of the nation and
the history of its construction. This novel is a mock epic, which provides an insight
into the aspirations of a fledgling democracy with respect to the disparities of power
structures in the post independence days9.
Mahasweta Devi’s Draupadi is a short novel in the form of a journalist’s
report. While in the epic lord Krishna comes to the rescue of Draupadi, there is none
to protect Dopti of this novel. The author brings out the violence unleashed on the
tribal community by oppressive government agencies in a democratic set up. While
these two revisits project the socio-political realities of the twentieth century,
Gurucharan Das in his non-fiction work, The Difficulty of Being Good: On the
Subtle Art of Dharma projects the effect of globalisation through the ethical values
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of the epic. Through this revisit, the author presents insightful analyses on moral,
political and economic issues of the contemporary period and creates greater
awareness among people on the effects of globalisation. A study of the revisits
across time reveals a gradual but definite change in the representation of the main
character as a hero in the classical period to a protagonist in the contemporary
period. Tables 9-12 lists the revisit of The Mahabharata during the Pre-and Post-
Independence periods. It is evident that the representation of the qualities of a hero
or a protagonist is dependent on the socio-politico-cultural stimuli of a particular
period in the history of the nation.
Table 9
Revisits of The Mahabharata in the Pre–Independence Period : English
Name of the Work Author Genre Date The Story of Nala Monier Williams Poetry 1860 The Mahabharata Romesh Chandra Dutt Epic Style 1883-96 Essays on The Mahabharata
Aurobindo Prose 1902-48
Sermista Michael Madhusudhan Dutt
Play 1865
Savitri Toru Dutt Ballad 1878 Buttoo Toru Dutt Poetry 1878 The Mahabharata Kesari Mohan Ganguli Epic Style 1890 Savitri Aurobindo Prose 1941-50 The Story of the Great war Annie Besant Prose 1919 Chitra Rabindranath Tagore Play 1920 Karna Kunti Sambad Rabindranath Tagore Play 1920 Gandhari’s Prayer Rabindranath Tagore Play 1921 Keecaka T.P. Kailasam Play 1930 The Fulfillment T.P. Kailasam Play 1930 The Purpose T.P. Kailasam Play 1944 Karna: The Brahmin’s Curse
T.P. Kailasam Play 1946
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Table 10
Revisits of The Mahabharata in the Post-Independence Period : English
Name of the Work Author Genre Date Mahabharata C. Rajagoplalachari Prose 1952 Yayati V. S. Khandekar Novel 1959 Krishnavatara (in 7 vols.) K. M. Munshi Novel 1962-67 The Mahabharata Kamala Subramaniam Novel 1965 TheChildren’sMahabharata Shanta Rameshwara Rao Novel 1968 The Mahabharata J. A. B. van Buitenen Prose 1973-78 Mahabharata R. K. Narayan Novel 1978 Book on Yudhishthira Buddhadev Bose Trans, Sujit
Mukherjee Novel 1986
The Battle of Kurukshetra Maggi Lidchi-Grassi Novel 1987 The Great Indian Novel Sashi Tharoor Novel 1989 The Legs of the Tortoise Maggi Lidchi-Grassi Novel 1990 Yayati Girish Karnad Play 1994 The Mahabharata Samhita Arni Novel 1996 It is all a Game of Dice Parasuram Ramamoorthy Play 1997 Fire and Rain Girish Karnad Play 1998 Chakraviyuha Ratan Thiyam. Trans. Kavita
Nagpal Play 1998
Vyasa and Vigneswara Anand. (Trans. Shaji Mathew) Novel 2000 Andha Yug Dharmavir Bharati. Trans. Alok
Bhalla Play 2001
The Great Golden Sacrifice of The Mahabharata
Maggi Lidchi-Grassi Novel 2002
Vanaprastham Parasuram Ramamoorthy Play 2002 Madhavi Bhism Sahny, Trans. Alok Bhalla Play 2002 Draupadi Mahasweta Devi (Trans. Bengali) Short Story 2005 After Kurukshetra Mahasweta Devi, Trans. Anjum
Katyal Short Plays 2005
Queens of The Mahabharata Kavita Sharma Novel 2006 Five Lords, Yet None A Protector
Saoli Mitra, Trans. Rita Dutta, Ipshita Chanda and Maushmi Bowmick
Play 2006
Timeless Tales Saoli Mitra, Trans. R. Dutta, I. Chanda and M. Bowmick
Play 2006
The Mahabharata: An Enquiry into Human Condition
Chaturvedi Badrinath Novel 2006
The Women of The Mahabharata
Chaturvedi Badrinath Novel 2008
The Difficuty of Being Good Gurucharan Das Novel 2009 From the Inner Palace Kumudhini (Trans. Ahana
Lakshmi) Essays 2009
Slayer of Kamsa Ashok K. Banker Novel 2010 Jaya Dev Dutt Patnaik Novel 2010
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Table 11
Revisits of The Mahabharata in the Pre- and Post Independence Period: Malayalam, Tamil, Telugu and Kannada
Name of the Work Author Genre Hero Malayalam Achanum Maghalum Vallathol Poetry Sakuntala Karnabhooshanam Ullor Parameswara Poetry Karna Mahabharata Kodungallur K. Thampuran Poetry Entire Epic Telugu Mahabharatamu Sripada Krishnamurthy
Sastry Epic Style Entire Epic
Mahabharata Navaneethamu
Akondi Vyasamurthy Epic Style Entire Epic
Devavrata Charitra Madapalli Venkata Ramanacharyalu
Poetry Bhishma
Nala Charitra Vavilikolunu Subba Rao Poetry Episode, Nala Subhadra Vijayamu Vavilikolunu Subba Rao Poetry Episode, Subhadra Sakuntala Charitramu Vavilikolunu Subba Rao Poetry Episode,Sakuntala Subhadra Parinayamu Sarvaraya Kavi Poetry Episode, Arjuna Pandava Jananamu Pandava Pravasamu Pandava Rajasuyamu Pandava Udyogamu Pandava Vijayamu PandavaAswamedhamu
Tirupathi Venkata Kavulu (Divakarla Tirupati Sastry (1872–1919) and Chellapilla Venkata Sastry)
Drama Six Plays based on the Epic
Tamil Pancali Sabhadam Subramania Bharathiar Poetry Draupadi Cakuntalai Natakam Caminatha Carma Drama Episode, Sakuntala Tamayanthi Pranatharthi Hara Sivanar Drama Episode, Nala Keechaka Vatham C.P. Padmnabha Iyer Drama Episode Keecaka Sampoorna Mahabharatam
M B Siva Shanmukam Pillai
Drama Entire epic
Keecakan CR Namaccivaya Mudaliar Drama Episode, Keecaka Sattiyavan-Savithri Sankaralinga Kavirayar Drama Episode, Savitri Apimanyu V. Saminatha Sarma Drama Episode, Abhimanyu Salya Caritram T.T. Sankaradas Swamigal Drama Episode, Karna Satyavan-Savitri T.T. Sankaradas Swamigal Drama Episode, Savitri Pandava Bhoomi Vali Poetry Entire Epic (3 Vols.) Upapandava S. Ramakrishnan Novel Entire Epic Kurukshetram KR Srinivasa Raghavan Novel Krishna
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Table 12
Revisits of The Mahabharata in the Pre- and Post Independence Era : Hindi, Gujarati, Marathi, Bengali and Odia
Name of the Work Author Genre Hero Hindi Rashmirathi Ramdhari Singh Dinkar Poetry Karna Kurukshetra Ramdhari Singh Dinkar Poetry The Great War Nahusha, Maithili Charan Gupta Poetry Nahusha Uttara se Abhimanyu ki Vidha
Maithili Charan Gupta Poetry Abhimanyu
Jayadrata Vada Maithili Charan Gupta Poetry Arjuna Draupadi Dukula, Maithili Charan Gupta Poetry Draupadi Sakuntala ko Durvasa ka Sapa
Maithili Charan Gupta Poetry Sakuntala
Keecaka ki Neechata Maithili Charan Gupta Poetry Keecaka Kunti aur Karna Maithili Charan Gupta Poetry Kunti Hidimba Maithili Charan Gupta Poetry Hidimba Sairandri Maithili Charan Gupta Poetry Draupadi Vanavibhava Maithili Charan Gupta Poetry Yudhishthira Vakasamhara Maithili Charan Gupta Poetry Bhima Jayabharata Maithili Charan Gupta Poetry Wholie Epic Maithili Panca Kanya Ravindra Poetry Draupadi Nepali Bhima Vijay Anand Poetry Bhima Mahabharata Bhavani Dutta Pande Prose Parts of Epic Nala Damayanthi ko katha
Kedarnath Kathivada Poetry Episode
Mahabharata Kedarnath Kathivada Poetry 16 cantos of epic Baghavad Gita Kedarnath Kathivada Poetry Krishna Sabha & Virata Parva Hemant Kathivada Poetry Epic Episodes Samkshepta Bharata Chakrapani Chalise Poetry Epic in brief Rajastani Manakho Giridhari Sinha Padihar Poetry Subhadra Karuna Bhavini Ramanath Kavaiya Poetry Draupadi Marathi Soubhadra Kirloskar Drama Abhimanyu
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Table 12 (Continued)
Name of the Work Author Genre Type, Hero, Source
Gujarati Kurukshetra Nanalal Poetry About the War Mahabharatano Patro Nrisimha Prasad Kalidas
Bhatt Prose Character
Interpretation Bheeshma Pratigna Harilal Upadhyay Epic Style Entire Epic Vasanta Vijaya Mani Sankar Ratanji Bhatt Poetry Pandu Atijnana Mani Sankar Ratanji Bhatt Poetry Sahadeva Devayani Mani Sankar Ratanji Bhatt Poetry Devayani Mahabharata Fakir Mohana Senapati Poetry Four Parvas Mahayatra Radhanath Poetry Svargaarohana
Parva
Revisits and Translation
Translation as a literary activity was initiated even in the Medieval period,
which was co-temporal with the growth of many regional languages. There has been
a continuing tradition of translation of epics into various Indian languages even in
the contemporary period. The importance of translations can be understood in the
context of the freedom movement. While revisits of the epic offered an excellent site
for many writers to express their ideas, translations played an important role in
bringing together the people of the sub-continent. During colonial rule, western
scholars took keen interest in translating Indian epics and classics into English as
well as compiling dictionaries in various Indian languages. This can be viewed in
multiple ways. For the colonisers, it was an attempt to understand our culture and
reinterpret the same in order to homogenise and control the country. For the
colonised, these translations helped in a most unprecedented manner as vehicles of
communication among themselves. In this context, Monier Williams’ effort in
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preparing the Sanskrit–English dictionary is worth mentioning. He also wrote the
Story of Nala in English during this period. Romesh Chunder Dutt and Kesari
Mohan Ganguli composed the entire Mahabharata in English verse. The epic has
been translated in many languages all over the world. The translation in English by
J. A. B. Van Buitenen, published by Chicago Press in 1973, is the most referred-to
book by scholars.
Revisits and Genre
The Pre- and Post- Independence period witnessed revisits in almost all the
genres of literature. Across all languages, authors adopted many new styles in
poetry, drama and novel. It is relevant to discuss a few significant revisits here.
Aurobindo’s poem Savitri is considered a modern day epic. In this work, he points
out that human spirit is powerful and it alone can counter the evil and master it. He
depicts a beautiful Savitri as adhering to duty, devotion and truth to overcome
hurdles, even that of death. The poet uses the symbolic revisit of The Mahabharata
to expound his faith that the human soul too can emerge victorious through divine
grace and overcome its limitations through spiritual power.
Tagore’s plays reveal a blend of native themes and the English language. His
three plays based on the epic are Chitra, Gandhari’s Prayer and Karna-Kunti
Sambad. These constitute important milestones in Indian Writing in English. Chitra
is a retelling of an episode from the epic. The princess of Manipur, Chitra makes
Arjuna realise that love transcends physical beauty, and that it recognises strength of
character. Tagore has conveyed an important message of women’s power through
this play. Tagore embodied in his character Chitra the idea of evolution of love from
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the physical plane to the spiritual. The other play Gandhari’s Prayer is the study of
the relationship between a mother and her son. Here we find Gandhari, the mother
of Duryodhana, unwilling to compromise on the wicked behaviour of her son.
Tagore has portrayed Gandhari as a strong character full of conviction in her actions.
In the play Karna and Kunti he has depicted Kunti as a great mother. Karna is
portrayed as a philonthrophist. One finds the role of mother and son in both the
plays but with stark differences in the portrayal of their relationships. Tagore
expresses the need for a change in perception of roles (Iyengar I. W. E. 136).
T. P Kailasam, a renowned Kannada playwright, wrote four plays in English
based on the epic. In the play Karna: The Brahmin’s Curse, the author raises many
moral and ethical questions. The author graphically depicts the emotional outbursts
of the protagonist. He reveals how Karna is checkmated by destiny at every turn of
his life. He stands for the binaries, good/evil, valour/vindictiveness, and
magnanimity/meanness. The author introduces an innovative shift when he sums up
the Bhagvad Gita in a few lines just before Arjuna kills Karna. His play Keecaka
portrays an anti-hero, who however, stands for loyalty and love and not for power
and lust as depicted in the epic. Fulfilment is a longer play of the author. The verses
are terse and quite expressive. It is about Ekalavya, a brilliant pupil of Dronacharya
who learnt archery from the image of his preceptor. In this play, when Ekalavya is
about to join the Kauravas, Krishna tries to dissuade him in vain. This leads to a
debate between Ekalavya and Krishna on the priorities in one’s life. This reminds us
of the message of Bhagavad Gita. They argue on man’s duties, the binaries of good
and evil, courage and cowardice. In this play Krishna is represented as both divine
and human. As a prequel to this play, Kailasam wrote another play, The Purpose,
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where he portrays Ekalavya as a strong and intelligent protagonist, who is bound by
his promise to his preceptor (Iyengar I. W. E. 237-8).
Kirloskar wrote Saubadra (Marathi), in which Abhimanyu is the protagonist.
It is a famous dramatic revisit of the time; a well-constructed play, with a realistic
representation of characters. The songs, which form an integral part of the play are
popular among theatre enthusiasts (Deshpande and Rajadhyaksha 67).
In this period, many dramatic revisits in Tamil emerged, which continue to
be popular. Traupati Kalyanam, Aravan Katapali Natakam, Alli Arasanimalai,
Kirutsnan Tootu, Keecaka Samharam, Sakuntala Vilasam were dramatised by
eminent playwrights like Munuswami Mudaliar, Ramachandra Kavirayar,
P.Sambhanda Mudaliar and others. (Perumal 10-18).
In Gujarati, Nrisimhaprasad Kalidas Bhatt alias Nanabhai wrote
Mahabharata-nan Patro in beautiful prose form (Jhaveri 150). This is an
interpretation of some of the greatest characters of the epic. They are written in a
variety of styles, such as narration, dialogues and monologues.
During this period the ornate style subsumed the theme. Many famous
writers contributed to the blossoming of Hindi. Among them Maithili Saran Gupta is
considered a pioneer. He has written many narrative poems like Mahakavyas,
Khandakavyas, lyrics, plays and translations. Two distinct features emerge from the
themes of his poetry. They are the glorification of the past and love for the mother
land. In the year 1909 he wrote many word-pictures or picture-poems. His
Jayadratha-vadha (1910) is based on an episode of The Mahabharata. It comprises
seven cantos. The first canto portrays Arjuna’s son Abhimanyu as a great hero and
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describes his young wife Uttara and the finer sentiments of love between them. This
is one of the most popular poems of the author as it gives a vivid delineation of
characters in a mellifluous and yet forceful language. The Harigitika metre in which
it is set also adds to its popularity. Gupta published his last work, Jaya Bharata
(Khariboli, a dialect of Hindi) in 1952. This revisit is the story of the Kuru clan from
the elevation of King Nahusa to that of the death of Pandavas. The poem is divided
into forty-seven sections. It is composed in different metres each named after the
main event, person or place described therein. Gupta has painstakingly employed
various poetical tools effectively in this masterpiece (Sehgal 44-61).
Ram Dhari Singh Dinkar (Hindi) is honoured as the Rashtra Kavi. His poem,
Kurukshetra is based on the Shanti Parva of the epic. Through this work he
emphasises the view that there can be lasting peace only if human nature changes. In
his poem Rashmirathi, he projects Karna as the victim of circumstances. The
dialogue between Kunti and Karna is of great interest as it projects Karna in a
positive light (Jindal 323). Like the Medieval period, which saw a growth of ornate
poetry in Hindi, the Pre-Indendence period is remarkable for its revisits of The
Mahabharata in poetic form.
In the colonial era, the British and other colonisers evinced interest in Indian
literatures, especially in the Bhagavad Gita and plays like Sakuntalam. Since then
many writers from all over he world as well as India have either translated or
commented upon the Bhagavad Gita. Annie Besant, the leader of ‘home rule
movement’ and a theosophist, in her revisit, The Story of the Great War, has written
about the evils of war. A statesman-scholar, C. Rajagopalachari (Rajaji) translated
the epic in Tamil (Vyasar Virundu ) as fiction in order to educate children of our
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heritage. He later translated this work into English, titled Mahabharata. K. M.
Munshi, in his Preface to this book remarks that, “the book is a romance, telling the
story of heroic men and women and also contains the moral code of life. I hope that
the people of the modern world will find these books useful to understand the
harmonies underlying true culture” (Rajagopalachari 2)
R. K. Narayan wrote a bare outline of the main story of The Mahabharata.
He opines in the introduction to the book that he prefers the story and hence in the
retelling just states the main story. The author points out that the highlight of the
epic is that the author, Vyasa lives with his characters.
The Children's Mahabharata by Shanta Rameswar Rao was published in the
year 1973. Jayaprakash Narayan in his foreword to this book exhorts the parents to
place this book in the hands of children and kindle their interest in our culture. It is
written in a simple flowing style so as to make the reading interesting and easy for
the children. Samhita Arni, a young girl wrote The Mahabharata: A Child's View for
children with illustrations. This reveals the younger generations continuing
engagement with The Mahabharata.
Conclusion
This survey reveals a steady stream of revisits of The Mahabharata since
Bhasa’s times. The revisits are distinguishable by their genre and language. In the
Classical period, Sanskrit drama emerged as the popular genre of revisits.
Dramatists and poets of great renown like Bhasa, Kalidasa, Bharavi, Magha and
Bhattanarayana chose to articulate the silences of the epic. While they retain the
essential nature of the heroes, they offer different representations by adopting
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several strategies: i) introducing new characters and situations, ii) shifting the focus
from the main incidents of the epic and iii) glossing over unacceptable traits and
highlighting noble ones. In their portrayal of epic heroes they innovate without
disturbing the epic equilibrium.
In the Medieval period, during the Mughal reign, Sanskrit lost its prime
position as court language. Nevertheless it was a great influence, mainly because of
its rich literary tradition, and was a key driver to the growth of literature in regional
languages. In the process, regional dialects grew in stature from the mere spoken to
fullfledged literary languages. The Mahabharata was a natural choice for translation
and transcreation in various languages because of the complex situational richness of
the epic. Eminent writers, individually or as groups, recreated the epic in their
languages, and in the process asserted the literary status of their language. In their
endeavour, they innovate new styles to suit their language and cultural context.
Writers like Ezuthachan adopted new metrical forms and styles, which are designed
in a way that common people can appreciate and enjoy these works. The nobles
patronised revisits in order to counter the influence of other religions and also to
preserve the epic and its ideals for posterity.
The synergy among various languages provides the stimuli for new forms of
expression in poetry. Innovative metrical forms like Akhyan and Phagu in Gujarati,
Abhang in Marathi, Raso, and Doha in North Indian dialects facilitate the wide reach
of the epic. Sanskrit literary forms like Champu and Khanda Kavya are adopted in
regional languages. The linguistic skills and aesthetic sensibilities of the authors are
evident through their revisits, as they negotiate between two language forms, one
already established and the other evolving rapidly.
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The diachronic spread of the epics in this period informs the development of
languages and the emergence of different genres. At the spatial level, the regional
culture and folk tradition influence the epic revisits. The authors focus on
individuals instead of a group. In keeping with the spirit of the times, the authors
invest additional attributes, such as sensitivity to their chosen protagonist and project
him/her as the saviour of the community. Episodes involving Arjuna, Bhima, Karna
and Draupadi are repeatedly chosen for dramatic representation. The episode of
Nala-Damayanti is mostly in the form of poetry, as the dominant sentiment of the
erotic is expressed well in this genre.
One discerns a definite pattern in the choice of episodes, protagonists and
type of genres in the revisits from Classical period to the Medieval Period. There are
recognisable deviations in the revisits enabling different representation of epic
heroes. Irrespective of the genres, the authors of the Classical and Medieval periods
adopt Bhasa’s strategies in their revisits to effect changes in characterisation. They
humanise the epic heroes from their semi-divine status and make them popular
among the people. Foreign invasion leading to imposition of alien religion and
culture, and the resistance of the enslaved nation, inspired authors to explore the
glorious past for answers through their revisits of the epic.
The literary tradition saw remarkable changes during the Pre- and Post
Independence era. Due to colonial influence, the intellectuals had access to western
literature and philosophy, which set new paradigms for literary exploration10.
Influenced by the Romantic Movement of English literature, some of the poets like
Vallathol (Malayalam) and Bharathiar (Tamil) fashioned their poetry by judicious
aligning of indigenous folk forms with that of the English verse forms. In the
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Medieval period, the revisits of the epic helped the development of regional
languages. During the period leading up to the Independence of the country, writers
employed revisits of the epic to instil a sense of pride in our cultural past and kindle
patriotic fervour. English served the purpose of communication between various
regions of the nation. In the initial stages of a free democratic country, the writers
projected the theme of social reformation and reconstruction of the nation. They
projected the neglected and marginalised voices and asserted the efficacy of all-
inclusive development of the people. In the post emergency period, the writers
portray the angst of the individual and his conflict with his immediate family and his
environment through their revisits. Anticipating a detailed analysis in the next
chapter, it can be said that there is a gradual shift in the concept of hero, in response
to the socio-politico-cultural stimuli of the periods. The focus of literary activity
shifted from the sacred and elitist to the secular and democratic. Revisits of the epic
echo these changes.
Another fallout of the colonial influence is the emergence of novel as a
popular genre. It is evident from the phenomenal increase in the revisits in this
genre, especially in English. In addition, translation of the revisits into English from
the vernacular is substantial. It is noteworthy that the revisits of The Ramayana were
dominant upto 1970s. This was the period of consolidation of the hard earned
freedom of our country. However political opportunism, combined with economic
liberalisation and globalisation, brought with it an upsurge of new ideas. Revisits of
The Mahabharata offered a suitable medium for expressing these ideas, as the epic
offers multiple entry points and different perspectives. They enabled the
dissemination of cultural values, and the evolution of regional languages. If in the
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Pre-Independence era the revisits helped in integrating people as one nation, in the
Post-Independence era, they helped in the reconstruction of the nation on idealistic
principles. In contemporary times, the epics are used as framing devices to project
and protect the rights and aspirations of the individual as well as the oppressed
sections of society. The role and character of the epic hero, controlled by
deterministic conventions in the earlier period have been transformed to
protagonists, who are secular and democratic with relative values in the
contemporary period. The kaleidoscopic variety of revisits at this present juncture in
various languages reiterates the relevance of The Mahabharata.
The revisits of Classical and Medieval periods affirm the values in the epic.
They nevertheless highlight a need for inclusive social transformation. The revisits
of the epic especially in the twentieth century, reveals the influence of various
reformist movements in social and political spheres. The contemporary revisits
question the practices and values of the epic to sensitise readers about the suppressed
voices in society. In the next chapter, a detailed analysis of a selection of
contemporary revisits of The Mahabharata, is carried out to enable a comparative
study of the ancient and the emerging perspectives of the revisits of the epic.
Notes
1. A comprehensive three part anthology by Sahitya Akademi consisting of
an extensive survey of ancient, Medieval and contemporary Indian literatures
provides an overview. The survey of different literatures contained in these
anthologies indicates the categorisation of periods. However a distinct classification
of Indian literature is yet to emerge (Murthy v-vi)
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2. Royals patronised other art forms like sculpture, painting and music since like
literature, they too leave an indelible impression on the society. These art forms preserve
the epic stories for posterity.
3. Champu is a style in Sanskrit literature that evolved during the Classical period.
It was influenced by the religious literatures of Jains and Buddhists. This form uses
prose and verse alternately. The ornate description subordinates the narrative and so this
form mainly reveals the poets’ literary skills. With the spread of the epics in the
Medieval period, a number of poets experimented with this form. Bhoja’s Ramayana
Champu is a famous example.
4. Agaval is a form of poetry similar to Champu and was popular in Tamil even
during the ancient Sangam period, which is approximately the beginning of the Classical
period.
5. Stylistic Innovations :
i. Prabhandam is a long poem in which the prose is in Sanskrit and verses
are in regional dialects. Structurally this is similar to Champu, except for the
use of two languages. Initially Jain poets adopted this form. It became popular
in Gujarat and Malwa regions. Later, it spread to other regional languages
(Jhaveri 243).
ii. Rasa or Raso is a form used for didactic purposes and has a distinct
metrical style. These compositions are performance oriented. Melody and
rhythm are essential for this form. This is popular among Gujarati and
Rajasthani writers (Jhaveri 242).
iii. Akhyana is a popular form of poetry, innovated by the poet Bhalan
(Gujarati). The distinct metrical forms of the genre lend themselves to oral
exposition of epic stories (Jhaveri 245)
iv. Phagu is in the form of couplets. Each couplet ends with a refrain from
famous Sanskrit classics of Kalidasa, Magha and Rajashekhara. Melody is
important for this form (Jhaveri 242).
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v. Manipravala is a prose form of literature that blends Sanskrit with a
regional language. This style is popular among the literary works of Tamil,
Telugu and Malayalam (Chaitanya Malayalam Literature 76 ).
vi. Kilippattu is a poetic form that blends the intrinsic musicality of the folk
songs, and words from Sanskrit and Malayalam. Ezhuthachan innovated this
homogeneous literary form of narrative poetry (Nair P. K. 67).
6. During the Medieval period a number of poets were well versed in more than
one language. Since Sanskrit was the official language during the Classical period, the
writers of the period adopted it for their literary output. But they also wrote in other
languages, usually that of the region where they hailed from. For example, Rajasekhera
(11th Century BC) wrote plays in both Sanskrit and the dialect of Maharashtri, a
precursor to modern day Marathi. Jayadeva (12th century AD) was well versed in
Bangla as well as Sanskrit. Hemachandra (13th Century AD) wrote in Gujarati and
Sanskrit. Namadeva, a famous Bhakti movement poet could express himself in Hindi,
Punjabi and Marathi (Devy Heroes 150).
7. There are references drawn from the history of literature of various languages
published by Sahitya Akademi. Though the scholar has studied these works in
translation, the critical remarks are made with the socio-political context of that
particular period in mind.
8. Vallathol, Asan and Ullurar were contemporaries poets, belonging to different
communities but came together as fellow freedom fighters. Though their contribution to
Malayalam literature was very individualistic, they drew their inspiration from the epic.
9. The choice of the text is based on the distinct and different perspectives they
offer on the epic. Tharoor’s novel and others mentioned do not necessarily offer this
view.
10. In the colonial period native writers continued their work in their regional
languages as well as in English. They absorbed the literary trends and philosophies of
the West - ideas of freedom and fraternity, Marxism and philosophy of an egalitarian
society to name a few. By revisiting the epics through innovative styles, they sensitised
the common citizens and helped in their participation in the freedom movement.