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Transcript of Chapter 9. Blood and Physiological Fluid Evidence: Evaluation and Initial Examination How Biological...
![Page 1: Chapter 9. Blood and Physiological Fluid Evidence: Evaluation and Initial Examination How Biological Evidence Analysis Has Changed Because of DNA Typing.](https://reader035.fdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022081508/5697bfad1a28abf838c9bed2/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
Chapter 9
![Page 2: Chapter 9. Blood and Physiological Fluid Evidence: Evaluation and Initial Examination How Biological Evidence Analysis Has Changed Because of DNA Typing.](https://reader035.fdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022081508/5697bfad1a28abf838c9bed2/html5/thumbnails/2.jpg)
Blood and Physiological Fluid Evidence: Evaluation and Initial Examination
• How Biological Evidence Analysis Has Changed Because of DNA Typing
• Nature of Blood
• Collection, Preservation, and Packaging of Biological Evidence
• Test Controls, Substratum Comparison Specimens, and Contamination Issues
• Initial Examination of and for Biological Evidence
• Forensic Identification of Blood
• Species Determination
• Forensic Identification of Body Fluids
• Forensic Investigation of Sexual Assault Cases
• Blood and Body Fluid Individuality: Traditional Approaches
![Page 3: Chapter 9. Blood and Physiological Fluid Evidence: Evaluation and Initial Examination How Biological Evidence Analysis Has Changed Because of DNA Typing.](https://reader035.fdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022081508/5697bfad1a28abf838c9bed2/html5/thumbnails/3.jpg)
I. How Biological Evidence Analysis has Changed Because of DNA Typing
• Prior to the introduction of forensic DNA typing analysis, blood groups were the genetic markers that were analyzed from biological evidence (forensic serology)
• Forensic biology now refers to the preliminary examination of biological evidence prior to the DNA typing analysis procedures
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II. Nature of Blood• Blood contains cells, nutrients, chemical messengers, and
ingested substances
• A tube of whole blood will clot producing two fractions: a yellow serum layer and a dark red clot containing cellular material
• Anticoagulants prevent blood clotting yielding a yellow plasma layer and a cell fraction that settles to the bottom of the tube
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II. Nature of Blood
• The cellular fraction of blood contains red blood cells (erythrocytes) and white blood cells (leucocytes)
• White blood cells are the source of DNA for DNA typing analysis
• Red blood cells do not contain any nuclear DNA
![Page 6: Chapter 9. Blood and Physiological Fluid Evidence: Evaluation and Initial Examination How Biological Evidence Analysis Has Changed Because of DNA Typing.](https://reader035.fdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022081508/5697bfad1a28abf838c9bed2/html5/thumbnails/6.jpg)
III. Collection, Preservation, and Packaging of Biological Evidence
• Blood or Buccal Swabs from Known Person:
• Blood is drawn into a vacutainer tube containing an anticoagulant such as EDTA (“purple top” tube)
• Buccal (cheek) swabs are often used in place of liquid blood as the known sample
![Page 7: Chapter 9. Blood and Physiological Fluid Evidence: Evaluation and Initial Examination How Biological Evidence Analysis Has Changed Because of DNA Typing.](https://reader035.fdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022081508/5697bfad1a28abf838c9bed2/html5/thumbnails/7.jpg)
III. Collection, Preservation, and Packaging of Biological Evidence
Biological Evidence from Scenes:
• Fresh or web blood should be collected on clean, sterile, gauze and allowed to dry
• Four sampling methods for dried blood:– Cutting – For stains on objects that are difficult to submit to the lab. The
cut portion should include unstained areas around the bloodstain
– Swabbing – Stain is transferred to a swab which has been moistened with sterile water or saline.
– Scraping – a sharp instrument is used to scrape the stain off of a surface & onto clean paper
– Elution – using a small amount of saline or distilled water to dissolve the dried stain
![Page 8: Chapter 9. Blood and Physiological Fluid Evidence: Evaluation and Initial Examination How Biological Evidence Analysis Has Changed Because of DNA Typing.](https://reader035.fdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022081508/5697bfad1a28abf838c9bed2/html5/thumbnails/8.jpg)
III. Collection, Preservation, and Packaging of Biological Evidence
• The most important consideration for preserving biological evidence from scenes is to thoroughly dry the item before packaging and then store in a cool dry environment
• Biological evidence must be packaged in paper containers that can breathe
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IV. Test Controls, Substratum Comparison Specimens, and Contamination Issues
1. Known (Exemplar or Reference) Control:– are specimens from a known source
– essential for comparison with DNA profiles from evidentiary specimens
2. Alibi (Alternative) Known Control:– From a known source that may be the source of the
evidence
3. Blank Control:– A specimen known to be free of the item or substance
being tested
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IV. Test Controls, Substratum Comparison Specimens, and Contamination Issues
4. Substratum Comparison Specimens:
• Substratum refers to the underlying material or surface on which the evidence is found
• A substratum comparison specimen is subjected to the same testing as the evidence
• The specimen helps to detect interference in lab tests originating from the evidence surface
• An unstained portion of the evidence underlying material is collected for this purpose
![Page 11: Chapter 9. Blood and Physiological Fluid Evidence: Evaluation and Initial Examination How Biological Evidence Analysis Has Changed Because of DNA Typing.](https://reader035.fdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022081508/5697bfad1a28abf838c9bed2/html5/thumbnails/11.jpg)
IV. Test Controls, Substratum Comparison Specimens, and Contamination Issues
• Evidence may be contaminated in several ways:– Biological material may have been on a surface before the
biological evidence was deposited
– During scene searching &/or processing activities
– During laboratory examinations &/or manipulations
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V. Initial Examination of and for Biological Evidence
• The initial examination is designed to evaluate stains for possible evidentiary value
• Activities include:– Searching for biological stains
– Preliminary tests for physiological fluids
– Positive preliminary tests are then subjected to confirmatory tests
– Cutting out or transferring stains to swabs for subsequent examinations
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VI. Forensic Identification of Blood
Two categories of identification tests:
• Presumptive or preliminary test– Used for screening specimens that might contain the substance or
material of interest
– Both false positive and false negative results may be obtained
• Confirmatory test– Are tests which are entirely specific for the substance or material for
which it is intended
– A positive confirmatory test is interpreted as an unequivocal demonstration that the specimen contains the substance or material
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VI. Forensic Identification of Blood
Presumptive Tests for Blood:
• Presumptive blood tests are used to screen evidence for the possible presence of blood
• Most are color tests and are based on the peroxidase-like activity of hemoglobin
• Peroxidase catalyzes the following reaction
• Reduced Dye + peroxide --> Oxidized dye + water
• The presence of hemoglobin catalyzes the reaction, forming a colored dye product
• Positive presumptive tests do not prove that blood is present
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VI. Forensic Identification of Blood
Confirmatory Tests for Blood:
• Older tests included crystal tests such as the Teichmann and Takayama tests
• Current immunological tests use antibodies specific for human hemoglobin, thus combining the confirmatory test for blood with a human species test
• The crystal tests and the immunological tests are known as direct confirmatory tests
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VII. Species Determination
• Tests must be done on blood specimens to determine the species of origin
• Species origin tests are done using immunological methods which involve the interaction of antigens and antibodies
• Hemoglobin from human red blood cells can be used as the antigen to produce anti-human hemoglobin serum
• Specific antiserum can be used to test for the presence of antigens in unknown specimens
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VII. Species Determination• Common immunological species tests include the Ouchterlony
method
• Extracts of the bloodstain to be analyzed are tested with specific antisera
• If the bloodstain contains the antigens corresponding to the specificity of the antiserum, a visible precipitate (precipitin) is obtained
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VIII. Forensic Identification of Body Fluids
1. Identification of Semen:• Semen is a mixture of specialized cells, called spermatozoa,
suspended in a fluid known as seminal plasma
• UV light causes semen stains to fluoresce, and is therefore used to locate stains
• Both presumptive and confirmatory tests for semen stains are available
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VIII. Forensic Identification of Body Fluids
Presumptive Test for Semen:
• The AP test is a color test based on the detection of acid phosphatase, an enzyme from the prostate gland that is found in high concentration in human semen
Confirmatory Test for Semen:
• A commonly used approach is to use a microscope to detect spermatozoa in smears made from dried stains
• When no sperm are found, immunological methods are used to detect the presence of a prostate gland protein called p30 or PSA
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VIII. Forensic Identification of Body Fluids
2. Identification of Vaginal Secretions, Saliva, and Urine:• There are no reliable methods for identifying human vaginal
material
• Presumptive tests for saliva are based on the presence of the enzyme amylase
• There are no confirmatory tests for saliva
• Presumptive tests for urine are based on the presence of urea and creatinine
• There are no confirmatory tests for urine
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IX. Forensic Investigation of Sexual Assault Cases
1. Coordination of Effort – SANEs and SARTs
• The medical examination of complainants in sexual assault cases is performed by specially trained sexual assault nurse examiners (SANE)
• Forensic nurses take a lead role in the coordinated response by the sexual assault response team (SART)
• Complainants are taken to a medical facilities or a SANE/SART facility to attend to their medical needs and to collect relevant evidence using a sexual assault evidence collection kit (”rape kit”)
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IX. Forensic Investigation of Sexual Assault Cases
2. The Forensic Scientist’s Role:
• Sexual assault evidence collection kits are forwarded to the forensic lab for examination
• The forensic scientist’s primary role is the analysis of the physical evidence
• If semen is present it helps to establish the corpus delicti
• If semen or other fluids are found, DNA typing is conducted to determine if there is a match to a suspect or an exclusion
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IX. Forensic Investigation of Sexual Assault Cases
3. Medical Examination:
• Medical evaluation and treatment of sexual assault victims initially involves recording the history of the events, tending to any injuries, and documenting any injuries, bruises, or contusions
• This is followed by evidence collection, which includes clothing, vaginal swabs, pubic hair combings, any stains on the skin surface, and a known control (blood or buccal swab)
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IX. Forensic Investigation of Sexual Assault Cases
4. Sexual Assault Evidence Collection Kits:• Sexual assault evidence collection kits contain a variety of
containers and envelopes plus a detailed set of instructions on how to use them
• Not every container/envelope is used in every case
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IX. Forensic Investigation of Sexual Assault Cases
5. Types of Sexual Assault Cases
• There are three types of sexual assault cases: unknown offender (identification cases), known offender (consent cases), and sexual assaults involving children
• DNA profiling is helpful in identification cases but not in consent cases
• State laws define the age of consent, thereby differentiating between an adult and child
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IX. Forensic Investigation of Sexual Assault Cases
6. Drug Facilitated Sexual Assault:
• Several drugs are commonly encountered as “date rape” drugs: rohypnol, GHB, & ketamine
• All are depressants with amnestic effects, and are often used along with alcohol
• These types of cases require toxicological analysis of the evidence
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X. Blood and Body Fluid Individuality: Traditional Approaches
1. The Classical or Conventional Genetic Markers:
• 5 categories of classical genetic markers: blood groups, isoenzymes, plasma (serum) proteins, hemoglobin variants, and HLA
• The first blood group markers were ABO, discovered in 1901 by Karl Landsteiner
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X. Blood and Body Fluid Individuality: Traditional Approaches
• ABO markers were first applied to criminal cases involving bloodstains by Dr. Leon Lattes of Italy in 1913
• Isoenzymes are enzymes which occur in multiple molecular forms, reflecting differences in the gene that code for the enzyme
• Similarly, there are common variants of the protein hemoglobin
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X. Blood and Body Fluid Individuality: Traditional Approaches
2. How Does Typing Genetic Markers Help “Individualize” a Biological Specimen?
• A gene is a region of DNA that codes for a particular protein or enzyme
• Because chromosomes are paired (maternal and paternal), and there is one gene on each chromosome, the genes are paired
• A gene locus is the location on a chromosome where a particular trait is determined
![Page 30: Chapter 9. Blood and Physiological Fluid Evidence: Evaluation and Initial Examination How Biological Evidence Analysis Has Changed Because of DNA Typing.](https://reader035.fdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022081508/5697bfad1a28abf838c9bed2/html5/thumbnails/30.jpg)
X. Blood and Body Fluid Individuality: Traditional Approaches
• The genes making up a pair at a given locus are called alleles
• The alleles may be the same (homozygous) or different (heterozygous)
• Population genetics looks at how often alleles found at a given locus occur in a population
• A portion of a large population is sampled and tested to determine the frequency of a particular allele
• Statistics are used to estimate the frequency of an allele in the entire population