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Chapter 8 Language and Thought Slide 2 Table of Contents The Cognitive Revolution 19th Century focus on the mind Introspection Behaviorist focus on overt responses arguments regarding incomplete picture of human functioning Empirical study of cognition 1956 conference Simon and Newell problem solving Chomsky new model of language Miller memory Slide 3 Table of Contents Language: Turning Thoughts into Words Properties of Language Symbolic Semantic Generative Structured Slide 4 Table of Contents The Hierarchical Structure of Language Phonemes = smallest speech units 100 possible, English about 40 Morphemes = smallest unit of meaning 50,000 in English, root words, prefixes, suffixes Semantics = meaning of words and word combinations Objects and actions to which words refer Syntax = a system of rules for arranging words into sentences Different rules for different languages Slide 5 Table of Contents Language Development: Milestones Initial vocalizations similar across languages Crying, cooing, babbling 6 months babbling sounds begin to resemble surrounding language 1 year first word similar cross-culturally words for parents receptive vs. expressive language Slide 6 Table of Contents Slide 7 Language Development: Milestones Continued 18-24 months vocabulary spurt fast mapping over and underextensions End of second year combine words Telegraphic speech Mean Length of Utterance (MLU) End of third year complex ideas, plural, past tense Overregularization Slide 8 Table of Contents Bilingualism: Learning More Than One Language Research findings: Smaller vocabularies in one language, combined vocabularies average Higher scores for middle-class bilingual subjects on cognitive flexibility, analytical reasoning, selective attention, and metalinguistic awareness Slight disadvantage in terms of language processing speed Second languages more easily acquired early in life Greater acculturation facilitates acquisition Slide 9 Table of Contents Slide 10 Can Animals Develop Language? Dolphins, sea lions, parrots, chimpanzees Vocal apparatus issue American Sign Language Allen and Beatrice Gardner (1969) Chimpanzee - Washoe 160 word vocabulary Sue Savage-Rumbaugh Bonobo chimpanzee - Kanzi Symbols Receptive language 72% of 660 requests Slide 11 Table of Contents Theories of Language Acquisition Behaviorist Skinner learning of specific verbal responses Nativist Chomsky learning the rules of language Language Acquisition Device (LAD) Interactionist Cognitive, social communication, and emergentist theories Slide 12 Table of Contents Slide 13 Problem Solving: Types of Problems Greeno (1978) three basic classes Problems of inducing structure Series completion and analogy problems Problems of arrangement String problem and Anagrams Often solved through insight Problems of transformation Hobbits and orcs problem Water jar problem Slide 14 Table of Contents Slide 15 Effective Problem Solving Well defined vs. ill defined problems Barriers to effective problem solving: Irrelevant Information Functional Fixedness Mental Set Unnecessary Constraints Slide 16 Table of Contents Slide 17 Approaches to Problem Solving Algorithms Systematic trial-and-error Guaranteed solution Heuristics Shortcuts No guaranteed solution Forming subgoals Working backward Searching for analogies Changing the representation of a problem Slide 18 Table of Contents Slide 19 Culture, Cognitive Style, and Problem Solving Field dependence relying on external frames of reference Field independence relying on internal frames of reference Western cultures inspire field independence Cultural influence based in ecological demands Holistic vs. analytic cognitive styles Slide 20 Table of Contents Decision Making: Evaluating Alternatives and Making Choices Simon (1957) theory of bounded rationality Making Choices Additive strategies Elimination by aspects Risky decision making Expected value Subjective utility Subjective probability Slide 21 Table of Contents Slide 22 Heuristics in Judging Probabilities The availability heuristic The representativeness heuristic The tendency to ignore base rates The conjunction fallacy The alternative outcomes effect Slide 23 Table of Contents Slide 24 Understanding Pitfalls in Reasoning About Decisions The gamblers fallacy The law of small numbers Overestimating the improbable Confirmation bias and belief perseverance The overconfidence effect Framing Slide 25 Table of Contents Evolutionary Analyses: Flaws in Decision Making and Fast and Frugal Heuristics Cosmides and Tooby (1996) Unrealistic standard of rationality Decision making evolved to handle real-world adaptive problems Problem solving research based on contrived, artificial problems Gigerenzer (2000) Quick and dirty heuristics Less than perfect but adaptive